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  • Lovelock D. Rund H. Tensors Differential Forms and Variational Principles Dover 1989

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    Albertt Villa
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    Analisis Tensorial

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    Analisis Tensorial

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    232 vues379 pages

    Lovelock D. Rund H. Tensors Differential Forms and Variational Principles Dover 1989

    Transféré par

    Albertt Villa
    Analisis Tensorial

    Droits d'auteur :

    © All Rights Reserved
    Téléchargez comme PDF ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
    Signaler comme contenu inapproprié
    sur 379
    Tensors, Differential Forms, and Variational Principles David Lovelock and Hanno Rund inf tok gp sedi ey pe at Teta gece ed sphed hsm tee seed Sciatic ce oie ‘ipl el ees — "a Seve oracle and los nts pre feren “etal deena omic bet ‘ole he ect of rerun prt om verte proc org ‘Racy on eos ld ers Of coins ee ee Se ed et eto of Notes cree 1 Hawt aes heise ei ‘Th cmp hs al ca, wha te, ‘co ter tine aula rn ecg lc ok ‘ately tatulg ee ct nvneehacsAsptaetiat {eSten ase to clet ary ll nls of eco ature pt peta Comet Deve 985 replete wor ot ‘fo Wty Sas, New Yo 10 thas Ine Blo ppend Pret nd feats 3p. pron Fe se Mem nt See: Cat SS aie un gt ISBN O-48b-b5840- 95-95 IN USA ee || MI 223-95 IN CANADA TENSORS, DIFFERENTIAL FORMS, AND VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES by David Lovelock Professor of Mathemaiics University of Arizona and Hanno Rund Professor of Mathematics Un ‘Arizona and Adjunct Professor of Applied Mathematics iver of Waterloo (Ontario) DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., New York epyiht © 190.1969 by Davi Lovlck ad Hans Rud tt tet Pan Anes sta op sepa the or poles by ‘Sees Pain’ New Yor 1995 Pots te Append Borer Paxton, Icy Est Bad Src, Mies N.Y. 11501 "ary of Congres Cataloging s-Ptcton Dats Lepeta Bvi 138- et sgn pbise Nw York Wis 191. open ace oo. 2 tle om. 3 Ca finns. QRLET sis.63 sesi0 Bevo cn, PREFACE ‘The objectie ofthis book s twofold Firstly it sour aim to present a self contained, reasonably modern account of aso analysand the calculus ‘feserio diferent forms, adapted tothe nes of physics, enpinet, ‘and applied mathematicians in general. Soondly, however, ts antiated that substantial part ofthe material included inthe later chaptrs of intrest also to those who have some previous Knowledge of tensors and "A very important instance ofthe comequenees of the impostion of pei ivarianos requirements on Variational principles i represented by the fumous theorems of Noster, which, when appli to. physi field theories, proditthe existence and’ precise nature of conseration laws. Instead of folowing the original procedure of Emmy Noster, whichis based on some dexp and conceptually dieu reuls inthe eseuls of ‘artions willbe cen that thse theorems cane dered dively and lost eordessy by means of elementary tensorial techniques. In vw ofthe fact that many applications ofthese ideas are concerned with the general theory of relativity a chapter on Riemannian spaces with Indetaite mets included: it should be emphasized, however, tat tis aly a this stage tht the concep of «metrics introduced and usd in 8 ‘Systematic manner. Thus, on the one hind, the estheesppeal of metric diferent geometry, abset from the earlier chapters, sreeapare, while fon the other hand, th prerequisites fr the final chaper are established ‘This chapter is considerably more specialized than the remainder ofthe book! it contains inte lia, ily reo ess which ate of imteest pee any to reativit “Toa grea extent the emphasis this book on analytes technigus “Thus. large numberof problems isincluded, ranging from routine manip lative exercies to techmeally dificult problems of the kind eequenly ‘ncountered by thore wo ure ts techniques inthe cour of thir r- Search aces, Indeed, some considerable trouble bas been taken 10 Collect any upefl result of purely tecnica ature, which generally are not discussed the stndaedIteature, but which form part a the almost indispensable “folklore” known to most experts ia the el. Despite this “emphasis on ecnigus, however, every effort hasbeen made. maintain an ‘cepale level of rigor commensurite with the elsial background oa ade tle pit ot a hapa eae pat {atinthe hon of apt ml (ech a ced oS hich the analysis based, Morsove, th modem, more sophisticated and {bstractapprouch to the theory of tensors and forms on manifolds, which {sls dependeaton the use of coordinate systems, i disused bit in the Appendix, which, itis hoped, wil asi the tear in Biding the deep fhasm batwou clasical tensor analis and the fundamentals of more {ecent global theories “Theft ral ofthe manucrpt ofthis book were sratnize at various surges by Profesor W. C. Salmon and D. Trfan of the Univesity of ‘Arizona, and by Professor G. W. Horndeki of the University of Wateroo. Ttisu pleasure to acknowledge the many valuable suggestion ceived fom theaecolleaguce For amistanee with the arduous task of prootreading at ‘various tages, wear indebted othe following: S. Alderley, M.. Bosle, tnd RJ. Mekelar a the University of Waterloo, and PL. Nash and 'W. , Smith tthe University of Arizona, ‘Last, but ot Test we are deeply grate to Beatrice Shube of Wiky- Interscience for he constant eocouragerent and invaluable advice Davin Lovano. Hiawo Rex SUGGESTIONS FOR THE GENERAL USE OF THE BOOK Chapters 1-5 constitute a onesemester senior underraduate oF junior fraduste course. Soctons 43, 44, 54, and 517 may con: {civably be omitted since the remainder of thi par of the book is independent of thi contents ‘Chapters 6-8 consttutea ae smaster graduate couse in which Sections 68,66, 74,75, and 7.6 may be omit. ‘An introductory cous, specifically dsignd forthe needs of relativsts. ould be based on Chapters 13, togstor with Sections 41, 82,51,52,53, 54,566.62, 11, 12,4nd 13, Referene to equtios ar ofthe form (NMP), where N and M ndate the corresponding chapter and secon, espe, IN conedes with the chapter at Brn its omitted. Diticalt problems ate marked with an asters; in some cases explicit bibliographical references are given. No attempt was made to compile an exhaustive bibliography: the later consists ately of general eerences ‘and ngividul papers tein the tex CONTENTS (Chapter 1. Prelininar observations 1 Simple examples of tensors in physis and geometry, | Vector components in curvinse coordinate stems, 6 Some elementary properties of determinants, [3 Problems 16 CChaper2. Affine tensor algebra in Bacidean geometry ® a, 2 23. 28 as (Orthogonal wansormations in By, 19 Transformation properties of line vector components and rete concepts, 22 General fie tensor algebra, 31 ‘Transition to noliear coordinate transformations, 36 Digreston: Parallel vector eld inf, referred to curvilinear cooedinaes 48 Problems 50 (Chaper 3. Tensor analysis on manitols Py a 3 3 3a 35 36 3, 38 (Coordinate wansformations on dierntiable manifolds, 55 “Tenor algben on manifols, $8 “Tensor fds and their derives, 65, Absolute diferent of tenor fds, 72 Paral covariant dieretntion, 75 Repeated covariant diferentation, 81 Parallel vestor elds, 8 Properties ofthe curvature tensor, 9 Problems 95 (Chapter 4. Addon topics fom the tensor caus 0 4 a2 3 Relative tensors 02 ‘The numeral ative tensors, 109 Normal ordinates, 17 “The Lie devas 121 Problems, 126 (Chapter S. The cles of diferent forms 120 su 52 53 58 85. 56 83, ‘The exterior (or wade) produto difereta forms. 131 Extrie derivatives ofp forms, 136 ‘The lemma of Poincaré and is converse, Stem of total difecnil equations, 147 ‘The theoeem of Stokes, 156 Curvature fons on diferentiable manifolds, 164 ‘Subspaos of diferentable meno, 170 Problems, 175 (Chapee 6. avait problems nthe calcu of varlatons 181 6 62, ry 64 6s 66 6 ‘The simpet problem in the calculus of variations invariance requirement, 12 Fels of ertremsl 197 Invariance properties ofthe fundamental ntegral: the ‘theorem of Noster for single integrals, 201 Integral invariants and the independent Hilbert intgel, 207 “Mult intgeal problems nth aul of variations, 214 “The theorem of Nocter for mpl integral, 26 ighet-onder problems inthe calculus of variations, 231 Problem, 236 (Chapee 7. Riemannian geometry 239 m1 72, 3 14 45. 16. Introduction ofa metic, 240 Geode, 250, ‘Curvature theory of Riemannian spaces, 257 Subspace of a Riemannian mano, 267 Hyporsurfces of Riemannian manifold, 273 ‘Ths divergence theorem for hypersurfaces of & Riemannian muniol, 281 Probl, 287 (Chapler 8. Invariant vrata principles and pial eld theories 1, Invariant fl theories, 299 82. Vector fell theory, 300, 83. Metre eld theory, 305 84. The fold oqatons of Einstsin in vacuo, 314 85. Combined vectoemetie eld theory, 323 Problems 326 Appendix. Tenors and forms on diferentable manifolds ‘AA. Ditercotable manifolds and thee angen paces, 332 ‘AD. Tensor algebra, 339 [A'S Tensor fields: Exterior derivatives, Le bracket, and Lie servatives, 344 AS, Covariantdierenation: torsion and curvature, 349 ibography 28 a 39 39 TENSORS, DIFFERENTIAL FORMS, AND VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES 1 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS (One of the principal advantages of cstical vector analysis derives rom the fae that it enables one to eres geomescl or physical relationships a ‘concise manner which des not depend on the introduction of coordinate system. However, for muny purposs of pure and applied mathematics the concept of vestor #f00 limited in seope, and toa very significant entent, te tensor eaculus provides the spproprate generalization Tt, 100, Posse the advantage of cone notation, ad the formation of basic deitons i ich as to allow for efforts transition from given ordinate system to another, while in eral the inspection of any relation involving teasors permits an inference tobe drawn immediatly sto whether ‘or not that ration fv in allowable coordinate systema "The objective ofthis chaper is cantly motivational A fw simple physical and goomdrcl situations are bil described in onde o revel the inadequacy of the vector concept under cain crcmatances. In particular, whereas in hre-dimensona space a vector uniquely deter mined by it tree components relate to some coordinate system, thee ist important physical and geometrical eaites which require more than three componcats or thee complete specication Teasors ae examples of such guanties; however, tbe defiion ofthe tensor concept i deleted ltl Chapters 2 and 3, and accordingly any reader who i reasonably Fala withthe mentary seus touched upon below may conn ins (0 avery catul survey ofthe contents of this chapter 11 SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF TENSORS IN PHYSICS AND GEOMETRY Although its no feasible to define the concept ofa tensor at thi sage we briefly deseribe a few elementary examples which serve to indicate quite clearly tha, inthe case of many basic geometrical or physical applications, itis neesary to introduce quantities which ate more general than Veeors ‘Whereas vector pasese hee components in a thece-dimensonal space we shall be contonted with etn which possess more than three com poaents in such paces “The following notion is adoped in this section. Suppose tha, in a Euclidean spce By, we are given a retangslar coordinate sytem ih ‘origin at ated pont Of B, The coordinates of am arbitra pat Pof Ey felative to this coordinate system are denoted by (xx? 4°, and the unt ‘ectrs in the ditetons othe postive Ox, Ox, and Ox*anes ae Fepe= Seed by e €3, nde, The ater form a Basis of the ene that ty ‘ctor Aca be expressed in the form Aa Ae + Ae + Aste an Inwhich 4, Az, 4s denote the three componcats ofA, thes being the lngths ‘ofthe projsctions of A onto ee, ey especie. The length (Al of Ais ‘ven by IAP = Cay +a) +4? ay ‘Inpartcularfr the poston vector ro P wehave reste tee tite, 03 and, writing = efor the sake of bevy, Peel? +P +07, ay ‘euwets | niesrae Tesom oF ELASTICITY {Let us consider an arbitrary elastic medium which i at rest subject the action o body and/or extemal loading ove, that in titre there wll it internal frcor. The sess vector trons surface cement AS inthe Interior ofthe body at pat Ps deine by the init AP/AS at AS 0, where AF denotes thereat ofthe intenal foros dtributed over the = Tacs element AS. More preity, lt us considr a sl cube ofthe lati ‘materia, whose edges are parallel tothe coordinate axes. The faces of the ibe whose outward ormals ar eee, ate fespostvely denoted y 5),5:-5,. La Fy denote the tess over Sy (k= 1, 2,36 Figure I) Each ofthe estorscin be decomposed into componentsin accordance With. Fu where epresents the th component = 12, 3)of theses over the fice Sc The quantities sre sles the components ofthe sess fensor: they ‘benpletelyspeiy the internal ores ofthe laste meu at each point tyes + tats + ese “sy — It should te emphasize that this description depends ona system of nine componcats (These ate not geacal independent But say thes retry condition sy = tq provided tht cettain conditions are sats, but this phenomenon ot flevant otis dseussion) ‘Ava result of the forces acting 0 the bods, x deformation of the mem ‘ccurs, which s described us fellows. A point P of the medium, whose ital ‘oowdiates ars.) wl eteanstred to poston wth coordinates GM y%y?hand we sal write! = yx! = 1, 2,3) Its assumed that W is continuouly diferentable function of poston, one may define the ‘want 0 oe n= {(Ge°%) 09 hich represen the components ofthe sai censor (We do not motivate this defi here the reader beng referred to texts om the theory of ela ‘ity, ef. Green and Zena [1}) Ain we remark tht the speietion of sq depends on mine components apart from symmetry. Moreover, one ‘ofthe baie pial assumptions of the cor x contained inthe so-called feneralized Hook's la, wc stats tht there exists a inca relationship eswoen the components of stress and the components of sain. Thi expresod inthe fom tad Ecnmin R= 129, on in which the coeicens ce ae of neesityfourinder symbol (as con- teased with ordinary vector, whose components are merely oneindex symbos Tt should be abundanty clear fom this very curry description that cxdinaty veto theory totaly adequate forthe purpeses of aa analysis othe Kind ‘aaqPLE2 TEIN TENSOR OFA RIGID BODY Let us consider gd body rotating about a fixed point 0 i titer. ‘Theangular momentum about 0 ofa particleafmassmof the body located at point P with postion vector relative to Oi piven by €% p where Imdkidt isthe Heat momeatun of the prt’ If @ denotes the angular ‘locity vector we have tht did = x rand consequently the angular momentum of the pute about Oe m{t x (Xe) Thus ifthe tase 3 we should defn the quanti Gym ABy~ AB) sh tenet as “Thaw wovindex symbols represunt the components of an enty which ian ‘obviow peralization to m dimensions ofthe three dimensonal vector product However, this enti nota vector unless m= 3. The geomet ‘suo for this evident rom th remark made above the analytical rearoo ‘mepes rom the fact thatthe components Cy, Cz, C, of Cas given by (114)are related tothe quantities (115) form = 3 by Can Cre Cn Cree 6 C= Cu uy where jh kisan ten permutation ofthe integers 1,2, 3and this construction ‘Shot asile the tre indies jh at lowed to assume integer values restr than 3. Ths the generalization (15) ofthe vector product repre: Seated by quantities which are not vector components in aki wil bese that (115 exemplies a cera type tensor 12 VECTOR COMPONENTS IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS Let us eogard a given actor A, with fed pint of aplication Pin E,, as 2 ‘rected segment inthe usual venue Relive to rectangular coordinate ‘stem with erga at O and basis vetors ey, ,, €,, we ean repreeat A cording to (1) the length [Al of A beng hen by (1.2) Again, should [emphisaed tat the components Ay, As, 45 ofA hich sppest (1.1) are obtained by a proces of projection onto the aes, which implies that {ese components, and hence the expesin foc the length [A at indepen ent ofthe locaton ofthe point of application P However, when we atempt to cart ou similar program relative to ‘curvilinear stam of cooednats, the position snot git so simple. Since indhiscae hore doesnot esta universal vile of coordinate aks, wecannot elne the components of A by means of det proces of proiection; ‘moreover, iis not immediatly evident what form the counterpart of the formula (1.1) should assume In this connection it shouldbe remarked that (1)'snota vector equation ofthe ype A = B, which independent ofthe ‘hole of the coordinate sytem: the contrary tsa noavtoria elation Which depends erly an the act that ies to a retangula syste Tn order to lustat these remarks we shall consider in the Bat instance & special typeof curvilinear coordinates, namely aspherical polar coordinate ‘stem whose pole is oated atthe origin O ofthe given eetangule syste land whose polar aus coincides with ey. The spherial polar coordinates (p04) are elated to the actanguareooedinats (x) according 1 the wansformation sin 00086, 22 = psin sind, ey w= pest, 2 i immediatly evident from Figure 2. should be noted that p 2 0, Osdan0s¢ <2 Th view ofthe fat hut sucha coordinate system doesnot poses ast of ‘ectangular axes to which any pont of canbe refered, we now endeavor {o construct a spcial system anes a tack pint Pf Ey To this eod We recall ttn the case of etangulat system, thre ines respectively parallel to the x'y x", and »>-ates ean be constrcted a any pot P by the iter sections of appropriate pairs of planes through Pfr instance, te iner- Sesion ofthe planes x° = const. x" = const defines a ine paral othe ‘axis By way of analogy we shall now consider the surfaces p = cy, ey, @ = ey, whch puss through poiat P with spherical plar co” ‘ordinates, 75 beng supposed tate; > 0,0'< 2,0 < ¢y = 28) ‘The following shold be noted cep ~ Isa sphere of adic, centered a 0. ce 9 = ca eteular cone wilh verex , whose axis co- Incides with 0, and whose sm-angle is 3 The surice @ =<, is plane containing 0, whose intesetion vith the o's} plan incline aan ange othe O%" axe mer then follows: 1. The p-oordinate curve, tne to be the intersection ofthe sutaces| 2nd 3 staight nein rom 0, denoted by C, ia Figure 2 2 The D.coordinate carve, defined tbe the nterction of the surfaces 1 and 35 reat el onthe sphere p= e, denoted bs C, in Figure 2 3. The gcoordinat curve, defined tobe the intersection ofthe surfaces and 2 isthe ctle onthe sphere p = c, containing all points satsying this curve being denoted by C, ia Figure Let snow construct the tne unit vectors ej, which are respectively tangent othe ordinate curves eyed = esa P the detions tf hese vectors being chosen inthe dietions of eeasng 9,8, @ From Figure 2 tis easly verted that relative wo our rectangular coordinate the components of ty €) ae given by (sin cos 6, sin sing 05 0, (08 cco sin, ~ sn an sin 6 c05 $0) (ur consrution as thus given seo a set of thre linearly independent ‘ectorsat the point Pts immediately eden that tis constuction ean be ‘ried outst any poin and ence tr spercal polar coordinate system ‘lfnesabass a each point of E. However, the dection ofthe corresponding ‘nae sectors ty, 5 297 from pinto pon, To, aconing to (22), thet components eit to our fined rectangular coordinate system depend fon the polar coordinates ofthe point under consideration It wil be ‘Sen presently that this ion ofa "moving fame of elerence"iopurameunt importance tll subsequent developments "Not lt us consider the vector A whose point of application islcatd at P [Ate sight one might beieind to deine the component fA relative to the spherel polar ovordinat system to be the oriented lengths of the ro jection of A onto the sis vectors, +45 a P, However, ite refecton Shows thit a somevbat more sophisticated approach i requited. Let de denote an arbitrary increment ofthe positon vector ¥ofP. Reative to the ‘eclangular coordinate system the components of de ate simply dx, dv, {de which iin acsordance with (3, and thus i natural to define the ‘components of de relative to the spheceal pose eoordiaste sytem to be 4p. 48. db, where p+ dp 0+ dP. + a6 denote the coordinates ofthe point whose positon vector ise-+ de: However, itis evideat rom Figure 3 {atthe oriented gts ofthe projections of dr otoe,.e,.€,arrespetely py pal, pind, so that a= dpe, + pdbe, + psindd6ey, ey “Ths the coins of, ate Mot merely the components dp a old, bt rather thee components muliplied respectively by the s-iled ‘cal factors, p, 930 0h which at unetion ofthe positions! coordinates or. Returning tothe arbitrary vector A at P, we note that itis always possible to construct curve r= x) trough P, whichis such that, for a suitable ‘choice ofits parameter the ange vector ded is ieatcal with AatP- Tn ‘cordnce with the above definition, the components of defi lative tothe Spherical polar coordinate stem ate dpi da d6/d) obviously these ‘uanttes are aso the corresponding components Ay Az. of At P the rotation 4, having been chosen for the purpose a diatingusing these ‘component from the component) of A relative Uo our rectangle nordinate sytem, By vite of ov construction we Have om (23) de, a 46, Be + pies + psinotbe, in terms ofthe above detiaton, Ax Aus + pats + sin Ants, eo fn which he sae aco (, pin 0) appear one more Iie veri that the basis vector of our sphere pola coordinate system are mutually orthogonal fee = 0 Gea Be 20 es (Uc shouldbe emphasized, however, ha his property 8 aot common all, ‘urine cordate systems) From (24 it terete follows that er ee) from which Ay, A,, 4 maybe evaluated direly with the aid of 22) 1s found that Ay ~ sin con 64, + sin sin ba, + cO80As, 1 1 = home Boos 84, + Leondsin das — Lainey, | any a-—06 6 ~ —psind * pina ‘Week that ths epesents nar relationship between the components (of A inthe respective coordinate systems, which an be expressed in he form Am Bando ew inwhich however the coef’ ayarefintion ofthe postiona coordinates (G0, é) ofthe pote P of application of A In pusing we aoe that We ca expres the lngth [A ofthe wecor A at termi component (2). Fe, rom (28) and 25) vs Seely Ayr + eA + Pawar — 29) ‘Thus when spherical polar coordinates are use, the square ofthe length oft vector is aot ten by the sum ofthe squares offs component, but by quadratiTorm in these components whose colons depend othe aston ofthe point ef application ofthe scr. ‘We shall now briefly consider an arbitrary curliear coordinate system Jn which he coordinate of point Pare denoted by 5») Our considers. ‘ions wll be resrcied Yo a rion of By in which Ps uniguly represented by this trl, 0 that there exit thre elation which pony the retang lak ordinates 332,27 of Punguely as fenetons of, a Swawk FFunw = Plunm 210) Agua ie denotes the position vector of P, we can represent (210) etry re tun) en ‘The following comsteuctin is a direct generalization ofthe procedure stetched above: The srcordinate curves are defined bythe intersection of, the surfioes © = const, w= cast, el andthe tangent vostors to the ty es wocoorinate curves ae respectively ven by t= ly aide, = deidw (oy deitition of paral derivative). The’ unit vectors in the ‘ctions ofthese tangents are ain denoted bye, 45,80 tht enh so an Tt whee the normalization factors [yy tI" fl” ae to be evaluated ictly fom 2:1). Thus at each pint ofthe elon of , under conser ‘ion basis is defined ibelng wssumed that the equation (210) are such that the vestry ae neatly independent Also, rom (2 11} we Base ia, + de, + a, ay in whic dud, dare the components of de reative 1 our curvilinear 60- ‘ordinate sysem. Thus if we substitute fom (212) we fn that, he Ir dy + I dees + tg dnt ay 0 that the sae factors are simply 6h fl [tof accordance with our previous eonsirucion we now defi the somponens Ay. Aye Ay of the ‘tor A at P relative 1 ou carinea coordinate sytem by ihe tlation A= InlAey + Iuldats * leldses a1) ‘These comsiderations sould exit quit eal the analytical eason foe the appearance ofthe sale factors. Again (215) can be uid 10 evaluate fy Aye Ay in tems of Ay Any Ay; omens, ince (25) need nt be valid forthe arbitrary coordinate sytem under consideration, salar multipice tom of 218) by ye. €) wil yeld a spstem af hee linear equations for ov Ay the slut of whch wil ga be of he form (28) “Morcovee, it flows trom (215) hat the lngih (AU of A in tems ofthe Ay. A sven by IPA? + PAL? + InP) + 2A, + Bln gl AsAstes 65) + Rtg Ay Ailes) Bu fom (2.12) follows that with wo similar relations, and Renee we conelude that UAL = Py UPd? ee De MAAL + Meta lee, 19 “Ths, nan arbitrary curvilineaecooedinate system in Ey the square of ‘se enghofa vector Rata point Pf Ey i guraicfom inthe components “Tad Ay of 8 the coeicents of tis uadatc form beng fictions of the ostonal coordinates ofthe pnt of application of A For the ease of «spherical polar ordinate sytem with w= 9,» = 0, w= dete transformation equations (211 reduce to (2) fom which itis ‘ident that the component ff, tf 6 respectively given by +, = (a0 cos sin sind, 608, en 5 (76080 cos ¢ p 080 sn 6, — sinh = (-p sind sind 9 in 025 6.05 stat ne es, “Thus the seule factors for our spherial polar coordinate system ate 1, p ‘sin whic in agrstent with our previous analysis. Als, itis easiy ‘eed analytically tht mheO ween O Beha 219) sand hene the substitution of 218) a (218) in (2.15) and 2.16 respectively ‘ods the relations (24) and (29) as special sss. 13 SOME ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS. In the sequel certain properties of determinants wil be used repeatedly ‘These ae Tisted ere foe ute reference i should be emphasad, however, that no allempt is made to provide a comprehensive description ofthe theory of determinants eee. Hadley [1D Tet ws suppose that we are gnes W? Quantities arranged follows in seat fom 8 day | aaa a For these of brevity we denote his matt by at being understood that the inlcsjc he range ove fhe values 1,2..em throughout this section, “The x m determinant ofthe matin (3.1) is defined tobe = FER yyeay as 62) in which the summation is extended overall! permutations jy jp: ofthe frst n ntegers, and where x = O or 1 acoeding a the permutation sthand seven or odd The following notation s used requenty below = detay) = [2% 48 6 Bao It isimmediatey obvious from the definition (3.2) hat an interchange of vo ows (or two column) changes the sign of the determina: in particular, ito rows (or two eons) are Meta the vale ofthe determinant Let be sited integer, with 1 =k < m, Cletly each erm ofthe sum on the right-hand side of (02) contiaspeeisey one factor ef the 9p a ‘hati oecement ftom the kh row a (33), Hence he iermsin (3.2) cost ‘of yp, the fst of which poses he factor a, the seoad possess the actor gs,» at the mth possesses the fata, This we can write 63) the form ein + dadan + ayAw GM) in which the cooffcent Ay ofthe ctor ais elled the cofactor ofa, 1 a aizct consequence of the definition (52)~as may be verfed que ceisiythat Ay deaieal withthe vale of the (I) x (&~ 1} term ‘mnt obtained from (3) bythe deletion ofthe kth row andthe th column ‘ultipied by (IP! Moreover, since by construction the cofctore Aue Alae 40 4 conain ay ements ofthe or iow ros ost, ta 4a es 09 fay “The identity 0.4 represents the expansion of determinant in terms ofthe ements oi throw; similar formula may cbviowsly be obsined for the ‘expansion ofthe determinant in frm of the elements of Kh column: aud Honda tt aaden Sayan 08 1a. SOME ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS ® “Tis suggests hat we considera sum ofthe type P24 in which hk From the deinition ofthe eolctr itis immediatly evidem that thi ropes: ‘nts the expansion of s determinant with two iemtcal ow, nary the [ehand the hh rows and accordingly this sum vanishes. This together with (G4) indicates that, 6 : ait keh Satlre ton “This rl ean be writen i & more compet form in terms ofthe so-called Kronecker delta. The lates defined a fll: fel Ho kek hh im, Meo keh Oko hovel ‘Thus 4) can be expressed as Saydn= ada. 6a hile (leads oa analogous elation, namely, Euan = ab 69) ‘Ths, provide that the determinant «does a0 vanish, we can always con- strut the elements by ofthe matrix which seers to (3) by patting bp ayy 19) since, by vite of (8 and (39), these quantits satis the conditions Saude = Shvan= eu ‘Let ws now conser two ( » m) mates (a) eh whose determinants ae respectively denoted by aude The matt whose elements ate defied & fa- Save oy fs he produc of he mates) nhs ode i easly vere that eal ofthe determi of hs pods mats wes foe ap Inpatcua, the sums which appear on the let-han side of (11) represent the elements ofthe product ofthe enti (2) and inverse ( Iamany ofthe applications tobeconsderad below, the elements ay ate aot Seth (9 in which we subsite om (12) 0 that no 5 Seven wan “Thusif we write ay ‘toons fom 11 that the comesponding mati elements at gvenby mam Seven wu) which clearly demonstrates that the matrix (pa the prot ofthe mates Gand "The trusformation characterized by the matrix (7) ssa to be the ‘rodct of the transformations (1.10) and (12). Furthermore ine () is ‘rthogonal by construction itfollowsthat he product afany tro orthogoaal ‘tansormation again orthogonal Ala since mati products obviowsly ‘Sisy an assoeative nv, we my ner that the st of all orthogonal tans formations in fyi endowed wih sn asicltive binary operation, aely. ‘the product, which i such that the product of any two elements Is again fn clement ofthe Se. Moreover, this set contsins unt eke, defined ‘the identity transformation whose coeficents are merely the Keonecket fled erthogonal group, which sully ented by 0, 122. TRANSFORMATION PROPERTIES OF AFFINE VECTOR COMPONENTS AND RELATED CONCEPTS. Let ws consider the postion vector # of pot P of our three-dimensiona Fecldean space £, rate Yo the common origin 0 of two orthonormal aes with basis vetors(¢) and (f.respetvely. "The coordinates of Pin he rectangulr systems defined by these bases are provisionally denoted by and respectively (k= 1,2, 3) which implies ‘at eo bay an sod re Dy, en (lett there must exist relationship between the two ses (A) aad): this easly found explily by the appietion of (1.8) fo the righ-hand side oh wich gives “This esl is compared with he right-hand side of 22) it being noted that the oeticint ofeach fa these eatlons must necessarily he deties, 50 that ey “hiss the transformation formula by means of which the coordinates of «ny point Pof Ey are given in fem ofthe erginal x coordinates, It snot Surpeising thatthe couficens a which completly specify this trans Formation are precil those which appear inthe transition (1.2) fom the ‘orthonormal bass (tthe bas “The inverse of 23, which corresponds to (1.8. therfore given by ee ayy k= 123, ey “The importance ofthe formulae (23) and (24) is de othe it tht they wil enable ws to speiy the transformation of any given function of the Coordinates under a change of orthonormal bases. Faarples of thi tate af ‘isis are encountered low. At ths stage it's pevhaps appropiate to introduce a change of notation, whith allows us to write our subsequent analsis ina more compact form Beginning With agen orthonoemal system fj, he “transformed” bas {6 reuling fom the application ofthe transformation (2) wil be denoted by (ed accordingly the coordinates» of «pt P of , relative tothe Tater yem wl be represented by © Thus we must now rete (1.2) snd (LBL respectively a8 Saws es, - an Bain = Boe 26 Similarly the ransformaton equations 23) and (24) now assure the forms Lan en and tn Soak aL en sesgectnly, We shal adhere to his notation throughout “Ths far we have merely diced the transformation of coordinates vera change of basis. 1 now necessary to conse the transformation properties of fects, or mote precisely the tasformation properties of ‘he components of wcors. As long as we are dealing With fecenguat co ‘tdinates)tems—as is indeed the case here—tere are aificulies Relative 10a given orthonormal bass (e) we ean represen any vecior A Inte form (1a): we apply (2.6) the righ-hand se of 12, we obtain A= 3 Sonat 9 Mowers, lative othe ew orthonormal bas (the 0 Ae pe seaed a= Sag, 210) where Ay. Ae, Ay dente the components of A in the late system. Again, the oem of 0 the right-hand sides of 29) ae (210) must oii, tn scoring) we cone ta daw u This, then, i the required transformation ln for the components a | sector Aik ey sun a above, that he inverse of(2.11) given by 1.2.3, ew A= Dogd) k= 1.2.3) em ‘The simple argument leading to this conclusion depends crucially on the cxstence of retangulir coordinate system and on the concept inter pretation i terms of (11) of vecior as directed segment whichis Completely determined 8 the oriented lengths ofthe projections ofthe Tater onto the coordinate axes. Homever, we have sen thal inthe ese of ‘curvilinear coordinate stems this approach to the vetor concep possess no immediate counterpart, Thus ewe while we rain tempocaily within the context of orthogonal teansformations ws applied to orthonormal bass, would em ase to aindon thecal, more intuitive point of view concerning the iden of & ‘ect, ad to redefine this concep in terms oferta abstractions. ‘Our fit step in this decton # achieved by the formulation ofthe following. DestNri0N, Ase of thre quanies (Ay, Ay, A, ai to const he components of an “fine tector Af under the orthogonal transformation (2.7 of rectangaar ‘aordinates ny, he ransformed guar Ay. 1, are giten by formula em Remark 1. Some texts we the nomenclature fie orthogonal ecto, oF Cartesian vectorfor the concept define here. Wheteas the etminlog) po se 5 immaterial, tis esenial thatthe aectves afin, of orthogonal, of Cartesian be appended in this context, forthe) empasie the act thatthe ‘fintion depends: vitally ‘on the stipulation that the tansfocrations ‘onmerned te orthogonal (Att later stage more several definitions ofthe ‘ctor concept wil he formated which are not sujet fo rsnictions of this Kind and which are therefore suitable also for urna coordinate systems) Remark 2. The vector A thus defined should be regarded as an enely ‘now eniy superimposed onthe geometry oF, Its ot anclement of the clemems ofthe later are merely ts points [Very fen no cea distinction ismade between point P of E,, andthe postion vector of P and asond- ingly vectors of By are fequcaly treated as clments of This mis conception is enhanced bythe ft tht. under the spec icumstanoes treted here. the tunormation (27) of point-ootdinues 1s formally ‘ential ih the tassformation (211) of Neetor components: howevee, ‘wil son be evident that under sighily more seneal conditions this simian disappears i ot.) Remark 3 I Should be noted thatthe above defition of an afine vector ‘sentiey independent ofthe concept ofthe length ofthe veto. Indeed, thelater's introduced by means ofa secondary definition, which s meaning= fulsoely under the special circumstances weuted here. [Under more general ditions it may nov even be esbe to define the length ofa vector) ‘The length JA ofa vector A, whose components relative 10 the ertho- oemal ass, are denoted Bj Ay. Ay, Ay is dined BY r= Sar ey itbring understood tha |A|refes tothe positvesguareroot otheriht bind ‘Sis above This definition involves specie reference toa given orthonormal bass: itisealy sen however, tht the numerical vale of [A| as dfined By 213), Is independent ofthe acusl choice of bass. For, if we subsite ia (213) tom (212), we find that IAF= EE Sapouday ay wile according to (16) bn eis so that (214 becomes r= 3 3 4am Sar e219 But the right-hand sie of this elation is precisely the expression for JAP? ‘which would have appeared ifthe deition (213) had Been writen in tems ‘of the othonormal basis defined by (@). Combining (213) and (2.16) we Seethat lar = Sea = Seay, en «phenomenon which soften refered 10 asthe inane of length ander ‘orthogonal rasfrmatons. This also justies out efation (213) cealy ‘me would no want the concept ofthe length of vector to be dependent fon the choice ofthe rectangular coordinate sem. It should he sees, however, tht this invariance depends on theft that we are dealing soley with orthogonal tansformation in the present comer. Thus under the tore general circumstances 10 be discussed below, the definition 213) atest be appropriate This of couse, i not suprising in view of eur observations ia Section 12 concerning curvilinear coordinate stems Remark 4. For fture reernce, we indice how the transformation equations (211) and @212) ean be writen in a somenbat diferent form er us diereavat the equations 27 which represen! a point ansforma to, with respect to regarding»! 3, as Independent variables Tis ies eu ey ‘When this i subtitted in (2.11) nd (212) we ee that the lt 1-3 BA em ad a-3e e20 especie: In Sesion 1.1 we encountered cettin quantities whose component Jn const o vectors rogue for thei speciation more than one inde, ‘Wie now invexgate the transformation properties of thes enti. ‘The simplest example ofthis Lind i unished by the product ofthe ‘components of {wo sects A and BL The Wansforms under (27) of the components of A ate given by 211); me have smilaty for the tansorms ofthe components of B: A= Laut, em ot ee o2 ‘We can regard te nine produes 4, (k= 1,2 3:1 = 1,23) a5 the emtes of 3 3 matin, and (223) then gives us the insfoemation aw of these tai elements it wil be scm thst (223) characterise ofthe tans formation properties of eran types of tewors: however, prior to the formulation of he pre defison ofthis concept, we examine some es trv special cases we interchange the order of he indies nd kin (229, we have AB = E SontrAti= 3 Dapoudat Inthe expression onthe right one may replace the index by and similarly Fy hso that 4B,= F Sepa “hiss subtracted from 229, which ves AB AB,~ 3 Zonoddse— 89 “Thusif we define the components C, ofthe vector product A x B dance with (1.119) may by C= ABs AB. 29 ve see that the tunsormed componenisof A x B are given by r= E Sapa es) 1 should be observed thatthe quantities (224) obey 2 transformation lw ‘which i formaly denial wth that exemplified by (223) “Another example of a special kind is provided by the Kronecker els “These quantities assume the numerical values 0 and 1 irespectve ofthe choice ofthe coordinate system, that we ae entitled ro write also in the ‘-coordinte system: Bq 1 it~ k while §y Oil) 4 k Thus inthis parcular instance we have 3, = 3,-On the ofher band we may then ner From (3) hat, In= Bogen F Fansub 25 from which i evden that the Kronecker deltas are alo quattes which ‘iy tansformation lave o he ip (223 Tet us now turn fo te inertia tensor as fined in Seti LIF we we the Kronecker delta once moee we can write the expressions (10) and (LLL) forthe components ofthe inertia tensa elative to our 3- ponents of Ain Spatial polar coordinates when we reer 10 the orignal ‘ottion by means of (47) Accordingly this conclusion seems 10 contin, atleast rom a geometrical point of view tbat the suggested definition based (on(46) is stsfactory one "Nevertheless, lle refetion shows that our approch requis some additonal eiements For instance, we casio St of omponens 8, ‘Satshing the ransformation iw (66), namely, we 5 5s, a the rods of (46nd 412 yl AB- SS AD, ay which exemplifies what would seem o be an aceptabletanformaton law fora rank tensor However, we contract ovee he inde, imanattempt ‘o obtain aniner produc) we find that Seeser a ow BM BB Rates ABs ay inwhich the exprssiononthe right-hand side cannot, in general, besimpliid by an application of 44) or (45). Thus the process of contain, as cared ‘ut in ths conte, des not git ise toa covresponding scalar [Theft that this dificuty docs not ark inthe exe of ica orthogonal coordinate transformations is ut the fact that, sezording10(218)and (219, we have 2 2 Sans «iy for such transformations; i i wore possible 1 subttte (415) in (418) the Menity (48) cold be reaiyappiod | ‘Clearly our program stl lacks rome vital ingrdient, for it ese tbat somehow one shouldbe abl to consrut sls by meats of suitable combinations of tensors. Thus we approach this problem from a sigitly ‘ifexent angle by fst consideringsclas nd certain vectors asociatd sith scalar 'A fonction tof the coordinates ssid 10 be a scalar o neriant under the Wapsformation (2) i transform #4) posseses the same ‘numerical vle; that i He) = 19 Here it isto be clearly understood tht the arguments 3 are related to the segumens according to (41): both sts of coordinates rl 0 the same point Pot, ‘With any‘iferenable scalar fneton @ one usualy associates the so- ‘all grater cor the» components ofthe latter are dened tobe the ‘paral derivatives 2922" The question that immediately arises concerns {he ransormation properties ofthese derivatives for. ithey ate to constitute ‘the compancas of yor in the Sense ofthe proposed tetsformation av (46) the ater shouldbe stisied by 09/2 In onde o test this eiterion, we dierent (4.16 partial with respect tothe chain rl being applied to theighchad side which ves “This would be in accordance with (46) only fone could ently 23 with ded, which s not generally possible Thus (4.17) exemplifies a {ransormation aw of the pe oe Ben ais) hicks disxincfrm (66, However the example (4.17) 8 obviously signif ‘ant one which canot Be ignored Furtbermoe, i we combine two se of ‘components he fst of which suis (46) the second (418), we bain ‘goin of he ype ag, oy snd ifthe proces of contraction over and is cased out in thisnstance we obtain, using (44) 0n the eghithand ide, ap ave fac $3 Soa In contrast to (4.18) this res is indo very saison, for it indicates that we have sicoeeded in constructing an invariant resembling the innee Product of 9 vectors ‘This at offi ndicatesquitclerl that we must consider Wo pes of transformation laws, namely, (86) and (418), and accordingly we mut Aejine to distinct Kinds of vectors [This dsineton doesnot aie inthe theory incar orthogonal transformations ines the ase ofthe later the ‘ondtion (415 is sais which deletes the diaincton Been (4) and aint ‘As reprds omenclture, we shall ditngush between these two kinds ‘of wector by ellng the former conravaron and the later covariant ‘Thir distinction must also be reece in our notation: henceforth conta tariant vectors are endowed with superseris, ad covariant eters we ‘isinguited by subse This notation is used consist; i forms a8 ‘seal aspe of easor calcul “Thereslsofthse considerations may sow becrstlizedia the folowing «wo definitions. BE aaa-fac am A se of m guantes (A... APs sai 0 consti the components of @ antraarant sector at apt P with caordinates (x2) under the transformation (41) these quates transform according tthe relations ma aay Im which the cofcions 85° are ro be evuated a , A set of mquaites (C.-C 1 sai 10 const the components of @ cosrtant vector at apo P with coordinates (0X7) under he an formation (4), these guaates transfor according to the relations soe : on be 42 tn Wich he coeficiens 232% are tobe ented at P. Remark 1. For fture reference we note that co- and contravaiant vectors ray also be called type (0,1) and ype (tensors, respecte. Remark 2. These dfnitons contain a a special case he deinons ofan fafine vector in Ey or, whea the transformation (41) happens to be a ‘orthogonal one with n= 3 Both (421) und (422) educe 1 (2.1), Remark 3,_ Several ofthe equations above should now be reweten with various subscripts replaced by superscripts: in particular, the identity (420) to be expressed in the form Saq= Sac, (42y Remark 4. The coeficiems 282x* which appear in the transformation Taw (421) ae, in general funetions ofthe variables, 3%, which are ‘the poitoal coordinates of the pois of sppliction of th contravariant ‘ctor A. This imple that one can ad to eonravoriat eects A and B {and oly if they ar located atthe same pone (For instance ithe pnts of pplication of the vectors are dintct, with coordinates #1 shy and PS x tespacively the corresponding wansormation equation tad we $8 Hh) ge =} eee) Bee at oe Se seve ee cect taney hg ed i ot itp item gas rc intra pnb nny Sa of estoy a eos Seber ae aie at te th ee SD ate ep onan tT Fa cent mali eaten cae ned dsl ceo yi tte oon cad iS chen ah crn oe ae As inthe cae of afin vectors one ca form the product ofthe respective ‘components vatous vetoes provide that hese vectors ae leat at he Same point) thus obtaining the components of quantities which willbe recognized as tensors of rank > 1. Again. clear dstnstion must be made between co- and contravarantpropertis of the ene ths constructed For instance, given two contravaran vectors with components A and 2 located atthe same point P of Fit follows fom (421) that the transforms ‘ofthe produce thir componcats are given by ae PE AB 2 Laas em hich exemplifies the ansormaton law fa tensor of type (2-0) ef fae Md Daten Similarly (422) sugges the transformation ow of atnsor oft (0,2): 5 Siete 25 However, its also feasible to define the socalld “ited” tensors, possessing both co- and contravaiant properties. For instance, f we form the products of the components 4 of conraariaat vector with he com: ponents, ofa covariant vector it follows dretly from (421) and (422) {hat the qdanies thus ebained transform according to 29 ae, FBS ac, (425, “Thin xem he ranformation ia ftp cons, ame ne $382 n wa Remarks 2 and 4 made above in respect ofthe definitions of co- aad contavarian vector apply moc o ls erat othe tensor components ‘which appear in (428 (425) and (627) Furthermore, by analogy with the theory of fine tensorsitis ow obvious how one cam extend thes transformation equations to tensors of arbitrary type. We shall eer these formal definition othe next chapter the sequel we encounter numerous examples of the various tensors discussed here However, leady a this stage we should draw atteon to & mixed tersor of spacial importance. Bearing in mind thst, by defiton, the Kronecker delta assumes the aumerial values O and especie of the oie a ordinates, and wring (45) in the form ee oat bem Bk aes sn ss by comparion wi (42 thatthe Kronecker dl i fs, type Utero According we henetorth denoe components by ad the ottionally coves terion fs raft lw ye 5 ER, (425 while (44) and (45) shouldbe writen nthe forms gosta! ESS-a, 433) aod osha a (0) In an mimensional Euclidean space F, let us consider two coordinate Sstems in whic the coordinates of «point Pare denoted by and 2, Tespotvly. Ie asumed tha heist of hese i rectangular cooedinate ‘System, whereas the second isn abirary curvilinear system thecorespond: ing tansormation bsing ofthe form (41. for which the fnetons = (3) ae ow supposed to be of lass C= Ts pose to consuct a special vector fd in E, whichis such that there exits unigue veto st eich pont of, these vectors tng paral ‘and ofthe sume length The components 37 of this Bel eelative tthe rectangular sem ate obviously constant; and ths for any displacement 2 the conditions a wif Maeno oo eons Xf ne wed ate hc srt te ang 62) so that, corresponding to any displacement de, we have $e arin 5 ants 5 SE tat 69 From ths it evident that the diferetals of @ vector Held ate nt, in sencal components ofa tensor: furthermore the condition (Sora pale teciorfid in, docs not imply a corresponding ation of the typedX™ “Thus relive to our curvilinear coordinate system, aod of pall vetors cof comtant length is or characteriza! by the requirement that the com Poneats ofthis eld be constant. "Thus tbe question arses abt bow such vector ds ae to be desi in arbieary curvlinat coordinates and we now give «complete toast ‘ofthis problem To ths eod we cll tht, selative tour rectangle 60" fedinate stem, the ngih [Xe aay vero X of ou eld in E, en by ine= Se, oa 'By means of (52) hiscan be writen in tees of eur curvilinear coordinate system as follows: wre 5 SES 69 Tit eget we ao Gunite by oo Lee bo so tat ($3 canbe writen inthe form ist Saute on _Agsin this demonstrates th at shat the lngth of contravarant vector at Piva quadratic fem inthe component ofthat vector, the cote du ‘ofthis quadratic form as defied y (54) being evaluted at Pla fc, he Felaton (57) isthe peetalzation ton dimensions of the entity (1216)), Fer future rerece we note that the dfniton (56) mpi tt dei) 1 Oby ste of our assumption that the functional determinant (42) does ot vanish, Thus the symmetric mate () possesses an inverse tobe e- ‘ot by) 9 that Sato =a 63) We shall now endeavor to eliminate the seond derivatives which appear fon the righthand sie of (3) by means ofthe gin the following mare. Fest multilying( S23} by 2823 end summing oer) at hese time noting 25 DIGRESSION: PARALLEL VECTOR FIELDS IN & ° (884, obain ee rr Leer Saar ETS Sear e 69 ‘Second we trent (5.6 partially with esos 0, which yids toa 5 (88 a a! ae Sto 3 Gear Saran ce ‘The second derivatives thus abiained are no yet expresed inform mest suitable for ow purposes accordingly we consider two eelic permutations af the indices hk |i (510, coresponding to which the counterparts of G10}ae tay _ 3 (28 a! ot Os 3-iG@eae haw, say wd a oe) parm) ee Inorée to ec(59:0 an asp frm we sk he aeion 5 ae oe piwae a tc pcan ot 1) and (S12) Ths rato ea and iti ind ae uowaned ay Beamon 2 sac (81 fom ue sum ha cd tye at ay My _Ain) eo ate RB) 28 are “The flowng wan herr ino Gn etna me salen (1 men = 3 (y+ Me), 16 a these ttceindex quanites being called the Chose! symbols of the stk of eur ewreinea coordinate system. Ths ($13) ean be expressed as 2H a8 Rava er aD, 19 2 Determine {and die tha titan afl set 215 in, te quanity@ = (2 salar under (41) Prov tat 62 we totiheconponents of enn ofthe pe OL, Ihor 2 Comte wh Prien 216 La, denote the coordinates of an arr plot # of Eee 19 wo «ltt rextenslar cordate ems, Am ast cavitary ‘etd tothe ro ncaa son cig He, * woe pam y ize iss a pt sa Ste eee oe “irks Sten cor eet” a ea SG W eteuiinieestiay STA teva eto Sila ec ne lyon hopes er ae a EERE ‘nich intr that the gy ar components of 1p (0,2 tena. Dede the nsoration uss by 9 ~ det) ibe le aieor? 218 Finder expen ote Css ben per polrconinten [a Ey, and bots te down the rental easton said by sng et 219 Ina forces ce with enone (= att poston ed ty 4s indepen- wo E Enctty He a-[ 00-10 eo dew inca Loretto, enor or «enor of rank ura Loren tatslormaton they tanaorm scoordigo hele Breet Fo Fi ine Show ta Loves vanie in encore ye sites itu sen ruc by» Lovet amrmaton Sow tit ‘yeSgrindYpaet compncns of ons tee fea snd spiny then Si Feand Das agate Love ton of te nd rope reas Bs Fm oral yee OD Destin 229 ine mtn Poem 219 sow ha te af a Lorn aormaons feos 3 TENSOR ANALYSIS ON MANIFOLDS Since itis our objective to present cones und gradual evelopment ofthe theory of tensors, introducing new concepts only when they Become ine Qe? < x? > 2 < Dean beregatded as coordinate neighborhoods These ix hemispheres ove the phere completly, and its abvousy feeble tous the coordinate ‘stem thus defined. I geneva of course the existence of sulable coordinate ‘ghborhoods depends on the iopologal properties of the surface taken 4s whole We do not concern oursies hee wth problems of hs kind, the reader beng referred to eats on diferent topology. nsend we siply roguire tht the underlying manifold with which we are concerned be & vcileddiferentable maiold, sot theeustenceofcoordinate neighbor hos wth appropriste coordinate stems is guaranted by defiition “An redimensonal maifld sa point set M which s covered completely by a countble set of eighborboods Uy, Us... such that eich point PreA belongs to atleast on of thee neighborhoods: iti assumed that a ‘Soordinte system it dened om ech U inthe sete that one may asin int tnigue maner neal numbers... {0 ich pot Pe U Ths as P ‘anges over U, the coresponding numbers x"... range ove an open ‘Soman Dof Ey in other words ss supposed tht there exits one0-096| mapping ofeach neighborhood U onto. This mapping i assumes to be continuous. The numbers x"... ¥" ae called the coordinates of P: Wo ‘itnet points of U have distinc coordinates. La U;,U; beany twocooediate neighborhoods on F, such bat Uy Us isnonempiy: Let Pe U, = U;. Then, coresponding tothe two coordinate systems on U, and U;, we may aig to the two se of coordinates Foon trand ®,.., Frespoctvely, Which as before, wesimply denote By ‘and’? beingunderstood that all Latinindees hf angetrom tor {Ge Figure 5) Cealy the values of» and” must be somehow related willbe sumed that thi elation can be eapresed in the form aah oy with inverse aw, 02 (ore we have used the compeesed notation introduced in Section 24) ‘The relations (1) and (12) represent coordinate transformations on the se U, 0.U,, Ie wl be supposed farthermore that the functions the right-hand sides of (1.1) and (12) ae of ass C= forall points Pe U, 0 Us Ihe manifold M & suchas to admit a construction of thi kind called in mdomersonal difereniable manfoll; we shall beacetorts denote rch ‘manifolds by X,. (I should be emphasized tht this is very rough deserp tin of this concept: the precise formultion is considerably more sophisti ‘ied and is disused mere eneflly i the Appendix) Because our definition implies the existence of the paral deivatives asj@xt and 22/08, we immediatly infer the validity of the sents (2428) and (2430 in especto the coordinate wansformations(1.1}(L2)n Xe Howeve, inorder to simplify our subsequent notation, we shall now ‘strode the following convention, sinoaTion convinion. When &lercse Latin inde suc a jh ppeas tie fn ee, summation over that adex simple, the ange of frmmatioa beng fm The leer excluded from the summation Convention; this eter wil invariably denote the fixed mension ofthe ‘tanfold wader consideration Unless specially stated others, this convention s operative heoush- ‘out (the reader may familar hill with this notation by appying i to the formule of Seon 2.) Ia partic, we now write the wens (2425) and 2.4.30) respectively in the fen a sand eter aoa 4a ay (Thus onthe ight-had sid of (3) summation over joe Ito nis under Sood: similarly on theright-handside of 4) a sumsmation over hismpied) From the product rae for determinants we immediately ine rom (1.3) that ax aa, 2a 28) aa, in txms ofthe notation 242} Thus the Jacobian ofthe transformation (2; namely, us = eo a9 oes not vanish on U; > Uy! hiss a direct consequence of ou definition, ‘The mud x, is sid to be orientable its possible te choose coordinate rneghborhoods and corresponding coordinate stems such tht cach of {hse Jecoiams is positive (on the respec intersections ofthe coordinate ‘neishborhoods Ia conclusion we real that ¢rea-valued function ff the ‘variables isa tobe of cas ("at point Pos coordinate neighborhood Uti porsees continuous derivatives with resect to etch Of 0.5 4p toaad including the th order at PI should be aberved hat by vr of out construction, te propery of beng of eass Con Xi independent of the aiculr choie a eooedinates, 42, TENSOR ALGEBRA ON MANIFOLDS ‘We now present the most general definition of a tensor; since we have cay dealt with several peices under diferent conditions we proored fn purely ormal manner without further mosiation erINmion Ase ofr? guanies Ty said consi the components ofa tenor of type) a2 point Pf a dieromible mall yf wader the coordinate arsjormaton(') these quonies vensfom acon 0 he law ash asax ae ae ae Pete ‘ete QD Therankof Tir + Aaain ou deiniton contains un xpi elrens tothe point Pat which eter it def ete he sorte hat po er rents i the cowicients A/0e" on the htsand side of {pring we should hae wien hse ete form St ‘ede to indicate explicit that they are to be evaluated at P. Because af (4) the wansformation law (21) possesses an inverse, namely, 0 whi, in tur, mies 2. ‘Once moreit shoul be emphasized that, alle components of any tensor sani na gien coordinate sate they wil vanish anyother stem AS Special caer ofthe above definition we have contararian tector 8 PE (1.0) tenor, whose tansormation aw is given by an Bas, 23 sini, comarian eters aretype(, 1 tensors, whose ansormation laws ea es) e6 showing that the Kronecker dla a type) tensor ‘ype, 0) tensor i simpy a scala o invariant, ‘We now give formal treatment of sgebraic processes which may be pps oto ats xed point P of Xy Addition Lat st, 4 be a type 8) entor define at P. Is transformation tw, according Yo (5.1, 5 shea by yes, oa a RRS iss added to 2.1, we obtain Tt ed ach aah Lt ah ON Bae a oR ish shows tat the sume TN, + SH, ate components {tensor o type (ra) at PAs, ons del rom 21 that the ‘mupcton ts sah ra cont of he component «tenor of ‘bye lds aicna ofthe same type has hat of al ns of he (at he ple Po X conte sector pace of menor Porta he mt ofa Conraarat wetrs tt P des the scald Talmessonal angen space TP) whl he sof al covariant vectors at Coaster the dung space TP wish shoo meson n ‘Werenak tht tis ot posi toh tenses whose pe are distin, sorts parmasbe toa ors deh a Giterent points P and Ql Ny Maltipieaon Ie is aleays posible to multiply tensor of acbitary type athe point P of 1X, componeatwis. Mote precy the mulation ofthe components of ‘0 tensors of type(s) an Fs) © P pels a toto of te (4 an Sys) at. Rate than prove tis statement in its fest generality, Which would iavolve a profsion of indices abd subscripts theeo, et us consider type 1 teaor and a type 02 tensor, tose Wansormation Inwe ae respectively ven by T= Seni ey and aso SS... ey) “The products of he components ofthese tensors transform acording 2808 ast Oe ax? PS, eS e109) hich is obviously the transformation law ofthe components Vp PS ew of tensor of ype, 38 “This proces of multpistion can be combined with the proses of| sition of tenors provided that their respestive types are appropte. Clearly the commutative associative, and dstabute lavs ae suse Contraction Given a tensor of typ fs, one may elt pat of indies, of which one superscript the ole bai «subscript and pace them by two keatical Indies, summation over the later being inp by itu ofthe summation convention This proces is known as coneaction and the guames ob Taina by contraction constitute the components of tensor of t3pe Ol £1), Again, we shall ot prove this asset seneraly: nated we shall ‘eri it for the ease of a ype (2 1) tensor. Ths in (28) tus cai the Ingies and m, denoting both by 9, which gives T= Seog oe Mr itbing understood that a summation ovr qs implied on both sides. Then sa TENSOR ALGEBRA ON MANIFOLDS . pecs of (13, the produc (2/2203%1099 00 the icant side is Seb te Kromet dee and aecordagy we obin y= ot m= 3r, ex ich the traformaton law ofp 0 es. “iat the pros of contracson Of ype 1) embry Saas impart for i cas ofthe Kronecker deta weave Yond emt ten ey Furthermore, one may frm te produ of components of srs of aviary po aod ten contact (rove, of coun at the prouss o Stipe ig pea) cor mh = ands =) Fr asa, {the tomponets Tafa ype 0) eso which sss ae feicen oe ate muti by the componens Cy, Fy of wo covariant vectors we aban {type ewoe whose wesormation om ven by 10 p= EHO 8 THe R= BE ces ‘Ewe contract over the iio py thi redusesto the transformation Inv ‘ofa type (1) tensor, and if we contract once more over the remaining indissj.q we obai the seal PCE = Mery Spmmetization ‘tenor i i to be symmetric in prof superscripts or ina pair of. Subscrps) an interchange ofthe indies concerned doesnot act the ‘alu a the components ofthat tensor. fon the ater hand, this prowess tantamount tothe mulpiation of each component by —i, the ease is Said to be skew-symmeti or ant-symmetri) in these idles For instance, ITA By denote the component of two type 0, 2} tensors andi Ay Ane ey, sie By = Be, et) the fist. symmetic tensor, while the second is skew-symmetric: Clearly ‘he equations (214) and (215) wl old in any coordinate system as a direct consequene ofthe form ofthe wansformation las of tensors: accodaay al symmiry ard skewsynmeiry popertsof tenors ae independent of he ‘Shae of te coordiate sytem ‘Given any tenor of pe (4) with r > 1, or > 1, one eam alays con: struct from its synmetric and akewaymmetrc tens in any pair Of Sutserps or any pair of supersrps. For example, in the exe of type (0.2)teasor C, we ean deine Sy= Hoyt Ce e169 T= Hy ~ Cp ean these being eesposively symmetric and skew-symmetric. Naturally these Proseses may be applied to tensors of aby types (> Lor s> 1, the remaining indices boing eld es. The process (216 soften referred 0 assymmetrcation Furthermore, any such tensor canbe written asthe sum of is socaled symmetic and skew-symmetric parts; fr insane, one ob ously as Gi HC + G9) + HC ~ Co er Remark, nthe itestre Sa, 8 dfined by 2.16) and(2 Dare olen ‘espesiely denoted by Cy s0d Cy, Ths notation wil ot be ied bere. ‘Ais, te proces of symmetrization an itscomverse ean be genealized to an operation involving more than two indices. however, we shall defer the OR ae using (3.3) and its counterpart inthe System: ane ants OE ae. an This then, is the transformation law of the difecatils of the contr variant vector fel AMG?) we eeerate that these diferent are not the components ofa tensa function (It should be remarked that (3.7) eam tbe obisined more dietly by consirng the dieremas of (34) however, the pesca math is used since (35) wl be equited late) ocaus of thi defect we must now endeavor to conrt& new typeof diferent which has Some ofthe properties generally asocated wih the ‘sual concept ofa difereml, but which slo tensorial. In our tem 0 dos we sal be Bide by the nas of Seton 2S concerning the daria. tives of estore relatine toa carlin coordinate system in Ey we sa that itwasnecenary to nipment thee denativs by en aditonal fxm involving the Cro! symbols in ord fo oben a tensorial expression. Under the Pesca cicunstances we are atin posession of quantities of ths kind ‘prion and we shall therfore hae fo endow our mals with stable futons which play a ole analogous to that of the Chase! symbols “Thi eto be done a follows. Let us denote the new ype of dere which we are seeking by DX’, ‘bing assumed in view ofthe analogy refered o above that Dis the fot bx IN! + Pht, Xd, os ‘Her the component Part be specied by means cers natural condition wtih are to be imposed on DX’. ‘We observe that fr any two contravariant vest fills XZ, the ovdinary deena satsies the condition dQX? + 2?) = dX? + dz wile ‘tisevident rom (3) that Xi inar indo Thus the following analogous algerie requitements ure imposed upoa the operator D: 1. For any two contravaiant vector elds XY md Z/, OX! + 2?) DX? + DZ which sais Pinar in X 2. “Dx! sina ind Accordingly the componente P! onthe right-hand side of (38) must be linear homogenous functions ofX* ad ds they ure thus expressible inthe fourm Pigg, Xa) = Tyo" de, 69) In which he coficons Ta") depend soley on the postional coordinates [© (althouph we have endowed thee coefcets wih wo subscripts and & superset snot implied that the Fy, ate the components ofa tensor) Finally is stipulated that, A. The DY? constitute the components oa contavariant vector ae px = Sow 610 From (38), and is counterpart in the “bared” coordinate system, we therelee ifr that # a In onder to obtin the resulting transformation Iw forthe components we subeac (3.7 from (311), which ives, Sasa + as Bane So en xa on ‘Clearly thisisa necessary and sutcient condition forthe vit of (3.10); however, for our future requirments i desirable that we derive the cor: responding transformation law forthe coficets Ty which appear in (69) By means of (34) and the inverse of (26) we cam write the coumterpart ‘1 (39)in the bared coorinate sytem follows: amas Prats Fae = Ty, SE vast ary This, together with (39, substituted in (312) :0 yield =e )re aww node that his relation be isi ts sulin that the tanstoemation law ofthe ven by BP ya Tae ee, oe watt” ad” Be os Furermot, his pation i also nsery by vite of he ratte components Xd which appear in (314) ae eae aber. Abo, We can sole (15) for Tin cms fT by mauling by OEE, 80 whic ies TMi at) a tata ata AGS te) is ae) ee oe - BR OF ‘We now apply (1.4) to the left-hand side above, obtuining T.!,57 62 = T)., sang inthe esting relation we replace the indies 5 BY mp espeatve. Tes thus found that Boe Ot BR at ot Teh ag oe eT aaa a OF a9 Any set of threendex symbols Ty, whose transformation law is given by (@16)isseidvconsutute the components ofan afin comecion or connection vefciens.on ou diferenible maniold Xn tems of his connection we ‘may now. by means of(38) and (39, write DN) = dX + TYAXae, en hich is known as the abot or coarian diferent ofthe vector ld 1X this was the objet of our sere, Remark J. In a cersin sense the later terminology is unfortunate ait involves the term “covariant” in manner which i inconsistent with is rviou use. Hee the adjtive covariant fused 0 indicate that (817) 8 tensor ‘Remark 2. Thus lar we have merely constructed the absolute dfereatal ofa contravariantyetr fil we sal show, however, that similar posses ‘an be applied to tensors of arbitrary p=, Remark 3 Wt shouldbe reterated tht, despite he notation, the coeients Trot the ane connection are mothe components os tensor Remark 4 Obviously the conditions 1-3 do not completly speily the Th et, any sof functions of postion which transform according 10 (Go) defines en afine connection by means of which absolut diferent may be consructed, Thus, before one can construct such dierent, te ‘ieeatable manifold X, must be endowed with these coeticents The ‘manifolds thn eal a any connected space (ee Sevodinge [1 Remark 5. The wansformaton law (3.16) can be expressd in a slightly ‘dierent form a follows, We recall tht, acsording to (1. amew, oy ‘Ths is dilerntited parilly with respect 10 2, it beng recalled that {22/0 pen ak» fonction of 50 that the chain rule has to be applied tot trm eis seen that et aot ae tt oat BRE RRS a9 wich i mid by 02/6" se fu ae oe Ee ona aot ae a Sea RO a a) “his substituted in (3.161 which then becomes dele Oe oe ate wom ae a at Bea en ‘An equivalent orm of his is Beaty, aoe, ap ee ox ‘which ets from (321) by a repeatod application of (14) anda change of indies. With the ad ofthe formalism developed above, it is now a sinpe mater to define an appropriate absolute diferent! of & covariant sector fed 1 Mist) We real that the transformation nw of sucha el sien by x- Sr, om otha the dierent of relative othe two coordinate systems are related by y= al + oe Net 629 ‘Wiecan eliminate the second term on the right-hand side by means (319), hie emul int a a ei oe ast a ate = rae — ye, ae = rinat Sry, 7 0 “This is subsite in (124 nthe iat term of which the index) replaced tym eis thas found that -rune!San-nanen am hich shows that he quomtites defined by Dy aah — Trae 625) sare the components ofa courant vector. We therefore regard (3.26) a5 the ‘inton ofthe aso dierent ofthe covariant ves0" Bed Inthe net section we del with the definition of absolute diferent of| ‘ersrs of abivary type However, we antiipate to some exent by stating 2 TENSOR ANALYSIS ON MANIFOLDS slreagy a this stage tat she bse diferent ofa salar i defined to be ts ordinary diferent or 8 we have seen above, the later iautomatclly ‘type (0,0) tensor Let ws brie examine the reewanc ofthis defntion with fepard tothe salar product ¢ = X°Y, of two given co- and contravarian ‘ecto felds By defiition we have DX) = DG = di = ax Tg = (AK + 00 dR, (nthe righthand siete dren JX, ae repel by means ofthe ‘corresponding sbsolutediferentais DX" DY, in accordance with (317), {nd (2) respectively Da) = (OXY PALA ADK, 4 Td) (OX +O) DY, 62 ‘wherein the second scp, we have taken into account the fact that the two Terms invlbing the I cance fer an saterchunge of indies) This esl sugbests thatthe product rule of endinary diferetation hols also for boot diferentis. {M_ABSOLLTE DIFFERENTIALS OF TENSOR FIELDS ‘We have see tat the ordinary diferetals ofc” or ontravariantvetor fe are not fenoria. Thi tue alo for deren of tensor fas of| higher ranks immediatly evden by difitetiation ofthe transforma: ton law (3.1) of ype) tensor However, i i supposed that our dit Feretsble mano X, is endowed with «connection as willbe assumed bereits x simple mater fo consrac the absolute diferent of «tensor fed of arbieary type. This is done by dieretation of G 1) and the sub sequent climinaton ofa unwanted expressions by means of 3 15)and (322) inters ofthe connection ceficints. Azan. inorder to ave an unnoces sary compleated calculation, we ilustrate this process fr the ease of ‘ype (1) tesor fd Tet stherlore consider tensor eld TY) whose wansformation law is 1 eal ost : 1 ee «Dy ‘Thus the dierent of TE relative to the two coordinate stems are related seording to 1 OR OMe Be asa a} = SE rae + ree are 42) ‘Gert the ist wo tems on height hand sie of(4.2) ato be eliminate: se shal deal with each one of them intr ‘To the fst term we apply (3.15), which gives 28 pa (Mg 485) ra Berit oe as Ts reat) In the second expression on the right we invoke the transformation lw (41), together wih the inverse of (36) in both expressions various indies uc Felabeled. We thus obain Trad = Srey TT de, 43) Toth cin tm onthe ht hand ef (42) wow ply 322488 wooo simi ox oe 28 ng BY ap ge 28 2 2 ae Baba op TEER = gs TM ie THAR — Fa eT ge TE Pathe. “ We can now substitute (43) and (44 in (4.2) placing all terms involving TTand Fon the lenand sige, whieh yes as T Tae TH. Maren Tede TA TEEA 4) it impestonfhi eit cey ineatht he quasi dene by brt=art + (te—tevTode 4s represent the components of ype (1) tens fl, Accordingly we regard (46)as the definition ofthe absolute diferent! of type (1 1) omer eld. The same proves, spiel to the general tansormation lw (3.1) yds ‘he flowing expresion forthe absotedifrental of @ type (3) Lewor Jl: pres, aveh ETT, at ae a ‘Cletly 117, (826, and (46 ae special cases ofthis form. For futre ‘erence we pote ao the following caualy important particular xs fist for ype (0,2) tensor eld we have DU y= Wy ~ Thy dt = TU, « and second fora type, 0) tensor fd DV! = av! 4 Ty Vdt + PAV at a) We: 1 now in a position to tte the bas laws of abso dierent: 1. The absolute diferent of a type (3) tensor fl 8 te (3) tensor: im patcui, the absolute diferent of sclar elds ornary Aierential Gotha the abso difeentiatofa constant vanishes ental). 2 The abalute dierent ofthe sum of wo tenor fel ofthe sme ‘ypelsthe sum ofthe absolute dierent ofthese es. 5 The absolute diferent ofthe peoduct of any two tensoe fel is sven in terms ofthe absolute diferent ofeach ofthese lds by rule ‘sich formally etc! wih the product ul of ordinary dierenttion Statoment 1 6 a dict consequence of our construction, while 2 follows ical tom the inst ofthe iahthand idea (6 in T~ The produc Tule 3 of mhich we ave already encountered an example i (3.27) em also be devived in full generality ect rom (87) Again, in order to avoid rofision finds, let ur verify fora ape case acy forthe product ‘ofatypet, 0 tensor ld with type, 1) ed. Accordingly Weshall consider theprodust Thay, 10) From (4.7) we have DT) = AT) ELT + DATS in which we subetitute rom (410, which es Ding = (evan + Va HO QLPY A TEAVEEK = VAT Nad) (412) From (49) ts evident tht the coecient of in this expression sly DV! wtle asording 1 (326) the eneficent of Vx DY, Ts (412) reduces ta Tiga, (41) Duy) = (DV + MAD a ss rue Before concluding tis section we remark thatthe above defnitons and rules of able diferetation are valid for ony set of connection

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