Proximate cause- cause which, in natural and continuous sequence, unbroken by any efficient intervening cause, produces the

injury, and without which the result would not have occurred.
-Not necessarily the last link in the chain of events but that which is the procuring efficient and predominant cause.
-Not necessarily the sole cause of the accident

Remote cause- cause which some independent force merely took advantage of to accomplish something not the natural effect
thereof.

Chain of cause - causal connection between an original cause and its subsequent effects especially as a basis for criminal or civil
liability

Rule of comparative negligence- the relative degree of negligence of the parties is considered in determining whether and to what
degree either should be responsible for his negligence
 Pure: plaintiff’s contributory negligence does not operate to bar his recovery but served to reduce his damage in proportion
to his fault

“But for” test or sine qua non test

defendant's conduct is the cause in fact of the injury, under this test if the damage would not have resulted had there been no
negligence on the part of the defendant.
-This is the test commonly applied in Philippine jurisdiction

Substantial factor test

-the causes set in motion by the defendant must continue until the moment of the damage or at least down the setting in motion of
the final active injurious force which immediately produced or preceded the damage.
-important in cases where there are concurrent causes

Necessary Element of Sufficient Set Test (NESS test) - the act or omission is the cause in fact if it is a necessary element of a
sufficient set

Duplicate causation- occurs when 2 or more sets operate simultaneously to produce the effect; the effect is over determined.
Ex. Damage to building by fire (2 causes)

Pre-emptive causation- occurs when, through coming about first in time, one causal set ‘trumps’ another, potential set lurking in the
background. (potential but inoperative causal set)
Ex. A shoots and killed P when is about to drink a cup poisoned by C.

Natural and probable consequences test- involves 2 things: (Reyes & Puno)
1. Causality: damage would not have resulted without the fault or negligence of the defendant
2. Adequacy: the fault of the defendant would normally result in the damage suffered by the obligee

Immediate cause - is the final act in a series of provocations that leads to a particular result or event. This would directly produce
the result without intervention of any further provocation.

Immediate cause Proximate cause

the final act in a series of provocations that leads to a cause which, in natural and continuous sequence,
particular result or event. This would directly produce the unbroken by any efficient intervening cause, produces the
result without intervention of any further provocation. injury, and without which the result would not have
occurred.

the condition which caused the individual to die at that time
and in that place
directly produce the result without intervention of any further
provocation.
The last condition listed is the proximate (or underlying)
cause of death, i.e. the condition which started a chain of
events leading to death.

Last Clear Chance -

Requisites:
1. Plaintiff was in a position of danger by his own negligence
2. Defendant knew of such position of the plaintiff
3. Defendant had the least clear chance to avoid the accident by exercise of ordinary care but failed to exercise such last clear chance
and
4. Accident occurred as proximate cause of such failure

Egg skull doctrine- tortfeasor or a wrongdoer takes his victim as he finds him. Greater injury because of a prior condition.