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INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

DC GENERATORS
DC GENERATORS

Overview:

• Basic structure of dc machines


• Armature and field windings
• Emf equations
• Classification of DC Machines
• Characteristics of DC Generator

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INTRODUCTION

• Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical


input to mechanical output or vice versa are called electric
machines. The process of translation is known as
electromechanical energy conversion.
• An electric machine is therefore a link between an electrical
system and a mechanical system, as shown;
Electrical Mechanical
System System
Electrical
e, i
Machine
T, n
Motor
Energy flow
Generator

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INTRODUCTION

• If the conversion is from mechanical to electrical, the


machine is said to act as a generator.
• If the conversion is from electrical to mechanical, the
machine is said to act as a motor.
• Machines are called ac machines if the electrical system is
ac and dc machines if the electrical system is dc.
• In the electrical system the primary quantities involved are
voltage and current, while the analogous quantities in the
mechanical system are torque and speed.
• The coupling medium between these different systems is
the magnetic field, as illustrated.

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Coupling
Electrical Magnetic Mechanical
System field System

T, n
e, i

• In electrical machine, conversion of energy from electrical to


mechanical form or vice versa, results from the following two
electromagnetic phenomena:

 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is


induced in the conductor.
 When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.

• These two effects occur simultaneously whenever energy


conversion takes place.
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Principle of Generator

When a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, an


electromagnetic force is induced in it.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:
• First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a
circuit changes, an emf is always induced in it. (OR,
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an emf is
induced in that conductor.)
• Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal
to the rate of change of flux-linkages

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Basic Construction of DC Generator

Therefore, the basic essential parts of an electrical generator


are:
a) a magnetic field
b) conductor(s) which can move to cut the flux

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Example of Generator

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Simple Loop Generator
Basic Construction Components:
o Armature: a single-turn rectangular copper coil
rotating about its own axis
o Field magnets: may be permanent magnets or
electromagnets; provide a magnetic field.
o Slip-rings: connected to two ends of coils; they
are insulated from each other and from the main
shaft.
o Brushes: made of carbon/copper; press against
each slip ring; collect induced current in the coil
and convey it to external load.
EE042-3.5-2-INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS DC GENERATORS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Basic Construction

EE042-3.5-2-INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS DC GENERATORS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING


Working Principle

EE042-3.5-2-INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS DC GENERATORS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING


Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

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Working Principle

• As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is induced in it


proportional to the rate of change of the flux linkage.
• Position 1
o Flux linked with the coil is maximum
o Coil sides AB & CD are moving parallel to the flux lines i.e. they do not cut
the flux lines; hence there is no emf induced in it.
• Position 3
o Flux linked with the coil is minimum
o The rate of change of flux linkages is maximum; hence the emf induced is
maximum
• Position 5
o Flux linked with the coil is maximum
o Coil sides AB & CD are moving parallel to the flux lines i.e. they do not cut
the flux lines; hence there is no emf induced in it.

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Working Principle

• In the first half revolution of the coil, the current through the
load flows from M to L.
• In the second half revolution of the coil, the current through
the coil reverses in direction i.e. from L to M.
• Thus, in a simple generator, since the current is periodically
reversing, it is producing alternating current (AC).

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Commutation Working Principle

• For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external


circuit, the slip-rings are replaced by split-rings.
• The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is
cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by
a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material.

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Commutation

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Commutation Result

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Commutation Working Principle

• The coil ends are joined to the two segments on which rest
the carbon or copper brushes.
• In the first half revolution current flows along (ABMLCD) i.e.
the brush No. 1 in contact with segment ‘a’ acts as the
positive end of the supply and ‘b’ as the negative end.
• In the next half revolution, the direction of the induced
current in the coil has reversed.

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Commutation Working Principle

• But at the same time, the positions of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’
have also reversed with the result that brush No. 1 comes in
touch with the segment which is positive i.e. segment ‘b’ in
this case.
• Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M to L.
• This current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure
direct current.

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Component of DC Generator

• Yoke
• Pole cores & pole shoes
• Field coils
• Armature core
• Armature winding
• Commutator
• Brushes & bearings

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Component of DC Generator

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Yoke

• The outer frame or yoke serves double purposes:


– Provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a
protecting cover for the whole machine.
– Carries the magnetic flux produced by the pole.

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Yoke

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Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

• The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The
pole shoes serve two purposes:
– Spread out the flux in the air gap, reduce the reluctance of
the magnetic path
– Support the existing coils

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Pole Shoes

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Pole Construction

• The pole core itself may be a solid piece of steel and the pole
shoe is laminated and fastened to the pole.

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Pole Coils (Field coils)

• A former-wound copper wire coil.


• When current is passed through these coils, they
electromagnetize the poles to produce necessary flux to be
cut by revolving armature conductors.

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Pole Coil

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Armature Core

• Houses the armature conductor or coils and causes them to


rotate and cuts the flux.

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Armature Core

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Armature Winding

• The armature winding is the main current-carrying winding in


which the electromotive force or counter-emf of rotation is
induced.
• The current in the armature winding is known as the
armature current.

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Armature Winding

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Commutator

• The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of


current from the armature conductors.
• Rectified the alternating current into direct current.

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Brush

• The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block


shaped. The only function of these carbon brushes of DC
generator is to collect current from commutator segments.
• The brushes are housed in the rectangular box shaped brush
holder.

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Brush

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Types of DC Generator

• Generators are classified according to the way their fields are


excited.
o Separately excited
o Self-excited.
• Shunt Wound
• Series Wound
• Compound Wound

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Separately Excited

• The field magnets are energized from an independent external


DC source.

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Self Excited

• Field magnets are energized by currents produced in the


generator itself.
• Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux
in the poles. When the armature is rotating, e.m.f and hence
some induced current is produced which is partly or fully
passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the
residual pole flux.
• Three types of self-excited:
Shunt Wound
Series Wound
Compound Wound

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Shunt Wound
• Field windings are connected in parallel with the armature
conductors, will experience full generator voltage.

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Series Wound
• Field windings are connected in series with the armature
conductor, will carry full load current.
• As they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few
turns of thick wire or strips.

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Compound Wound

• Has a combination of series and parallel connection of field


windings.

Short Shunt Long Shunt


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Types of DC Generator

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Example 1

A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230V and the resistance of


the shunt field and armature are 50Ω and 0.03Ω respectively.
Calculate the generated e.m.f.
(Ans: 243.6V)

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Example 2

A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of


50A at 500V and has armature, series field and shunt field
resistances of 0.05Ω, 0.03Ω and 250Ω respectively. Calculate
the generated voltage and the armature current. Allow 1V per
brush for contact drop.
(Ans: 506.16V, 52A)

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Example 3

In a long-shunt compound generator, the terminal voltage is


230V when generator delivers 150A. Determine (i) induced
e.m.f. (ii) total power generated and (iii) distribution of this
power. Given that shunt field, series field, divertor and armature
resistance are 92Ω, 0.015Ω, 0.03Ω and 0.032Ω respectively.

(Ans: 236.4 V, 36 051 W)

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Characteristics of DC Generator

Three most important characteristics or curves of a DC


generator:
• No-load Saturation Characteristic: 𝐸0 /𝐼𝑓
• Internal or Total Characteristic: 𝐸/𝐼𝑎
• External Characteristic: 𝑉/𝐼

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No-load Saturation Characteristic:
𝑬𝟎 /𝑰𝒇

• Also known as Magnetic Characteristic or Open-circuit


Characteristic (OCC).
• Relationship between no-load generated emf in armature, 𝐸0
and the field or exciting current, 𝐼𝑓 at a fixed speed.
• The shape is practically the same for all generators whether
separately-excited or self-excited.

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Method of no-load (OCC) test

• Disconnect field winding from machine.


• Connect to external (variable) dc source.
• Change this excitation current (read from ammeter).
• Rotate armature at constant speed.
• Read no-load generated voltage across armature terminals.

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No-load test curve

Low flux density, the reluctance


of iron path is negligible

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Points to note

• The curve starts at 𝐸𝑜 > 0


 This emf is induced inspite of zero 𝐼𝑓 due to residual magnetism
 The length 𝑂𝐴 represents emf due to residual magnetism only
• Then, 𝐸0 increases linearly with 𝐼𝑓
 This is because at low flux densities, the total reluctance of the
magnetic path is almost entirely equal to reluctance of air-gap only
(since at low flux densities, iron has high permeability)
• Beyond a certain point, the curve bends over
 At higher flux densities, the total reluctance of the magnetic path
increases as reluctance of the iron path increases (saturation)

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OCC for different speed
The OCC of a generator
for a particular speed, N2
can be deduced from the
curve at another speed
N1 by using, E ∝ N
N2
∴ E2 = E1 ×
N1

N1 > N2

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Critical Resistance

• Connect the field windings back to the armature and run the
machine as a shunt generator.
• Emf is induced due to the mutual reinforcement.
• If the resistance line just lies along the slope, then with that
value of field resistance, the machine will just excite.
• The value of the resistance represented by the tangent to the
curve, is known as critical resistance 𝑅𝑐 for a given speed.

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Critical Resistance

Lower
resistance,
higher emf

Max emf induced by


given field resistance

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Critical Speed, 𝑵𝑪

Critical speed of a shunt generator is that speed for which the


given shunt field resistance represents critical resistance.

𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐶
= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑁

𝐵𝐶
𝑁𝐶 = × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑁
𝐴𝐶

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Critical Speed, 𝑵𝑪

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Example
• The magnetization curve of a DC shunt generator at 1500
rpm is:

𝐼𝑓 (𝐴) 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0


𝐸0 (𝑉) 6 60 120 172.5 202.5 221 231 237 240

• For this generator, find:


o No-load emf for field resistance of 100Ω
o The critical field resistance at 1500 rpm
o The magnetization curve at 1200 rpm and from there the
open-circuit voltage for a field resistance of 100Ω

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Answer

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Example

The OCC of a DC shunt generator is as follow

𝐼𝑓 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5


𝐸0 60 120 138 145 149 151 152
If 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 53Ω, calculate the open circuit voltage and load current
when the terminal voltage is 100V. Neglect armature reaction
and assume 𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑚 = 0.1Ω.
(Ans: 150 V, 428.11 A)

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Example

Given OCC of a DC shunt generator at 300 rpm:


𝐼𝑓 (𝐴) 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝐸0 (𝑉) 7.5 92 132 162 183 200 212
1. Plot OCC at 375 rpm and determine the exciting voltage if
𝑅𝑓 = 40Ω.
2. What additional resistance have to be inserted to reduce the
voltage to 200V at 375 rpm?
3. Without additional resistance, determine the load current
supplied by the generator when the terminal voltage is 200V.
Ignore armature reaction and assume the speed is constant.
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑚 = 0.4Ω.

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