Nikulyak 1

Yauheniya Nikulyak
CST300 Writing Lab
07 October 2018
Enhance humans brain with a computer

A century ago amputation of a limb has been a serious incident that entails significant changes in a person’s

life starting from losing an opportunity to work and a possibility to maintain active lifestyle. Today, a various set of

devices for lost hands, arms, palms, fingers, legs, and feet make patients’ lives much easier and allow them not only

to compete with others in everyday activities like education, science, sports, fashion shows, but even win.

Bioprosthetic heart valves, prosthetic eyes and middle/inner ear implants are also considered as usual medical

devices today that help people to live a full life.

However, the human brain is a place in the body that remains mostly untouched. The human brain has not

been fully studied or understood. There are many puzzles of the brain, which to this day have not been solved yet. It

is not known for sure where dreams come from and what exactly they are. We also don’t know exactly how short-

and long-term memory, associations and thinking work.

Recent developments in science, surgery and medicine allow doctors to get access to a brain, analyse its

state and perform complex brain surgeries. They are also armed with precision tools and instruments to get samples,

research and even impact different parts of a human brain. Scientists have been coming up with different ideas of

devices that can be attached physically or remotely to a human brain for different purposes. However, some

utilizations of such devices started to cause ethical issues among scientists, researchers, philosophers and society.

For example, we would face with legal issues such as whether people are able to make informed decisions about

using such enhancements; whether there are any guarantees that the technology would not be used in a reckless or

selfish manner by governments or crime syndicates to control humans; whether enhancements guarantee privacy of

brain activity as thoughts, dreams, and experiences; whether enhancements guarantee mental and physical health

safety while using these devices. Then, people would face with an identity crisis. There would be a big question who

we are, whether we are still humans or cyborgs. Also, it is obvious that enhancements will not be accessible to

everyone. As a result, it might create inequality and unfair advantages between those who are able to use brain

implants and those who are not. And finally, there are questions about long term economic changes. Increased life

quality and expectancy might cause an increased wear of natural resources like water, food and energy.
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First experiments of human brain stimulation started in the 1950s by Robert G. Heath who applied

electrical impulses to his patients’ brains and observed their mood changes (O’Neal et al., 2017, p.3). Then,

experiments by Schmidt, Bak and McIntosh (1976) showed that it was possible to record signals of rhesus monkey’s

brain by using electrodes. In 30 years, the first prototypes of prosthetic neuronal memory silicon chips for long term

memories were developed and tested on rats in the University of Southern California in 2004 (Phillips, 2004). Also,

Swiss researches implanted connecting interface to a brain and spine of paralyzed monkey to allow it to walk

(Cyranoski, 2016). Today, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) tests AI-controlled

“closed-loop” brain implants for mood disorders in people (Reardon, 2017). And finally, an implantable neural

prosthetic has been constructed to stimulate and improve human memory (Hampson et al., 2018).

Stakeholders: Health industry

Health industry’s main intention and interest in researches and development of these devices is that brain

implants or medical prostheses are needed to fix mental or physical health issues of a human brain. Alzheimer’s and

Parkinson’s diseases, age-related dementia, amnesia, neural seizures, epilepsy and memory impairments are severe

diseases whose patients need ѕerious treatment. Perhaps in the future, it is implants that will help slow down, if not

eliminate, the negative inhibition of cognitive abilities.

There is a constant need of researches for possible and experimental treatments of brain-related issues as

traditional medicine and medications are ineffective sometimes. It is possible that electric stimulation of a brain by

an implant could drastically improve the patient’s quality of life and mitigate the health issue. For example, the

University of Southern California has conducted first experiments on prosthetic device to enhance human memory

by applying small electric shocks to the hippocampus, a brain region vital for learning and memory. Scientists

collected data patterns of activity in brain parts responsible for memory when patients were learning. Then they used

this data to program the brain implant so the device stimulated similar memory activity in the patients. The results

showed 15 percent performance improvements in short-memory and 25 percent in the working-memory tests. While

these are very early tests and we are too far from improving cognitive abilities and intelligence with brain implants,

the results are very promising (Hamzelou, 2017).

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Health industry and medical scientists make researches and discoveries to provide relief to patients with

severe brain conditions. As can be seen, they act under the Deontological or Duty-Based Ethical framework that

states that people has to follow their public duty and do the right thing in spite of all the following consequences.

One of the representatives of this framework​ is the philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), who claimed that

“doing what is right is not about the consequences of our actions but about having the proper intention in performing

the action” ​ (Brown, n.d.). Health industry and medical scientists also act under the Utilitarianism Ethical framework

that aims to “​produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected”​ (Brown, n.d.). With the

help of this framework, these stakeholders support the idea that, as helping patients is ethically correct, stakeholders’

researches and innovations provide the greatest benefit to most people. Their claim of value is that curing a patient is

the most important virtue.

Stakeholders: Companies that want to build Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI)

Until the recent years humans didn’t think that it would be possible to boost our brains in terms of thinking,

cognitive and memorizing abilities. With the development of modern science and technologies, people started to

fantasize and dream about such improvements. The latest science researches and discoveries about the human brain

give enough reasons to believe that brain boosting would be possible in the future. This quickly became a part of

transhumanism - a philosophical concept that supports the use of science and technologies to improve mental and

physical abilities of a human in order to eliminate negative aspects of their existence like illnesses, diseases, aging

and death (​Zehra, 2015).

Raymond Kurzweil is the one of the leading philosophers in transhumanism. His futuristic views are based

on inductive reasoning and he states that we are not far from times of so-called hybrid thinking. During the last two

million years, humans expanded their​ ​neocortex: the part of the mammalian brain involved in higher-order

functions. This expansion created a huge leap for humans: mankind developed languages to communicate and

exchange experience, invented art, music, science and technologies, machinery for heavy work, explored space,

created computers to make computations, etc. (TED, 2014). No other species has done that. Kurzweil predicts that

mankind is going to have the next leap over the next few decades when humans will expand their neocortex for the

second time with the help of nanobots delivered by a blood stream. Those nanobots will read data from and write it

into the human brain and use wireless communication to connect to external computer clouds to transmit and receivе
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data. This will give mankind an ability to obtaining unlimited storage and computational resources and overcome the

limitation of a size of human skull (Kurzweil, 2014).

Since creating robots the size of a human cell is extremely challenging task, we are very far from

implementation of nanobots flowing in blood stream to human brain and establishing connections between human

memory, thinking and external cloud. Companies and corporations are considering different approaches to build a

BCI - a connector that is able to read and write information from different parts of brain and transmit/receive data

to/from another external devices for analysis, exchange and distribution (​Strickla​nd, 2017)​.

Elon Musk’s Neuralink is the one of the most notable examples of modern startups doing researches to

invent а BCI. They are “developing ultra high bandwidth brain-machine interfaces to connect humans and

computers” (Neuralink, 2018). “This is going to be an injectable mesh-like ‘neural lace’” (Solon, 2017), “wizard hat

for the brain” (Conger, 2018).

Under the Virtue Ethics framework, that states “​that ethical actions should be consistent with ideal human

virtues” (Brown, n.d), Elon Musk and Neuralink ​are currently building their own set of virtues for the new industry

and market. When they are presented with the ethical dilemma, they will use a course of action that will be most in

line with these virtues. Utilitarianism is also used here since Neuralink will be useful for treatments of Parkinson’s

disease and other brain disorders and yields the greatest benefit to the people. It is possible to apply the same Claim

of Value for this company as in a health industry: curing a patient is the most important virtue. Also, Elon Musk

uses another Claim of Value that BCIs will be beneficial for society as it will boost progress.

It is also worth mentioning a recent DARPA experiment with a BCI attached to a volunteer’s brain to

control a set of flying drones (Axe, 2018). This application of technology has clear military purposes but the results

of the experiment could be useful for other scientists, companies and research centers. DARPA follows the

Deontology Ethical framework with the Claim of Definition that the Nation could be left vulnerable if no action is

taken. Thus, the Agency says that it “pursues these technologies because of their promise, and the Agency is

committed to exploring domains that could leave the Nation vulnerable if not pursued”. (DARPA, n.d.). It means

that they want to adhere to their obligations and duties. DARPA also states that the Agency works closely with the

law, regulations and appropriate organizations to comply with legal and other policy frameworks when the ethical

problem arises and a decision is not known.

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Stakeholders that have inequality concerns

According to Poverty and Shared Prosperity (2016) research done by The World Bank organization, the

world is currently at an all-time low point of extreme poverty and it has been declining for the last 23 years.

However, it doesn’t automatically mean that the same happens to inequality as inequality is growing almost

everywhere with different speeds (Alvaredo, Chancel, Piketty, Saez, & Zucman, 2018, p.9-10).

This problem has existed even before mankind achieved the technological level that allowed to invent brain

improving devices. Technological development and growth is usually a cause of less human involvement in physical

or routine work. The continuous process of invention, aimed at reducing human involvement in labor, is one of the

root causes of inequality. Automation, use of robotics and computers are constantly changing the labor market,

reducing the need in manual labor and increasing the need in highly skilled and well educated personnel (Leung,

2015).

Let’s imagine that a brain improving device is invented and, by attaching it to a BCI, a human starts to

think faster, memorize more or instantaneously communicate with other humans with BCI attached devices or

computer networks such as Internet. How much does it cost? Who is going to be the first to use it?

The leader of Transhumanist Party in the USA Zoltvan Istvan admits that it is inevitable that that rich will

get access to technology first. Society has already a great example of inequality when a robotic heart, which costs

200,000 US dollars, is accessible to those who have this money (Curtis, 2016). Similarly, access to a brain changing

technology will allow rich people to think more effectively and faster which means that they will live longer. This

elite class comparison is used by concerned stakeholders as Claim of Resemblance. They think that BCI attached

devices must be regulated by organizations such as National Health Services.

Enhanced brains will be more desired by employers who will gain more profits from more skilled

employees. This will create inequality and unfair competition for people who would not want their brains improved:

will they be able to get a job? Such inequality will definitely create a cognitive dissonance for such people as their

beliefs and values will be challenged. On the one hand, their Claims of Value will be making them happy, on the

other hand, it will prevent them from becoming more successful on a job market and lead to less income. Should a

person use a BCI attached device to improve the brain for the benefits in their career? When is the best time to do it?

If a person postpones brain improvement procedure, will it create problems with their current and future employers?
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Potential usage of brain improving devices imposes a great ethical dilemma on parents: should they make а

decision for their children to use implants? If yes, what would be the best time to start? As a result, two classes of

people will be created: those who will be upgraded and those who will be not.

Let’s say mankind will be able to overcome moral, ethical, safety, security, health and legislation issues.

Will humans be able to return back to original point and live without such devices? Concerned stakeholders are

afraid that technology will deprive people what makes them a human being and they won’t be able to live without it

independently.

Stakeholders that have inequality concerns have more unanswered questions than facts, statements,

definitions or policies. Their Claims of Facts include a statement that BCI technology and devices will bring

financial and mental inequalities into society. These stakeholders act under the Utilitarian Ethical framework to do

least harm to the largest number of people and keep all the good that mankind has already created. They also use the

Deontology Ethical framework as they think about the ethical decision that would be the best for community and

mankind.

Religious stakeholders

Religions have been existing since the early days of mankind and they have been playing a significant role

in human’s life. Religion helped a human to explain incomprehensible events as the will of God where there was no

other explanation. According to Pew Research Center (2014) around 62.6 percent of the USA population absolutely

believe in God. 73% of highly religious adults in the U.S. say that they wouldn’t want a brain device to improve

brain capabilities (​Funk, Kennedy, Scuipac​, 2016). This gives us 45.7 percent of the US population in total who

wouldn’t consider a use of such device. The number of religions opponents to brain improving technology is very

high.

Religious stakeholders do not want their physical bodies, beliefs and moral principles changed. They value

their own body and mind in a current untouched state. This group of people doesn’t want a human to act as God as

making brain improvements is a task that God only can make. The fear of change in a human brain leads religious

stakeholders to think that it will cause irreparable consequences to society and God’s anger (Zylstra, 2016).

They have several claims of facts to support their position. Thus, religious stakeholders state that only God

can make changes in the human and world development. They also claim that an idea of brain implants crosses a
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line and these enhancements are meddling with nature. And finally, they are convinced BCIs interfere with God’s

plan and signal the mark of the beast. Claim of Policy, that our bodies should be left how God made them, also helps

religious stakeholder to deny the use of brain implants (Zylstra, 2016).

Desire of keeping human bodies and current communities unchanged shows that religious stakeholders act

under the Divine Command framework that states that the act is right only if it is the God’s will (Brown, n.d.). Also,

there is a sign of usage of Virtue Ethical framework. According this framework, “​ethical actions should be

consistent with ideal human virtues”​ (Brown, n.d.). Thus, when religious stakeholders are presented with ethical

dilemma of human brain improvements they tend to choose the course of action that is most in line with beliefs and

principles of religion.

In my opinion, brain implants could be used with appropriate health, labor and law policies. Progress in this

industry is imminent and would not cause any major concerns if regulated on ethical level by government and

organizations like World Medical Association and Ethics institutions. The main goal is to make these devices safe

for health, secure, reliable and give people an ability to roll back their installation with the intent of returning to the

initial human state. I strongly believe that an entrepreneurship contributes to economic growth, job creation and

changing of lifestyle. It has always driven the world economy since entrepreneurs are interested in making a profit.

In order to make profit they have to compete on the existing markets constantly striving to come up with innovative

ideas and new products. For some of them existing markets are not enough. They invent new markets and new

demands to organize new ways of cash flow. Other bystanders, who are engaged in other activities, are forced to

become observers, producers or consumers of these new markets. That’s why the progress is imminent and BCIs

will be here sooner or later whether we want it or not.

Among all stakeholders health industry and scientists seem to be the most unbiased in question of ethical

usage of brain implants and BCIs. Companies pursues monetary interests since they want to create new markets and

consumers. DARPA pursues defense and government interests to have application of BCIs in military and society

control. I don’t see how the position of religious stakeholders can change or affect the progress. They can only

postpone it by declining the usage of BCIs and connection of humans to cloud devices. Finally, with simultaneous

change in morality the majority of religious stakeholders would accept it in a similar way the society accepted

computers and smartphones.

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