Chapter 5 - Factorisation and Alegrabraic Fractions PDF

Mathscape 10 ext.
- Ch05 Page 164 Thursday, October 13, 2005 4:23 PM
5 Factorisation
and algebraic
Factorisation and algebraic fractions
fractions
This chapter at a glance

Stage 5.1/5.2/5.3
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
expand binomial products
expand perfect squares using the special identities
determine whether a given expression is a perfect square
complete a perfect square
expand expressions using the difference of two squares identity
expand expressions that involve a combination of algebraic techniques
factorise expressions by taking out the highest common factor
factorise expressions using the difference of two squares identity
factorise expressions by grouping in pairs
factorise monic quadratic trinomials
factorise general quadratic trinomials
factorise expressions that require a combination of factorisation techniques
simplify individual algebraic fractions by factorising then cancelling common factors
multiply and divide algebraic fractions by factorising then cancelling common factors
add and subtract algebraic fractions by factorising the denominators and finding the
lowest common denominator.
164
Mathscape 10 ext. - Ch05 Page 165 Friday, September 23, 2005 7:50 AM
Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 165
5.1 Binomial products review

A binomial product is the product of two binomial expressions. For example, (x + 3)(x − 1),
(2a + 5)(a + 2), (4m − 3n)(2m + 5n).
■ The distributive law

The distributive law can be used to expand expressions such as a(b + c). When using the
distributive law, the term outside the grouping symbols is multiplied by each term inside the
grouping symbols. That is, a(b + c) = ab + ac.
To expand a binomial product using the distributive law:

multiply the first term in the first factor by each term in the second factor
multiply the second term in the first factor by each term in the second factor.
(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d)

= ac + ad + bc + bd
NOTE: The distributive law can be used to expand expressions in which the factors contain
more than two terms.
■ The FOIL method

The FOIL method is simply the use of the distributive law without writing the first line of
working. The acronym FOIL stands for First, Outside, Inside and Last, which is the order in
which the terms in the grouping symbols should be multiplied together. This method is also
referred to as expansion by inspection.
To expand a binomial product using the FOIL method:

multiply the first terms
multiply the outside terms
multiply the inside terms
multiply the last terms
collect any like terms.
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
166 Mathscape 10 Extension
■ Perfect squares
A perfect square is the product of two identical expressions. Some examples of perfect squares
are:
a2, 9k2, (a + b)2, (3m − 4n)2
To expand a perfect square of the form (a + b)2 or (a − b)2:

square the first term
add or subtract twice the product of the two terms, depending on the sign in the
expression
add the square of the last term.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
NOTE: In the expanded form of the perfect square, the first sign is the same as the sign in the
grouping symbols and the last sign is always +.
Proofs: (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) (a − b)2 = (a − b)(a − b)
= a(a + b) + b(a + b) = a(a − b) − b(a − b)
= a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a2 − ab − ba + b2
= a + 2ab + b
2 2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
■ Difference of two squares

When the sum of two terms is multiplied by their difference, the resulting expression is called
a difference of two squares.
To expand an expression of the form (a + b)(a − b):

square the first term
subtract the square of the second term.
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2
Proof: (a + b)(a − b) = a(a − b) + b(a − b)

= a2 − ab + ba − b2
= a2 − b2
Example 1
EG Expand and simplify:
+S
a (2x + 3)(x + 5) b (x + 7)2 c (3p− 2q)2 d (m + 4)(m − 4)
Solutions
a (2x + 3)(x + 5) b (x + 7)2
= 2x(x + 5) + 3(x + 5) = x2 + (2 × x × 7) + 72
= 2x2 + 10x + 3x + 15 = x2 + 14x + 49
= 2x2 + 13x +15
c (3p − 2q)2 d (m + 4)(m − 4)

= (3p)2 − (2 × 3p × 2q) + (2q)2 = m2 − 42
= 9p2 − 12pq + 4q2 = m2 − 16
Example 2
EG Complete each perfect square.
+S a a2 + _____ + 36 = (_____)2 b 4e2 + 12e + _____ = (_____)2
Solutions
a The first and last terms in the grouping symbols are a 2 = a and 36 = 6 ,
respectively.
The middle term in the trinomial is twice the product of the terms in the grouping symbols.
So, middle term = 2 × a × 6
= 12a
∴ a + 12a + 36 = (a + 6)2
2
b The first term in the grouping symbols is 4e 2 = 2e .

The middle term in the trinomial is twice the product of the terms in the grouping symbols.
∴ 12e = 2 × 2e × last term
12e = 4e × last term
∴ the last term is 3.
The last term in the grouping symbols is 32 = 9.
∴ 4e2 + 12e + 9 = (2e + 3)2.
Example 3
EG Expand and simplify (x + 5)(x − 5) − (x − 3)2.
+S
Solution
(x + 5)(x − 5) − (x − 3)2
= x2 − 25 − (x2 − 6x + 9)
= x2 − 25 − x2 + 6x − 9
= 6x − 34
Exercise 5.1
1 Expand (x + 5)(x + 3) by using the area diagram. x 5
2 Expand each binomial product by using the distributive law.

a (x + 2)(y + 3) b (p + 5)(q − 2) c (u − 4)(v − 6)
3 Expand these binomial products by using the distributive law, then simplify.
a (x + 2)(x + 4) b (m + 1)(m + 6) c (u + 8)(u − 5)
d (b + 9)(b − 2) e (a − 8)(a + 3) f (t − 1)(t − 2)
g (c − 4)(c − 6) h (z − 6)(z − 7) i (d + 12)(d − 5)
j (x + 3)(2x + 1) k (3m + 4)(m + 2) l (5a + 2)(a − 4)
m (2g − 5)(g − 3) n (3t + 1)(t − 6) o (4n − 7)(n + 5)
p (5r + 3)(2r + 7) q (2k + 9)(3k − 5) r (7v − 2)(3v − 8)
■ Consolidation
4 Prove the identity (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
5 Expand the following expressions by using the identity in question 4.

a (x + 2)(x + 1) b (p + 3)(p + 2) c (a + 7)(a + 3)
d (t − 5)(t − 4) e (b − 6)(b − 2) f (c − 3)(c − 4)
g (z + 4)(z − 1) h (d + 3)(d − 6) i (s − 2)(s + 10)
j (e + 7)(e − 2) k (u − 3)(u + 9) l (k − 11)(k + 4)
m (f + 5)(f + 7) n (w − 6)(w + 5) o (r − 8)(r − 4)
p (g + 8)(g − 6) q (h + 11)(h − 5) r (v + 3)(v + 8)
s (q − 9)(q − 4) t (m − 6)(m + 9) u (i + 3)(i − 12)
v (l + 10)(l − 6) w (y − 13)(y + 3) x (j − 8)(j − 7)
6 Expand and simplify 3(2a + 5)(a − 4).
7 Expand:
a (a + b)2 b (m + n)2 c (g − h)2 d (p − q)2
8 Expand:
a (a + 3)2 b (p − 4)2 c (c + 6)2 d (t − 1)2
e (u − 5)2 f (k + 10)2 g (s + 7)2 h (p − 9)2
9 Expand:
a (2x + 3)2 b (3t − 5)2 c (4m + 1)2
d (5c − 2)2 e (7 − 2g)2 f (5 + 6r)2
g (3p − q)2 h (3a + 4b)2 i (2e − 11f)2
j (4c + 5d)2 k (7g − 3h)2 l (12j + 5k)2
2
m (pq + r)2 n (6ab − 7cd)2 o ⎛ x + 1---⎞
⎝ x⎠
10 State whether each expression is a perfect square.
a k2 + 4 b (a + 5)2 c u2 + 4u + 16
d t + 26t + 169
2 e a2 b2 f c2 + 12c − 36
g n −12 h 4e2 − 6e + 9 i x2 + y2 + 2xy
11 Complete these perfect squares.

a (m + 5)2 = m2 + 10m + _____ b (p − 3)2 = p2 − _____ + 9
c (_____)2 = y2 + _____ + 36 d (_____)2 = a2 − _____ + 49
e (_____)2 = k2 + 8k + _____ f (_____)2 = u2 − 2u + _____
g (2b + 3)2 = 4b2 + _____ + 9 h (_____)2 = 9e2 + _____ + 25
i (_____)2 = 25n2 + 60n + _____ j (_____)2 = 49z2 − 42z + _____
12 Use the difference of two squares identity to expand each of the following.
a (m + n)(m − n) b (p − 2)(p + 2) c (r + 5)(r − 5)
d (3 − g)(3 + g) e (y − 7)(y + 7) f (4 − w)(4 + w)
g (t + 1)(t − 1) h (k − 6)(k + 6) i (10 − b)(10 + b)
j (2e + 3)(2e − 3) k (5r − 2)(5r + 2) l (3c − 1)(3c + 1)
m (4 − 7h)(4 + 7h) n (6 + 5n)(6 − 5n) o (2p − 9q)(2p + 9q)
p (10y + 3z)(10y − 3z) q (7s + 6t)(7s − 6t) r (ab − 8c)(ab + 8c)
■ Further applications
13 Expand and simplify the following expressions.
a (a + 7)(a +2) + 4 b (t − 6)(t + 6) − 10
c 4p + (2p − 3)(p − 2) d 3e2 + (e − 4)2 − 6
e (a + 5)2 − 2(a − 5) f (x + 4)(x + 6) + (x + 1)2
g (m + 4)(m − 4) − (m + 3)2 h (y + 7)2 − (y + 7)(y − 7)
i (3k − 4)(k − 2) − (2k − 1)(k + 6) j (5c + 6)2 − (5c − 6)2
k (2h + 7)2 − (2h + 3)(2h − 5) l (4m − 3)(4m + 3) − (4m − 3)2
14 Expand and simplify:

a (x + 2)(x2 + 3x + 4) b (a − 4)(a2 − 2a + 5)
c (k + 3)(k + 2)(k + 1) d (n − 7)(n + 3)(n − 2)
e (p + 1)(p + 7)2 f (y − 5)(y − 3)2
g (t + 2)3 h (e − 3)3
5.2 The highest common factor

To factorise an expression means to write the expression as the product of its factors. This is
the same as reversing or undoing the expansion process.
Expanding
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Factorising
Many expressions can be factorised in several ways. For example, we can factorise 6a + 12 as
1(6a + 12) or 2(3a + 6) or 3(2a + 4) or 6(a + 2). However, by convention, we take out the
highest common factor (HCF) when factorising an expression. That is, we take out the
greatest possible factor that is common to every term in the expression. In this example, the
HCF of 6a and 12 is 6. Therefore, the correct factorisation of 6a + 12 is 6(a + 2).
To factorise an algebraic expression:

write the HCF of the terms outside the grouping symbols
divide each term in the expression by the HCF to find the terms inside the
grouping symbols.
ab + ac = a(b + c) and ab − ac = a(b − c)
NOTE:
• If the ﬁrst term of an expression is negative, then by convention, the HCF is also negative.
• Factorisations should be checked by expanding the answers.
Example 1
EG Factorise:
+S
a 5p + 20 b 8n − 20 c m2 + 3m
d 12h2 + 27h e c2d − cd2 f −uv + vw
Solutions
a 5p + 20 b 8n − 20 c m2 + 3m
= 5(p + 4) = 4(2n − 5) = m(m + 3)
d 12h2 + 27h e c2d − cd2 f −uv + vw
= 3h(4h + 9) = cd(c − d) = −v(u − w)
Exercise 5.2
1 Factorise each of these expressions by taking out the highest common factor.
a 2c + 6 b 5m + 20 c 21 + 3e d 49 + 7x
e 3g − 15 f 6k − 6 g 27 − 3r h 55 − 5t
i 2x + 2y j 3m − 12n k 24p + 8q l 12f − 48g
m xy + xz n ab − bc o m2 + 7m p c2 − c
2 Factorise by removing the highest common factor.
a 4n + 6 b 9b + 15 c 12y − 8 d 10u − 25
e 21p + 28 f 15g − 18 g 14w + 21 h 24z − 30
i 44h − 33 j 35d + 49 k 20q − 50 l 44f − 77
m 25 − 45k n 56 + 63v o 40 − 64a p 24 − 84s
■ Consolidation
3 Factorise each expression completely.
a 3xy + 12yz b 2pq + 10pr c 5fg − 15gh d 7cd − 42ce
e 6ij + 9jk f 12mn − 20np g 22uv − 33vw h 32st + 24tu

i 6b2 + 24b j 21a2 − 7a k 14q2 − 20q l 25u + 30u2
m pqr + pqs n cde − def o x2y + xy2 p abc − ab2
q fg2 − f 2gh r 6jk + 15k2m s 16tu2 + 20t2uv t 28g2h2 − 49ghi
4 Factorise:
a 4p + 4q + 4r b ab + ac − ad c x2 − xy + xz
d 3e + 6f + 15g e 6m2 − 10m + 14n f 5 − 15v − 30v2
g 30c2 − 12c + 18 h 11ab − a + ab2 i 3r2 − 3rs − 9r
j 20y − 25yz + 10y2 k 7ij + 14i2 − 42ik l 24z − 60yz − 96z2
m p2q + pq + pq2 n 9rs − rs2 − r2s o a2bc + ab2c − abc2
5 Factorise by taking out the greatest negative common factor.
a −2k − 8 b −3n − 15 c −10c − 25 d −14w − 21
e −4x + 4 f −9d + 18 g −16m + 20 h −9g + 21
i −18 − 27y j −36 + 15e k −32 − 40z l −44 + 99t
m −cd − de n −ij + jk o −a2 − 7a p −11v + v2
q −8n2 + 20n r −21b − 24b2 s −20f + 36ef t −26c2d − 39cd 2
6 Factorise by taking out the highest common factor only.
a m2 + m3 b x6 + x2 c t3 − t8
d y −y
10 3 e a4 + 3a7 f 2g3 − g8
g 7u + 4u
9 5 h 5h3 − 4h4 i 3c10 + 9c5
j 22g8 + 11g3 k 16q7 − 24q13 l 45z9 − 20z2
TRY THIS Market garden

A market gardener has two vegetable
plots, one square and the other a rectangle
with one side 3 m shorter than the side of
the square, and the other side 4 m longer
than the side of the square. Both plots
have the same area.
1 Draw a diagram
2 Find the dimensions of each plot.
5.3 Difference of two squares

In exercise 5.1 it was shown that sum by difference products such as (a − b)(a + b) could be
expanded, giving a difference of two squares, a2 − b2. This procedure can be used in reverse to
factorise a difference of two squares.
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
Example 1
EG Factorise each of the following.
+S
a x2 − 16 b 9q2 − 25 c 121u2 − 49v2
Solutions
a x2 − 16 b 9q2 − 25 c 121u2 − 49v2
= (x − 4)(x + 4) = (3q)2 − 52 = (11u)2 − (7v)2
= (3q − 5)(3q + 5) = (11u − 7v)(11u + 7v)
Example 2
EG Factorise completely:
+S
a 5y2 − 45 b 7c3 − 28cd2
Solutions
In general, when factorising expressions, always remove the highest common factor first.
a 5y2 − 45 = 5(y2 − 9) b 7c3 − 28cd 2 = 7c(c2 − 4d 2)
= 5(y − 3)(y + 3) = 7c(c − 2d)(c + 2d)
Exercise 5.3
1 a Expand (x + 3)(x − 3). Hence, factorise x2 − 9.

b Expand (2x + 5)(2x − 5). Hence, factorise 4x2 − 25.
2 Factorise each of these as a difference of two squares.

a p2 − q2 b c2 − d 2 c m2 − n2 d u 2 − v2
3 Factorise each expression as a difference of two squares.

a x2 − 4 b a2 − 25 c p2 − 1 d y2 − 36
e z − 64
2 f c − 121
2 g t 2 − 49 h b2 − 81
i 16 − k2 j 64 − g2 k 100 − m2 l 144 − u2
4 Factorise:
a e2 − 169 b h2 − 256 c 529 − s2 d 361 − j 2
■ Consolidation
5 Factorise:
a 4a2 − 9 b 9p2 − 25 c 49q2 − 4 d 16c2 − 1
e 36 − 49y2 f 25 − 16r2 g 1 − 121u2 h 100 − 81t 2
i 9a2 − b2 j x2 − 4y2 k 36e2 − f 2 l j 2 − 64k2
m 4g2 − 49h2 n 25m2 − 144n2 o 100p2 − 9q2 p 36s2 − 121t 2
q a2b2 − c2 r p2 − q2r2 s 4x2 − 9y2z2 t 16e2f 2 − 81g2h2
6 Factorise these expressions completely by first taking out the highest common factor.
a 2m2 − 18 b 3a2 − 12 c 11t 2 − 11 d 5y2 − 500
e 75 − 3x 2 f 63 − 7p 2 g 128 − 2e 2 h 54 − 6z2
i 8n2 − 18 j 12c2 − 27 k 45 − 20f 2 l 18k2 − 50

m a3 − a n n2 − n4 o 49d 3 − d p 16u − 25u3
q 8h3 − 32h r 54w3 − 24w s 72s − 32s3 t 80j 3 − 125j
7 a Factorise 4a2 − 36 as a difference of two squares. Has it been completely factorised?
Why?
b Discuss the correct method for factorising this expression, then factorise it completely.
8 Factorise completely each of these expressions.
a 9k2 − 36 b 4c2 − 100 c 25x2 − 100y2 d 4e2 − 144f 2
9 Evaluate 162 − 152 by first expressing it as (16 − 15)(16 + 15).
10 Use the method in question 9 to evaluate:
a 172 − 49 b 992 − 1 c 452 − 25
11 Factorise each expression as a difference of two squares.
a (a + b)2 − c2 b (m − n)2 − p2 c (x + 3)2 − y2
d (j − k) − 36
2 e (b + 5)2 − 49 f (p + 2)2 − 4
g 4(m + n) − 9
2 h 9(c − d)2 − 25 i 81(3p + 2q)2 − 64r2
5.4 Grouping in pairs

Expressions that contain four terms can often be factorised by grouping the terms in pairs.
To factorise a four-term expression:

group the expression in pairs such that each pair has a common factor
factorise both pairs of expressions
factorise this overall expression by taking out a binomial common factor.
ac + bc + ad + bd = c(a + b) + d(a + b)
= (a + b)(c + d)
NOTE: In some questions it may be necessary to first re-arrange the terms into a different order.
Example 1
EG Factorise:
+S
a pq + 7p + 3q + 21 b mn − mp − 4n + 4p c xy − yz + x − z
Solutions
a pq + 7p + 3q + 21 b mn − mp − 4n + 4p c xy − yz + x − z
= p(q + 7) + 3(q + 7) = m(n − p) − 4(n − p) = y(x − z) + 1(x − z)
= (q + 7)(p + 3) = (n − p)(m − 4) = (x − z)(y + 1)
Example 2
EG Factorise e2 + 5g + eg + 5e by grouping in pairs.
+S
Solution
The expression must be re-arranged since the first pair of terms does not have a common
factor.
e2 + 5g + eg + 5e = e2 + eg + 5e + 5g
= e(e + g) + 5(e + g)
= (e + g)(e + 5)
Exercise 5.4
1 Factorise each of the following by taking out the binomial common factor.
a a(c + d) + b(c + d) b x(x + 3) + 2(x + 3) c 3n(p − 4) + 7(p − 4)
d w(x + y) − z(x + y) e t(t − 1) − 9(t − 1) f 4g(a − 8) − 5h(a − 8)
g p(q + r) + s(r + q) h 5(a + 2) − c(a + 2)
2 2 i mn (y + 4) − 8(4 + y)
j u(d + e) + (d + e) k (p − 2q) + w(p − 2q) l 6h(7i − 2j) − (7i − 2j)
■ Consolidation
2 Factorise each expression by taking out the highest common factor from each pair of terms.
a km + kn + 5m + 5n b ac + ad + bc + bd c p2 + pq + 2p + 2q
d wx + 3x + 2wy + 6y e ce − 2c + 4de − 8d f 2gh − 2g + 3h − 3
g 4uv + 28u + 5v + 35 h 3x + 6y + 8ax + 16ay i 5mn − 15m + 6pn − 18p
j 3gk + 18gh + 4k + 24h k pqr + 6pq + 7r + 42 l mn + np + m + p
m a − 5b + ac − 5bc n 3e + f + 3e2 + ef o a3 + a2 + a + 1
3 Factorise each of these by taking out a negative common factor from the second pair of
terms.
a 2c + 2d − ce − de b pq + ps − qr − rs c p2 − pq − 8p + 8q
d xy − 3x − y + 3y
2 e gh + gi − h − i f 3u − 2v − 3uw + 2vw
g x3 − 4x2 − xy + 4y h k2 + 7k − 2km − 14m i jkm − 4jk − 2m + 8
j 35np − 14nq − 5p + 2q k 3z2 − 3wz − uz + uw l 10x + 15y − 4xz − 6yz
4 Factorise each expression by first re-arranging the terms into a more suitable order.
a xy + wz + xz + wy b pr + 2q + qr + 2p c 3mn + kp + kn + 3mp
d 4yz + 15 + 3z + 20y e cd + 7 + 7c + d f 6 + 5ef + 6e + 5f
5 Explain why a(b − c) = −a(c − b). Hence, factorise each of the following.
a 2x − xy + y2 − 2y b yz − 7y + 7z − z2 c ab − ac − bc + b2
d a − a b + b − ab
3 2 2 e 11m − mn − n + 11n
2 f m − 4n − 20pn + 5mp
g 6uv − 6uw − 5w2 + 5vw h 14de − 7ce + c − 2d i 2wx − 2wy + y2 − xy
j c − c d − d + cd
3 2 2 k 10pq − 25pr + 30qr − 12q l 18rs − 63rt − 28st + 8s2
2
6 Factorise:
a (x + 3)(x + 4) + y(x + 4) b (m − 2)(m − 5) + n(m − 2)
c (k + 6)(k − 4) − m(k − 4) d (a + b)2 + c(a + b)
e (x − 7)2 − w(x − 7) f f(g + h) + (g + h)2
7 Factorise:
a (2c − d)(c + 3d) − 5(d − 2c) b (p − q)2 − 3r(q − p)
TRY THIS Squaring fives

Consider the following:
152 = 10 × 20 + 25 = 225, 252 = 20 × 30 + 25 = 625, 352 = 30 × 40 + 25 = 1225.
Why does this work?
Use algebra to show why this works. (NOTE: A number mn equals 10 × m + n).
Does the rule work for numbers greater than 125, e.g. (125)2?
5.5 Factorising monic quadratic

trinomials
Expressions such as 2a + b − 5c, which have three terms, are called trinomials. Trinomials such
as x2 + 4x + 7 and 3x2 − 2x + 8 are called quadratic trinomials because the highest power of
the variable is 2. If the co-efficient of x2 is 1, the trinomial is said to be monic. Hence,
x2 + 4x + 7 is a monic quadratic trinomial.
Let x2 + bx + c = (x + p)(x + q)
∴ x2 + bx + c = x2 + px + qx + pq
= x2 + (p + q)x + pq
Equating the co-efficients of x we have p + q = b and equating the constants we have pq = c.
(x + p)(x + q) = x2 + (p + q)x + pq
To factorise a monic quadratic trinomial x2 + bx + c:

find by inspection two numbers p, q such that p + q = b and pq = c
factorise the trinomial as (x + p)(x + q).
NOTE: In the trinomial x2 + bx + c:

1 if c > 0, then the numbers p, q both have the same sign as b
2 if c < 0, then the numbers p, q have different signs, with the larger number having
the same sign as b.
Example 1
EG Factorise:
+S
a x2 + 9x + 20 b x2 − 7x + 12 c x2 + 2x − 3 d x2 − 4x − 12
Solutions
a 4 + 5 = 9 and 4 × 5 = 20 b (−3) + (−4) = −7 and (−3) × (−4) = 12
∴ x2 + 9x + 20 = (x + 4)(x + 5) ∴ x2 − 7x + 12 = (x − 3)(x − 4)
c (−1) + 3 = 2 and (−1) × 3 = −3 d (−6) + 2 = −4 and (−6) × 2 = −12
∴ x2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(x + 3) ∴ x2 − 4x − 12 = (x − 6)(x + 2)
Example 2
EG Factorise 3x2 + 21x + 30
+S
Solution
3x2 + 21x + 30 = 3(x2 + 7x + 10)
= 3(x + 5)(x + 2)
Exercise 5.5
1 Find two integers a and b such that:

a a+b=8 b a+b=9 c a + b = 10 d a + b = 13
ab = 15 ab = 14 ab = 24 ab = 30
e a + b = −7 f a + b = −3 g a + b = −11 h a + b = −17
ab = 10 ab = 2 ab = 28 ab = 72
i a+b=4 j a+b=1 k a + b = −2 l a + b = −3
ab = −12 ab = −20 ab = −35 ab = −54
2 a Show that (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab.

b What can you say about the signs of a and b, where a > b if:
i ab > 0 and a + b > 0? ii ab > 0 and a + b < 0?
iii ab < 0 and a + b > 0? iv ab < 0 and a + b < 0?
■ Consolidation
3 Factorise each of these monic trinomials.
a x2 + 5x + 6 b y2 + 7y + 12 c u2 + 3u + 2 d m2 + 10m + 24
e a + 10a + 21
2 f t 2 + 9t + 18 g k 2 + 9k + 14 h p2 + 8p + 7
i n + 14n + 45
2 j d 2 + 12d + 32 k s2 + 11s + 30 l b2 + 13b + 36
m e + 15e + 50
2 n c2 + 17c + 60 o r2 + 19r + 88 p z2 + 20z + 96
4 Factorise each of the following:

a m2 − 8m + 15 b q2 − 7q + 10 c d 2 − 12d + 20 d a2 − 12a + 35
e u − 11u + 18
2 f e2 − 9e + 8 g n2 − 13n + 40 h w2 − 9w + 20
i h2 − 16h + 63 j v2 − 11v + 24 k t 2 − 7t + 6 l s2 − 15s + 44
m k − 13k + 30
2 n j 2 − 18j + 77 o x2 − 15x + 54 p f 2 − 14f + 48
5 Factorise each of these.

a y 2 + 4y − 12 b d 2 + 2d − 15 c a2 + 3a − 4 d p2 + 6p − 16
e v2 − 3v − 10 f u2 − 7u − 18 g m2 − m − 30 h x2 − 4x − 5
i f 2 + 4f − 21 j w2 − 2w − 63 k k 2 − 6k − 27 l c2 + 4c − 32
m z2 − 3z − 40 n i 2 + i − 12 o r 2 − 2r − 99 p e2 − 5e − 14
q s2 + 3s − 70 r h2 + h − 56 s b2 − 6b − 40 t t 2 + 3t − 108
6 Factorise:
a n2 − 6n + 8 b c2 + 13c + 42 c x2 − x − 2 d d 2 + 7d − 44
e q2 + 13q + 22 f t 2 − 11t + 10 g v2 + 14v + 48 h j 2 − 6j − 72
i g2 − 8g − 20 j b 2 + 15b + 36 k r2 − 3r − 54 l u2 − 13u + 12
m e2 + 22e + 120 n l2 − l − 42 o y2 − 14y + 24 p p2 + 6p − 55
q z2 − 2z − 80 r a2 + 4a − 60 s f 2 − 16f + 39 t m2 + 21m + 110
u w2 − 5w − 36 v k 2 + 15k + 26 w h2 − 19h + 84 x i 2 + i − 132
7 Factorise each of these perfect squares.

a p2 + 6p + 9 b c2 + 10c + 25 c g2 − 8g + 16 d y 2 − 14y + 49
e t + 2t + 1
2 f r 2 − 12r + 36 g x2 − 18x + 81 h j 2 + 22j + 121
8 Factorise each expression completely by first taking out the highest common factor.
a 2m2 − 20m + 32 b 3k 2 + 24k + 36 c 4a2 + 24a − 64
d 5c − 30c − 135
2 e 3t − 27t + 24
2 f 7x2 − 7x − 84
g 4d − 32d + 60
2 h 5n + 40n − 100
2 i 10y2 − 80y − 330
9 Find what:
a x + 3 must be multiplied by to give x2 + 9x + 18
b g − 3 must be multiplied by to give g2 + 2g − 15
a x4 − 5x2 + 4 b x4 − 29x2 + 100 c x4 − 11x2 + 18 d x4 + x2 − 20
e x4 + 7x2 − 8 f x4 − 10x2 + 9 g x4 − 19x2 + 48 h x4 − 13x2 + 36
i x − 17x + 16
4 2 j x4 − 7x2 + 6 k x4 + 3x2 − 28 l x4 − 25x2 + 144
5.6 Factorising general quadratic

trinomials
In quadratic trinomials such as 3x2 + 5x + 2 and 4 + 7x − 5x2, the co-efficient of x2 is not 1.
Such trinomials are often referred to as general quadratic trinomials. The identity
x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b) cannot be used to factorise quadratic trinomials where the
leading co-efficient is a number other than 1. In these situations we must resort to a guess and
check approach. This is made easier by the use of the cross-method.
To factorise a general quadratic trinomial ax2 + bx + c using the cross method:

draw a cross
on the left-hand side of the cross, write two factors that multiply to give ax2
on the right-hand side of the cross, write two factors that multiply to give c
check that the sum of the cross-products gives the middle term bx
if the cross-products do not give the correct sum, try different combinations until
the correct sum is obtained
factorise the trinomial.
ax2 + bx + c = (px + r)(qx + s)

where • a = pq and c = rs
• b = ps + qr
Example 1
EG Factorise 3x2 + 14x + 8 using the cross method.
+S
Solution
3x +1 (3x × 8) + (x × 1) This combination does not give the middle term
= 24x + x in the trinomial, so it is not correct.
= 25x
x +8

= 3x + 8x in the trinomial, so it is not correct.
= 11x
x +1

= 6x + 4x in the trinomial, so it is not correct.
= 10x
x +2
3x +2 (3x × 4) + (x × 2) This combination gives the correct middle term

= 12x + 2x in the trinomial.
= 14x
x +4 ∴ 3x2 + 14x + 8 = (3x + 2)(x + 4)
Example 2
EG
+S Factorise:
a 2x2 − 13x + 21 b 5x2 − 4x − 12
Solutions
a 2x −7 (2x × −3) + (x × −7) This is equal to the middle term in the
= −6x + (−7x) trinomial.
= −13x ∴ 2x2 − 13x + 21 = (2x − 7)(x − 3)
x −3
b 5x +6 (5x × −2) + (x × 6) This is equal to the middle term in the
= −10x + 6x trinomial.
= −4x ∴ 5x2 − 4x − 12 = (5x + 6)(x − 2)
x −2
Exercise 5.6
1 Which diagram correctly shows the factors of 2x2 + 13x + 21?

A 2x +3 B 2x +7 C 2x +1 D 2x +21
x +7 x +3 x +21 x +1
2 Which diagram correctly shows the factors of 3x2 − 17x + 10?
A 3x +5 B 3x −5 C 3x −2 D 3x +2
x −2 x −2 x −5 x −5
3 Which diagram correctly shows the factors of 5x2 + 7x − 6?
A 5x +6 B 5x −6 C 5x +3 D 5x −3
x −1 x +1 x −2 x +2
4 Which diagram correctly shows the factors of 2x2 − 3x − 27?
A 2x −9 B 2x +9 C 2x −3 D 2x +3
x +3 x −3 x +9 x −9
■ Consolidation
5 Factorise each of these trinomials.
a 2x2 + 7x + 3 b 3x2 + 14x + 8 c 4x2 + 11x + 7
d 2x2 + 11x + 5 e 5x2 + 22x + 8 f 7x2 + 36x + 5
g 2x + 21x + 54
2 h 7x2 + 27x + 18 i 3x2 + 20x + 32
j 2x − 5x + 2
2 k 3x2 − 11x + 6 l 5x2 − 17x + 6
m 2x2 − 13x + 15 n 3x2 − 16x + 16 o 5x 2 − 16x + 12

p 3x2 − 26x + 35 q 2x2 − 19x + 44 r 7x2 − 41x + 30
6 Factorise each of these trinomials.
a 3x2 + 5x − 2 b 2x2 + x − 10 c 2x2 + 7x − 15
d 3x + 2x − 21
2 e 2x2 − 5x − 25 f 3x2 − 22x − 16
g 5x − 11x − 36
2 h 11x2 − 52x − 15 i 4x2 + 27x − 7
j 6x2 − 17x − 3 k 5x2 + 4x − 12 l 4x2 − 17x − 42
m 7x + 51x − 40
2 n 7x2 + 36x − 36 o 4x2 + 9x − 28
7 Factorise:
a 2k 2 + 21k + 40 b 2c2 + 3c − 27 c 4n2 − 17n + 18
d 3y2 − 17y − 28 e 7p2 − 31p + 12 f 6a2 − 23a − 4
g 4b 2 + 31b + 42 h 5u2 + 3u − 36 i 2w2 − 9w − 110
j 5h2 + 19h + 12 k 3j 2 + 2j − 40 l 6l 2 − 59l + 45
8 Factorise the following trinomials.
a 6a2 + 13a + 6 b 4n2 − 20n + 21 c 8k 2 + 14k − 9
d 9p − 9p − 10
2 e 6c2 + 19c + 15 f 4e2 + 8e − 45
g 12t 2 − 28t + 15 h 10b2 + 29b − 72 i 12m2 − 47m + 40
j 20y + 33y + 10
2 k 27w2 − 12w − 55 l 20q2 + 7q − 6
9 Factorise:
a 28 + 3x − x2 b 15 − a − 2a2 c 24 − 14p − 3p2
d 15 − 28m + 12m2 e 21 + 43g + 20g2 f 56 + 19w − 10w2
10 Factorise each expression completely by first taking out the highest common factor.
a 4k 2 + 18k + 20 b 18p2 − 33p + 9 c 20a2 + 2a − 6
d 12v − 24v − 63
2 e 24f − 44f + 12
2 f 10e2 + 15e − 100
11 Find what:
a a + 9 must be multiplied by to give 3a2 + 31a + 36
b 3n − 8 must be multiplied by to give 6n2 + 11n − 72
Quadratic trinomials can be factorised using the following identity:
( ax + m ) ( ax + n )
ax 2 + bx + c = ------------------------------------------ , where m + n = b and mn = ac.
a
For example, to factorise 2x2 + 7x + 6, we first find m, n such that m + n = 7 and
mn = 2 × 6, i.e. mn = 12. Therefore, m = 4, n = 3 (or m = 3, n = 4).
( 2x + 4 ) ( 2x + 3 )
So, 2x2 + 7x + 6 = -----------------------------------------
2
2 ( x + 2 ) ( 2x + 3 )
= -----------------------------------------
2
= (x + 2)(2x + 3)
12 Use this method to factorise the following trinomials.
a 3x2 + 10x + 3 b 2x2 − 11x + 12 c 3x2 + 4x − 4
d 4x − 17x − 15
2 e 7x2 − 15x + 2 f 5x2 + 22x − 15
5.7 Miscellaneous factorisations

To factorise an expression:
take out the HCF first if there is one
look for a difference of two squares if there are 2 terms
use the sum/product identity or cross method if there are 3 terms
group the terms in pairs if there are 4 terms.
Example
EG Factorise:
+S
a p2q − pq2 b 2w2 − 18 c 4a2 + 20a − 24
d 40 − s − 6s2 e 4t 2 − 36t + 81 f 7cd + 28ce + 2de + 8e2
Solutions
a p2q − pq2 b 2w2 − 18 c 4a2 + 20a − 24
= pq(p − q) = 2(w2 − 9) = 4(a2 + 5a − 6)
= 2(w − 3)(w + 3) = 4(a + 6)(a − 1)
d 40 − s − 6s2 e 4t 2 − 36t + 81 f 7cd + 28ce + 2de + 8e2
5 −2s 2t −9 = 7c(d + 4e) + 2e(d + 4e)
= (d + 4e)(7c + 2e)
8 +3s 2t −9
= (5 − 2s)(8 + 3s) = (2t − 9)(2t − 9)
= (2t − 9)2
Exercise 5.7
1 Factorise each of these expressions.

a 10e + 30 b a2 − 4 c m2 + 7m + 12
d n2 + 6n + np + 6p e 2x2 + 13x + 20 f 25 − k 2
g x −x
2 h t 2 − 6t + 8 i w2 + 4w + 4
j ap − 3a + 5p − 15 k 15y + 35 l 2q2 − 7q + 3
m g2 − h2 n −7j + 14k o u2 − 2u − 15
p 3b2 + 26b + 16 q 28t 2 − 63tu r 4c2 − 9
s 4xy − 8x + 9y − 18 t efg + fgh u h2 + 8h − 20
v 25v2 − 36w2 w 5gm − 30m − 2g + 12 x 2f 2 − 3f − 5
■ Consolidation
a 27pq + 45p2 b x2 − 4x − 77 c 9e2 − 64f 2
d 3b2 − b − 44 e 5g + 15h − 2gi − 6hi f 60xy − 84y
g z2 + 13z − 30 h p2q2 − r2 i 40 + 11k − 2k2

j 64 − k 2l 2 k m3 + 7m2 − mn − 7n l 10s2 − 53s + 36
m 9h2 − 36 n 3x2 + 3x − 60 o 5 − 3j − 20k + 12jk
p n3 − n q (a + b)2 + c(a + b) r 1 + t + t2 + t3
s 2u2 + 20u + 50 t −2f 2 + 32 u 10a − 25b + 12ac − 30bc
v 10a2 + 14ab − a w 2k 3 + 12k 2 − 54k x 4u2v − 17uv − 42v
a (x + y)2 + z(x + y) b t4 − 1 c w4 − 26w2 + 25
d 25a2b2 − 100b2c2 e 16 − n4 f y2 + 14y − 72
g (a + b) − (c + d)
2 2 h a3 − 9a − a2b + 9b i 4gx2 − 100g − 75 + 3x2
TRY THIS Difference of two squares

Factorise x4 + x2 + 1.
[HINT: Express x4 + x2 + 1 as the difference of two squares.]
5.8 Simplifying algebraic fractions

When simplifying numerical fractions, we divide the numerator and denominator by their
highest common factor. Algebraic fractions can be simplified in a similar manner.
To simplify algebraic fractions:

factorise both the numerator and the denominator if possible
cancel any common factors.
Example
EG Factorise and simplify:
+S
8x + 20 d 2 – 49 b 2 – 11b + 30
a -----------------------
- b ------------------ c --------------------------------
-
6x 2 + 15x 3d – 21 b 2 – 3b – 18
Solutions
8x + 20 d 2 – 49 b 2 – 11b + 30
a -----------------------
- b ------------------ c --------------------------------
-
6x 2 + 15x 3d – 21 b 2 – 3b – 18
4 ( 2x + 5 ) (d + 7)(d – 7) (b – 5)(b – 6)
= --------------------------- = ---------------------------------- = ----------------------------------
3x ( 2x + 5 ) 3(d – 7) (b + 3)(b – 6)
4 d+7 b–5
= ------ = ------------ = ------------
3x 3 b+3
Exercise 5.8
1 Express these algebraic fractions in simplest form.

3a 4t 6k 12m 15y
a ------ b ------ c ------ d ---------- e ---------
6 20 8 15 10
28c 5 4 ab pq
f --------- g ------ h --------- i ------ j ------
21 5d 16g bc 5p
pqr 6ab 25gh 42x 36ef
k --------- l --------- m ------------ n ------------ o ------------
qrs 18a 30h 49xy 27 fg
u2 s v2w 36r 2 60cd 2
p ----- q ---2- r --------2- s ----------- t --------------
u s vw 45r 35c 2 d
2 Factorise and simplify:

3x + 3 4k – 8 10m + 15 24a – 32
a --------------- b --------------- c ----------------------- d ---------------------
3 4 5 16
40t – 50 ab + ac u 2
x + 6x
e -------------------- f ------------------ g ------------------- h -----------------
20 a uv – uw x
5t 14c 2 – 7cd 8mn + 16m 2 15g 2 – 20gh
i -----------------------2- j -------------------------- k ------------------------------ l ----------------------------- -
10t – 25t 21c 24mp 55g 2
x+y 2
x + xy 12ac – 14bc 15c 2 + 6cd
m ------------------ n ----------------- o ------------------------------ p -----------------------------2-
4x + 4y xz + yz 18ac – 21bc 18cd + 45c
■ Consolidation
m 2 – 49 a 2 – 25 x2 – x n + 12
a ------------------ b ------------------ c -------------
- d -------------------
-
m–7 4a + 20 x2 – 1 n 2 – 144
9t 2 – 25 5h 2 – 5 6k + 18 ( p – q )2
e ------------------- f ----------------- g -------------------
- h -------------------
3t – 5 5h – 5 4k 2 – 36 p2 – q2

x 2 + 4x + 3 a 2 – 10a + 24 w 2 – 6w – 40
a --------------------------- b --------------------------------- c -------------------------------
x+3 a–6 2w – 20
n+8 2
c – 6c + 9 2
e + 14e + 33
d -----------------------------
- e -------------------------
- f --------------------------------
n 2 + 3n – 40 5c 2 – 15c e 2 – 121
z 2 – 81 s 2 – 11s + 28 2d 2 + 22d + 48
g ------------------------
2
- h ------------------------------- i ------------------------------------
-
z – z – 90 s 2 + 4s – 77 4d 2 – 36

2x 2 + 17x + 30 2r – 5 6 p 2 + 17 p + 12
a ------------------------------------ b -------------------------------------- c -------------------------------------
x+6 10r 2 – 29r + 10 21 p + 28
25k 2 – 64 4h 2 – 19h – 63 3v 2 – 7v – 6
d -----------------------------------
- e -----------------------------------
- f --------------------------------
5k 2 + 12k – 32 h 2 – 13h + 42 4v 2 – 13v + 3

px + qx + py + qy km – 5k + 3m – 15 u 2 – 49
a -------------------------------------------- b --------------------------------------------
- c ---------------------------------------------
x+y m 2 – 25 uv – uw – 7v + 7w
x 2 + xy – 5x – 5y ab – ac – 4b + 4c n 2 + 2n – pn – 2 p
d ----------------------------------------- e ------------------------------------------
- f -------------------------------------------
-
x 2 – 8x + 15 2a 2 – 32 n 2 + 2n + pn + 2 p
a–b
7 Show that ------------ = – 1 . Hence, simplify each of these fractions.
b–a
h–3 8y – 16 e– f
a ------------ b ------------------ c ------------------
3–h 2–y 5 f – 5e
4m – 4n a 2 – 169 c 2 – 12c + 36
d -------------------- e -------------------- f --------------------------------
6n – 6m 13 – a 12 – 2c
s 2 – 17s + 72 g 2 – 12g + 27 48 – 3k 2
g ------------------------------- h --------------------------------
- i -------------------------
-
24 – 3s 9g 2 – g 3 k 2 – 2k – 8
5.9 Multiplying and dividing

algebraic fractions
To multiply or divide algebraic fractions:

change divisions to multiplications and take reciprocals of any fractions that
follow division signs
factorise each expression if possible
cancel common factors between the numerator and denominator
multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators.
Example 1
EG 3z + 15 z 2 + 2z – 35
Factorise and simplify ----------------------
- × ---------------------------- .
+S 9z 2 + 63z z 2 – 25
Solution
1
3z + 15 z 2 + 2z – 35 3(z + 5) (z + 7)(z – 5)
----------------------
- × ---------------------------- = ---------------------- × ---------------------------------
9z 2 + 63z z 2 – 25 3
9z (z + 7) (z + 5)(z – 5)
1
= -----
3z
Example 2
EG a 2 + 5a – 24 a 2 + 8a
- ÷ -----------------
Factorise and simplify ----------------------------- -.
+S a2 – a – 6 a2 – 4
Solution
a 2 + 5a – 24 a 2 + 8a a 2 + 5a – 24 a 2 – 4
----------------------------- - = -----------------------------
- ÷ ----------------- - × ------------------
a2 – a – 6 a2 – 4 a2 – a – 6 a 2 + 8a
(a + 8)(a – 3) (a – 2)(a + 2)
= ---------------------------------- × ----------------------------------
(a – 3)(a + 2) a(a + 8)
a–2
= ------------
a
Exercise 5.9
1 Simplify each of the following.

x y 2 2m 15a 24bc 15de pq 2
a --- × --- b ---- × ------- c --------- × ------------ d ------------ × ---------
2 7 m 9 16b 25a 4 p 2 q 9cd
m 2 5 10y 7r 21r 36ad 42a 2
e ---- ÷ --- f --- ÷ --------- g -------- ÷ -------- h ------------ ÷ ------------
6 n x 3x 12t 16s 35bc 55ab
2 Simplify:
a+3 8 p–1 10q
a ------------ × ------------ b ------------ × --------------------
2 a+3 5q 3( p – 1)
4b ( 2b + 3 ) ( 2b + 3 ) ( b – 4 ) 12 27
c - × -------------------------------------
-------------------------- d ------------- ÷ ---------------------
( 2b + 3 ) 2 6b m + 8 2(m + 8)
( x – y) 7( x – y)
2 (k + 2)(k – 3) (k – 3)(k + 4)
e ------------------ ÷ ------------------- f --------------------------------- ÷ ---------------------------------
15 10 12 ( k + 1 ) 9(k + 4)
3 Factorise and simplify each of the following.

2y + 10 9 4n + 12 9k – 18
a ------------------ × ------------------ b --------------------- × ------------------
15 3y + 15 12k – 24 7n + 21
2a 2 + 3a bc 2 4a + 4b 3
c --------------------
2
- × ---------------------- d ------------------- ÷ ------------------
c – 3c 2ab + 3b 12 ac + bc
10t – 30 8t – 24 18m + 12n 27m + 18n
e -------------------- ÷ ----------------- f - ÷ -------------------------
------------------------- -
21t 35u 35mn 2 20m 2 n
■ Consolidation
a2 – 9 b + 2 s 2 – 2s s + 2
a ------------------ × ------------ b ---------------- × ------------
-
5b + 10 a – 3 7 s2 – 4
t + 4 3t 2 – 12t x 2 + 8x + 15 9x
c -------------- × --------------------
- d ------------------------------ × ----------------
-
2t – 8 t 2 – 16 x+3 x 2 – 25
k2 – 4 5k + 25 c 2 + 5c + 6 c 2 + 5c
e - × -----------------
----------------------------- - f -------------------------- × -----------------------------
k + 7k + 10 k 2 – 2k
2 2
c + 7c 2
c + 8c + 15
n 2 – 9n + 20 n 2 – n – 2 2
r – 49 r2 – 9
g - × ---------------------------
----------------------------- h ----------------------
- × ---------------------------
-
n 2 – 6n + 5 n 2 – 6n + 8 5r 2 – 15r r 2 – 4r – 21
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 a 2 b – ab 2 b 2 – 14b + 45 b 3 – 4b 2
i - × ----------------------
-------------------------------- - j --------------------------------- × --------------------
a2 – b2 a2b2 2b 2 – 10b b–9
2w 2 + 19w – 33 2w 2 – 242 a2 – 4 3a 2 + 22a + 24
k - × ------------------------
------------------------------------- l -----------------------------
- × ------------------------------------
16w 2 – 24w 6w – 66 3a 2 – 2a – 8 a 2 + 6a
2e 2 + 12e + 16 e2 – 1 cd + ce + d 2 + de d2 – f 2
2
- × -----------------------------------
m ----------------------------------- 2
- n -----------------------------------------
2
- × -----------------------------------------
2
-
e –e 6e + 18e + 12 d – df d + df + de + ef

k 2 – 36 5k + 30 n 2 – 8n n 2 – 64
- ÷ ------------------
a ---------------- b ----------------- ÷ -----------------
k 2 – 6k 35 4n 4n + 8
h + 3 h 2 + 4h + 3 a2 – 1 a2 + a
c ------------ ÷ --------------------------
- d --------------------- ÷ --------------------------
-
18h 9h 2 + 9h 10a + 25 24a 2 + 60a
z 2 – 13z + 30 z 2 – 100 2t 2 – 6t t 2 + 3t – 18
e ------------------------------- ÷ ---------------------2 f --------------------- ÷ ---------------------------
z 2 – 3z ( z + 10 ) 7t 2 – 28t t 2 + 2t – 24
xy – y 2 4xy + 4y 2 r 2 + 12r + 35 r 2 + r – 42
g ------------------2 ÷ -----------------------
- h -------------------------------- ÷ -------------------------------
-
( x – y) x2 – y2 r 2 – 2r – 35 r 2 – 14r + 48
m 2 – 144 2m 2 – 24m 2x 2 + 7x + 5 4x 2 – 25
- ÷ --------------------------
i ----------------------------------- j ------------------------------ ÷ -----------------------
2
m + 15m + 36 ( m + 3 )2 x2 – 1 6x 2 – 15x
3q 2 – 13q + 14 3q 2 + 2q – 21 2u 2 – 18 4u 2 + 48u + 108
k ------------------------------------ ÷ --------------------------------
- l ------------------------------ ÷ ---------------------------------------
q 2 – 64 q 2 – 5q – 24 7u 2 v – 21uv 7u 2 + 63u
x 2 + 8x + xy + 8y x 2 + 12x + 32 49c 2 – 121 7c 2 + 3c – 22
- ÷ --------------------------------
m ----------------------------------------- - n -------------------------------- ÷ --------------------------------
x 2 – 4x + xy – 4y 2x 2 – 32 2c + 17c – 9 c 2 + 11c + 18
2

2 – 2a 4 10n – 20 mn 2 + 2mn
a --------------- × --------------- b ------------------------------- × ---------------------------
5 3a – 3 15mn + 30m 12 – 6n
2xy + 2y 2 5x 2 + 5xy 3 p 2 – 6 pq 8q 2 – 4 pq
c ----------------------------------
- ÷ -----------------------
- d ---------------------------------
- ÷ ----------------------------
-
21y 2 z – 42xyz 28x – 14y 27 p 2 q + 9 pq 2 – 36 p – 12q
5.10 Adding and subtracting

algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions, like numerical fractions, can only be added or subtracted if they have a
1 7
common denominator. Consider the addition --- + ------ . The lowest common denominator (LCD)
6 10
is not necessarily found by multiplying the denominators. Rather, it is found by factorising the
individual denominators into primes, with each different factor then taken once and multiplied
together.
1 7 1 7
For example, --- + ------ = ------------ + ------------
6 10 3 × 2 2 × 5
( 5 × 1 ) + ( 3 × 7 ) • (3 × 2) divides into (3 × 2 × 5) 5 times, 5 × 1 = 5
= ----------------------------------------
3×2×5 • (2 × 5) divides into (3 × 2 × 5) 3 times, 3 × 7 = 21
26
= ------
30
13
= ------
15
The same method is used to add or subtract algebraic fractions.
To add or subtract algebraic fractions with binomial or trinomial denominators:

factorise the denominator in each fraction if possible
form the LCD by taking each different factor in the individual denominators
once and finding their product
divide the denominators into the LCD then multiply by the numerators
add or subtract the numerators
check whether the resulting fraction can be simplified by factorising and
cancelling.
NOTE: If one of the denominators is a perfect square, both factors must be included in the LCD.
Example 1
EG
+S 3 5
Simplify ------------ + -----------
x+4 x–1
Solution
3 5 3( x – 1) + 5( x + 4)
------------ + ----------- = ----------------------------------------------
x+4 x–1 ( x + 4)( x – 1)
3x – 3 + 5x + 20
= ----------------------------------------
( x + 4)( x – 1)
8x + 17
= ----------------------------------
( x + 4)( x – 1)
Example 2
EG
+S Simplify:
1 1 3 2
a -------------
2
- + --------------------------------
2
- b --------------------
2
– -------------------
2
-
x – 4 x + 13x + 22 2x – 5x 4x – 25
Solutions
1 1 3 2
a -------------
- + --------------------------------- b -------------------- – --------------------
x 2 – 4 x 2 + 13x + 22 2x 2 – 5x 4x 2 – 25
1 1 3 2
= ---------------------------------- + ------------------------------------- = ----------------------- – ----------------------------------------
( x – 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 11 ) x ( 2x – 5 ) ( 2x – 5 ) ( 2x + 5 )
x + 11 + x – 2 3 ( 2x + 5 ) – 2 ( x )
= ------------------------------------------------------ = --------------------------------------------
( x – 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 11 ) x ( 2x – 5 ) ( 2x + 5 )
2x + 9 6x + 15 – 2x
= ------------------------------------------------------ = --------------------------------------------
( x – 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 11 ) x ( 2x – 5 ) ( 2x + 5 )
4x + 15
= --------------------------------------------
x ( 2x – 5 ) ( 2x + 5 )
Example 3
EG 1 x
+S Simplify ------------------2- + ------------
( x + 3) x+4
Solution
1 x x + 4 + x( x + 3 )2
------------------2- + ------------ = -----------------------------------------
( x + 3) x+4 ( x + 3 )2( x + 4 )
x + 4 + x ( x 2 + 6x + 9 )
= -----------------------------------------------------
( x + 3 )2( x + 4 )
x + 4 + x 3 + 6x 2 + 9x
= --------------------------------------------------
-
( x + 3 )2( x + 4 )
x 3 + 6x 2 + 10x + 4
= --------------------------------------------
-
( x + 3 )2( x + 4 )
Exercise 5.10

11z z 5a 7a 2m m 11x 2x
a -------- – ------ b ------ + ------ c ------- + ------ d --------- – ------
15 15 8 8 5 10 14 7
2k k 3f f 5 11 5 4
e ------ – --- f ------ + --- g ------ + --------- h ------ + ------
3 4 5 8 6y 12y 9u 6u
2 Simplify:
x+1 x+3 n+5 n–4 3t – 2 t + 6
a ------------ + ------------ b ------------ + ------------ c -------------- + -----------
8 4 7 2 6 4
b+3 b+2 k+7 k–1 3z – 5 2z – 3
d ------------ – ------------ e ------------ – ----------- f -------------- – --------------
2 10 3 4 8 12
■ Consolidation
3 Simplify:
1 1 1 1 1 1
a --- + ------------ b ------------ + ----------- c ------------ + ------------
x x+1 x+1 x–1 x+2 x+3
3 2 2 3 5 2
d --- + ------------ e ------------ + ------------ f ----------- + ------------
x x+5 x+3 x+2 x–1 x+6
1 1 1 1 1 1
g --- – ------------ h ------------ – --- i ----------- – ------------
x x+1 x+2 x x–1 x+1
4 2 7 4 5 3
j --- – ------------ k ------------ – ------------ l --------------- – ---------------
x x+2 x+5 x+3 2x – 1 3x – 4
4 Simplify:
x 1 2x x x+1 x+2
a ------------ + ------------ b ------------ – ----------- c ------------ + ------------
x+1 x+2 x+3 x–1 x+3 x+1

1 1 1 1
a -------------------- + ------------ b ---------------------------------- + ------------
x( x + 1) x + 1 ( x + 1)( x + 5) x + 5
1 1 1 1
c ---------------------------------- + ---------------------------------- d ---------------------------------- + ----------------------------------
( x + 1)( x + 2) ( x + 2)( x + 5) ( x + 4)( x – 2) ( x + 5)( x – 2)
1 1 1 1
e ------------------- – ---------------------------------- f ---------------------------------- – ----------------------------------
x( x – 4) ( x + 6)( x – 4) ( x – 1)( x + 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2)
3 2 5 4
g ---------------------------------- + ---------------------------------- h ---------------------------------- + ----------------------------------
( x + 2)( x + 4) ( x + 1)( x + 4) ( x – 3)( x + 2) ( x + 2)( x + 5)
7 1 4 2
i -------------------------- – ------------------------------------- j ------------------------------------- – ----------------------------------
2x ( 2x – 1 ) ( 2x – 1 ) ( x – 4 ) ( 3x + 2 ) ( x – 2 ) ( x + 6 ) ( x – 2 )
x 2x x+1 x+2
k --------------------------------- + ---------------------------------- l ------------------- + --------------------
( x – 3)( x – 4) ( x – 4)( x + 1) x( x – 1) x( x + 1)
6 Factorise the denominator in each fraction, then express the fractions with a common
denominator and simplify.
1 1 1 1
a --------------- + ----------------- b ------------------ + ---------------
2x + 8 x 2 + 4x 4x + 12 3x + 9
Mathscape 10 ext. - Ch05 Page 190 Thursday, October 13, 2005 4:25 PM
3 1 4 2
c -------------
2
- + ----------- d -------------
2
- + ------------------
x –4 x – 2 x –9 5x – 15
1 1 1 1
e -------------
2
- + --------------------------
2
- f --------------------------
2
+ ----------------
2
-
x – 1 x + 3x + 2 x – 7x + 6 x – 36
1 1 1 1
g -----------------------------
- + --------------------------------- h ----------------------------
- + -----------------
FOCUS ON WORKING MATHEMATICALLY
x 2 + 8x + 15 x 2 + 11x + 30 x 2 – 2x – 63 x 2 – 81
3 4 2 5
i ----------------
- + ----------------------------- j ----------------------------
- + --------------------------------
x 2 – 25 x 2 – 7x + 10 x 2 – 7x – 30 x 2 – 14x + 40
6 1 2 3
k -------------
2
- + --------------------------------
2
l -----------------------------------
2
- + ----------------
2
-
x – 9 3x – 5x – 12 2x + 19x + 35 x – 49
7 Factorise the denominator in each fraction, then express the fractions with a common
denominator and simplify.
1 1 1 1
a ----------------
- – ------------------ b --------------- – ------------------
x 2 – 6x 3x – 18 2x + 8 5x + 20
1 2 3 4
c ----------------
2
- – ------------ d ----------------
2
- – ------------------
x – 16 x + 4 x – 64 5x – 40
1 1 1 1
e -------------------
2
- – --------------------- f ----------------------------
2
- – ----------------
2
-
9x – 16 21x – 28 x – 2x – 35 x – 25
1 1 1 1
g -------------------------------- – -------------------------------- h ----------------------- – -----------------------------
x 2 – 13x + 22 x 2 – 14x + 33 7x 2 – 14x x 2 + 4x – 12
2 3 5 2
i -------------------
- – ----------------------------- j ----------------------------
- – -----------------------------
x 2 – 144 x 2 + 9x – 36 x 2 – 5x – 50 x 2 – 4x – 45
4x 2x x–3 x+2
k -------------------
2
- – -----------------------------------
2
- l -----------------------------------
2
- – -------------------
2
-
4x – 49 2x + 11x + 14 4x + 37x – 30 x – 100
0FF OCUS ON
O R K I N
I CAAL LL LYY
O C U S O N W 0 R K I N G M AATTHHEEMMAATTI C
G W M
TAXICAB NUMBERS AND THE SUM OF TWO CUBES
Introduction
What are ‘taxicab numbers’? How did they
come be studied? Who were the mathematicians
involved? We can only relate part of the story here.
It began during the first world war when the British
mathematician GH Hardy (1877–1947) went to
visit his protégé and colleague Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1877–1920) who lay dying in hospital in London.
F
Hardy had gone out to the hospital in Putney by taxi.

He was a shy and self conscious man in situations like this, not knowing how to open a
conversation easily, despite the fact that he had worked with Ramanujan for years. CP Snow in
the foreword to Hardy’s book (A Mathematicians Apology, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
page 37) records the conversation. Without a greeting, and certainly as his first remark, Hardy
blurted out:

‘I thought the number of my taxicab was 1729. It seemed to me a rather dull number.’
To which Ramanujan replied, ‘No Hardy! No Hardy! It is a very interesting number.
It is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.’
The number 1729 can be written as 13 + 123 and also as 93 + 103 . Today such numbers have
become known as ‘taxicab numbers’. Mathematicians define the smallest number expressible
as the sum of two cubes in n different ways as the nth taxicab number, denoted by taxicab(n).
Thus taxicab(2) = 1729. Taxicab(3) was discovered in 1957 to be 87 539 319 and taxicab(4) in
1991 to be 6 963 472 309 248. Taxicab(5) was discovered in 1997. As you can imagine,
computers played a major role in the discovery of taxicab numbers but little else is known about
them.
2L EARNING ACTIVITIES
ICALLY
1 What number is taxicab(1)?
2 Let’s take a closer look at taxicab(2) = 1729. Using a calculator verify that 1729 can be
written as the sum of the two cubes 13 + 123 and 93 + 103 .
3 In this chapter you have learnt to factorise algebraic expressions. By multiplying out, verify
MATHEMAT
that the factors of the expression a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2).
4 Let a = 9 and b = 10. Use your calculator to verify that the right hand side is 1729. Repeat
with a = 1 and b = 12.
5 Equations of the form c = a3 + b3 are called Diophantine equations (named after
Diophantus, around 250 AD) where a, b, and c are integers. Solve the Diophantine equation
28 = a3 + b3 for a and b. Why is 28 not a taxicab number?
E C HALLENGE ACTIVITIES
WORKING
1 Two cubes have side lengths a and b (whole numbers with a < b). The sum of their volumes
is equal to the sum of the lengths of their edges. Find a and b.
2 Given that a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2) deduce the factors of a3 − b3 by setting −b for b.
3 Two cubes have side lengths a and b (whole numbers with a > b). The difference in their
volumes is equal to the difference of the total lengths of their edges. Investigate whether
ON
integer solutions for a and b can be found.

FOCUS
E L ET’S COMMUNICATE
Reasoning means making logical statements in a sequence. To combine logical statements,

we can use ‘linking words’ such as and, if, when, however, because or but to name a few. Write
a short paragraph using linking words to communicate the meaning of taxicab numbers. If you
have tried this you will immediately see the power of algebra to present meaning in symbolic
form.
%R EFLECTING
There are two ways to describe mathematical thinking on which you should reflect. One is
through a search for specific patterns which may suggest a general rule. This type of thinking
is inductive. The second concerns the need for proof. In this case the result we suspect to be
true is put to the test of deductive reasoning, that is a rigorous chain of argument that leads to
an inevitable conclusion.
In their book An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (Oxford University Press, 1954),
GH Hardy and his colleague EM Wright proved a theorem to show that taxicab numbers,
denoted by taxicab(n), exist for any value of n ≥ 1. What type of mathematical reasoning do
you think they used?
Use each of the following in a simple factor noun 1. one of the things that brings about a
sentence: result: Hard work was a factor in her success.
1 Binomial factor 2. Specialised one of two or more numbers which,
2 Difference of two squares when multiplied together, give the product: Factors
3 The sum of two cubes of 18 are 3 and 6.
4 The difference between inductive and Note the special mathematical meaning of
deductive reasoning factor and that it applies in algebra as well as
5 The Macquarie Learners Dictionary entry in arithmetic.
for factor:
VIEW
1 Expand and simplify: 10 Factorise:
a (y + 4)(y + 5) b (m − 7(m − 3) a x(z + 3) + y(z + 3)
c (t + 8)(t − 2) d (a − 11)(a + 4) b m3 + m 2 + m + 1
2 Expand and simplify: c e2 + ef − 2e − 2f
a (2p − 3)(3p − 8) d 6jk − 14j − 15k + 35
b (4 − 3r)(2 + r) e 4p − pq + q2 − 4q
f 10c − cd − d 2 + 10d
3 Expand these perfect squares.
CHAPTER RE
a (m − 7)2 b (2c + 5)2 11 Factorise:
a x2 + 4x + 3 b b2 − 10b + 21
4 Expand and simplify 2x(9x − 2y)2.
c e2 − e − 12 d p2 + 3p − 40
5 Complete these perfect squares. e a + 10a + 25 f q2 − 18q + 81
2
a (____)2 = t 2 + 22t + ____
12 Factorise:
b (____)2 = n2 − ____ + 81
a 3t 2 + 14t + 8 b 2m2 − 13m + 21
c (____)2 = 9x2 + ____ + 25
c 3c + 7c − 6
2 d 7b2 − 23b − 20
d (____)2 = 16u2 − 88u + ____
e 6s2 + 31s + 35 f 12d 2 − 19d − 18
6 State whether each expression is a perfect
13 Factorise:
square.
a n2 − 36
a n2 + 4 b k2 + 6k − 9
b v2 + 8v + 15
c a + 2a + 1
2 d e2 − 36
c 20k + 35
e q2 − 10q + 100 f 9c2 + 24c + 16
d 3e2 + 14e + 15
7 Expand and simplify: e a2 + 4a + ab + 4b
a (a + 3)(a2 + 5a + 4) f 9h2 −25
b (n + 6)(n + 2) + (3n −4)2 g p2 − 5p − 24
c (a + 10)(a − 10) − (a − 7)2 h −21xy − 35yz
d (2u + 9)(u − 4) − (u − 3)(u + 6) i 1 + u + u2 + u3
8 Factorise: j 16a2 − 121b2
a 7x + 28 b a2 + a k 5m2 − 14m − 24
c 10m + 15 d 9p − 24q l y2 − 9y − 10
e 12rs + 20st f pqr − pqs m 2cd + 6ce − 5d − 15e
g 27y2 − 36y h g2h − gh2 n rs2 − r2s + rs
i −ab + 3a j −18c2 − 14cd o 30g2 + 7g − 15
9 Factorise: 14 Factorise completely:
a m 2 − n2 b z2 − 9 a 3x2 − 12
c 1−p 2 d 49 − r2 b 2a2 + 18a + 36
e w2 − 529 f 4a2 − 25 c n3 − n
g x − 16y
2 2 h 81u2 − 100v2 d 4h2 − 36
i a b −c
2 2 2 j 36p2q2 − 121r2s2 e ab2 − 7ab + 12a
f 6u2 + 26u + 8
g 12z2 − 75
h x3 − 2x2y − 3x2 + 6xy
CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER RE
15 Simplify: 18 Simplify:
3 21tu a+8 a–2 2h – 3 3h + 7
a ------ b ------------ a ------------ + ------------ b --------------- – ---------------
3d 28uv 3 4 5 10
25a 2 p2q 1 1 x 2
c ----------- d --------2- c ------------ + --- d ----------- – ------------
10a pq x+3 x x–1 x+1
16 Factorise and simplify: x+1 x+5
e ------------ + ------------
15e + 25 a x+2 x+1
a --------------------- b -----------------
-
5 a 2 + 9a 19 Simplify:
9x 2 – 15xy 24m – 16n 1 1
c -------------------------- d -------------------------- a --------------- + -------------
-
6x 36m – 24n 3x + 6 x – 4 2
u2 – 4 16h 2 – 25 1 1
e -------------- f ----------------------- b ----------------
- + -----------------------------
u–2 8h + 10 2
x – 25 x + 2x – 35 2
x 2 + 7x + 10 k 2 + 3k – 28 3 2
g -----------------------------
- h ----------------------------
- c -------------------------------- – --------------------------------
x 2 + 5x + 6 k 2 – 16 2
x – 11x + 18 x – 12x + 27 2
VIEW
3 p 2 – 19 p + 20 x 4
i ------------------------------------
- d ----------------- – -----------------------------------
-
( p – 5 )2 2
4x – 9 2x + 13x + 15 2
ab – ac – 3b + 3c
j ------------------------------------------
-
2a 2 – 13a + 21
5w – 10 c 2 – 64
k ------------------- l ------------------
2–w 24 – 3c
a + 3 4a 2 – 12a
a --------------- × ------------------------
2a – 6 a2 – 9
c 2 + 9c + 20 ( c – 4 ) 2
b ----------------------------- × ------------------
c 2 + 5c c 2 – 16
y 2 – 100 y 2 + 14y + 40
c ----------------------- ÷ --------------------------------
-
2y 2 – 20y y 3 + 4y 2
x 2 – 13x + 42 2x 2 – 11x – 6
d -------------------------------- ÷ --------------------------------
x 2 – 49 x 2 + 7x
CHAPTER REVIEW

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Mathscape 10 ext.

- Ch05 Page 164 Thursday, October 13, 2005 4:23 PM

This chapter at a glance

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 165

5.1 Binomial products review

■ The distributive law

To expand a binomial product using the distributive law:

(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d)

■ The FOIL method

To expand a binomial product using the FOIL method:

166 Mathscape 10 Extension

To expand a perfect square of the form (a + b)2 or (a − b)2:

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2

■ Difference of two squares

To expand an expression of the form (a + b)(a − b):

Proof: (a + b)(a − b) = a(a − b) + b(a − b)

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 167

c (3p − 2q)2 d (m + 4)(m − 4)

b The first term in the grouping symbols is 4e 2 = 2e .

1 Expand (x + 5)(x + 3) by using the area diagram. x 5

2 Expand each binomial product by using the distributive law.

168 Mathscape 10 Extension

5 Expand the following expressions by using the identity in question 4.

6 Expand and simplify 3(2a + 5)(a − 4).

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 169

11 Complete these perfect squares.

14 Expand and simplify:

5.2 The highest common factor

170 Mathscape 10 Extension

To factorise an algebraic expression:

ab + ac = a(b + c) and ab − ac = a(b − c)

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 171

e 6ij + 9jk f 12mn − 20np g 22uv − 33vw h 32st + 24tu

TRY THIS Market garden

5.3 Difference of two squares

172 Mathscape 10 Extension

1 a Expand (x + 3)(x − 3). Hence, factorise x2 − 9.

2 Factorise each of these as a difference of two squares.

3 Factorise each expression as a difference of two squares.

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 173

i 8n2 − 18 j 12c2 − 27 k 45 − 20f 2 l 18k2 − 50

5.4 Grouping in pairs

To factorise a four-term expression:

174 Mathscape 10 Extension

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 175

TRY THIS Squaring fives

5.5 Factorising monic quadratic

To factorise a monic quadratic trinomial x2 + bx + c:

NOTE: In the trinomial x2 + bx + c:

176 Mathscape 10 Extension

1 Find two integers a and b such that:

2 a Show that (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab.

4 Factorise each of the following:

Chapter 5: Factorisation and algebraic fractions 177

5 Factorise each of these.

7 Factorise each of these perfect squares.

5.6 Factorising general quadratic

178 Mathscape 10 Extension

To factorise a general quadratic trinomial ax2 + bx + c using the cross method:

ax2 + bx + c = (px + r)(qx + s)

3x +8 (3x × 1) + (x × 8) This combination does not give the middle term

3x +4 (3x × 2) + (x × 4) This combination does not give the middle term

3x +2 (3x × 4) + (x × 2) This combination gives the correct middle term