ATOM MODELS Lecture Notes

ATOM MODELS [Actually these values are just for giving an idea.
1. Dalton’s atom model Because intensity wavelength relation can be different
• Elements composed of atoms for different objects depending on the material, color
• Similar elements have similar atoms etc.]
• Molecules are formed by combination of atoms in b) Discharge tubes
definite proportions Electric discharge through low pressure gases produce
• Atoms do not disappear during chemical reactions light. [We will see why]
[No information about the structure of the atom itself] Ex: Neon, xenon lamps.
Each element (gas) produces light of definite colors
2. Thomson’s model (wavelengths)
J. J. Thomson discovered electrons, while [c)Phosphorescence
experimenting with cathode rays, succeeded in is also a source of visible light]
measuring e/m ratio.
Atom model: solid (+) sphere 4. Atomic Spectrum
EM spectrum is an ordered array of EM waves.
Two types: Emission and absorbtion spectrum.
called plum-cake model a) Emission spectrum:
Ex: Light from very hot object

3.Rutherford’s model
Results of a-particles scattering experiment: [We will
learnabout this experiment later in nucleus subject
matter.]
• Most of the atom is empty
• (+) charge is concentrated at the center
• (-) electrons revolving around nucleus
-14
• Estimated radius of gold nucleus r ~ 3 x 10 m
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What was wrong with the model? This type of spectrum is ‘continuous spectrum’.
Electrons moving in circles would have centripetal
acceleration. Ex: Light from discharge lamp
But:
Acceleratinng charge ⇒ radiate EM wave ⇒ lose
energy.

Atom will not be stable λ1

[There also is another λ2
problem about atomic spectra
that we will learn about in λ3
minute]

3. Light production
Light is produced by the acceleration of the electrons This type of spectrum is ‘discrete spectrum’.
in the atom
There are two ways to produce light: b) Absorption spectrum
a) Very hot objects
Actually any object with temperature greater than 0 K
emit all kinds of EM waves (called thermal radiation).
[Then why don’t we all die of cancer caused by the
(say) gamma radiation produced by our own body λ1
temperature]. But at low temperatures intensity of high λ2
energy radiation is nearly zero.
Low temp ⇒ mostly low freq. radiation λ3
cold gas
Temp higher ⇒ higher freq. radiation gets more
intense
Ex: ~300°C ⇒ mostly infrared light produced Some wavelengths are missing.
~1300 °C ⇒ candle flame (mostly red light) [This is also ‘absorption spectrum’]
~2500 °C ⇒ light bulb (mostly yellow)
Rule: Emission and absorption spectra of the same gas
~5000 °C ⇒ blue is intenser
exactly match.
[Remember these wavelengths are produced most
intensely along with all other wavelengths at lower
intensities (amounts)]

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ATOM MODELS Lecture Notes

Formulas for energy and radius

For Hydrogen atom:

λ1 Radius of n’th orbit: Energy of atom for n’th orbit
λ1
λ2 rn = r0 n 2
−13.6 eV
λ2 En =
λ3
o
n2
λ3 r0 = 0.53 A

for the same gas n=1, 2, 3, 4…

Rule: Each gas has its specific set of wavelengths. This
is like the fingerprint of the gas. We can recognize the For other single electron atoms:
gas by analyzing the light it gives off. Z=number of protons
For Hydrogen atom:
Ex: Spectrum of H2 gas Radius of n’th orbit: Energy of atom for n’th orbit
n=6 n=5 n=4 n=3 1 −13.6 eV 2
rn = r0 n 2 En = Z
Z n2

n=1, 2, 3, 4…
4120 A 4341 A 4861 A 6563 A
Definition: The electron spends most of its time in the
[These wavelengths were measured experimentally.
n=1 orbit. n=1 orbit is called ‘ground state’ of the
But the reason for a gas having this or that specific set
atom. Higher levels are called ‘excited state’.
of wavelengths was unknown. Then]
Balmer discovered a formula that gives these
Ex: Derive radius and energy formulas starting from 1st
wavelengths for n=3, 4, 5…
postulate and coulomb’s law.
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1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2 
λ 2 n  Ex: Calculate energy levels of hydrogen atom for a
1 few states
R=1.097 x 107
m −13.6 eV
En =
This formula is only for H2 gas. n2
n=1 ⇒ E1= -13.6 eV
Ex: Can we explain discrete spectrum by Rutherford’s
n=2 ⇒ E2= - 3.4 eV
model?
n=3 ⇒ E1= - 1.51 eV
.
5. Bohr’s model of atom
Bohr’s model of atom works only for single-electron n= ∞ ⇒ E∞ = 0 (atom ionized)
atoms like hydrogen, single ionized helium, double
ionized lithium. Note: -3.4 > -13.6 ⇒ E2>E1
Bohr’s postulates n incr. ⇒ E incr.
1. Electrons revolve around nucleus such that their
angular momentum (=mvr) is an integer multiple Energy diagram (absolute) for hydrogen
h E(eV)
of , without radiating energy.
2π 0
2.When an electron makes a transition from high to -0.54 ionization n = ∞
low orbit, energy difference is given out as a photon. n=4
-0.85 n=3
-1.51
-3.4 n=2

-13.6 n=1
Results of postulates: E3 [There are infinite number of levels between E5=-0.54
• Electron in an atom has E2
E1 eV and E=0 E=0 means atom is ionized (lost its
definite orbit radii. An
r1 electron). ]
electron can not be at any
distance from the nucleus.
• For each orbit atom has a n=2 r2
definite radius and energy
n=3 r3
level.

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ATOM MODELS Lecture Notes

Energy diagram for hydrogen above ground state. Spectrum series for hydrogen:
(ground state chosen as zero level)
E(eV)
E(eV)
13.6 ionization n=∞
13.6 ionization n = ∞ 12.45 n=4
12.45 n=4 12.09 n=3
n=3 Paschen
12.09 series n=2
10.2
10.2 n=2 Ηα Ηβ Ηγ
Balmer series

0 α β γ n=1
0 n=1
Lymann series
Ex: a) What energy is lost by atom when the electron
in hydrogen falls frm n=4 to n=2? What happens to this Lymann series: (nf=1) Ultraviolet region
energy? Balmer series: (nf=2) Visible light
b) What is the wavelength of photon? Paschen series: (nf=3) Infrared region

6. Photon emission Ex: Write formulas for wavelengths of emitted light

[Remember second postulate] for Lymann and Paschen series.
Ei
Ex: Electron is at n=3 state in hydrogen. Find
Ef hf a) orbit radius
b) energy of atom
c) speed of electron
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Ephoton = -∆Eatom Ex: Hydrogen emits λ=4120 A photon. What energy

Ephoton = -(Ef-Ei) has it lost ?
Ephoton = Ei-Ef
 −13.6eV   −13.6eV  Ex: Calculate shortest and longest wavelengths in
Ephoton =  2  −  2  Balmer series. {Do it two way: by Balmer’s formula,
 ni   nf  by energy formula and hc/λ}

 1 1  7. Excitation of atoms and energy levels

E photon = 13.6  2 − 2  in eV All atoms have definite energy levels just like
n 
 f ni  hydrogen. Only we do not have simple formulas to
calculate these levels. [Hydrogen is the simplest atom
Ex: Show that Balmer’s formula is a special case of the so its energy and radius formulas are simple.]
formula above.
 1 Ex: Energy levels E (eV)
hc 1  of mercury atom
= 13.6  2 − 2 
λ  
 n f ni  above ground state: ionization 10.4
[There are infinite 8.84
1 13.6  1 1  13.6 1 number of levels
=  2 − 2  but = R = 1.097 × 107 6.67
λ hc  n f ni  hc m between 8.84 and
10.4] 4.86
Therefore: How much energy
is needed to ionize a
1  1 1 
= R 2 − 2  mercury atom?
λ  
 n f ni  0 (ground state)
This formula becomes Balmer’s formula nf=2.
[Therefore Balmer series is observed when electron An atom is normally found in ground state
falls to n=2 from higher states] Transferring an atom to a higher energy state is called
‘exciting the atom’.
An atom can be excited in 3 ways:
a) Atom-atom collision:
Caused by thermal motion. Hotter ⇒ faster collisions.
b)Bombarding with electrons

c) Bombarding with photons

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ATOM MODELS Lecture Notes

Bombarding with electrons: Ex: Energy levels (above ground E (eV)

Franck-Hertz experiment state) for X element are given in
4
figure. White light passes through 3
KEi this gas. Describe the resulting
spectrum. 2

KEf 0

Ex: Hydrogen atom absorbs 20 eV energy while in

low-pressure gas ground state. Find KE of ionized electron.

Energy lost by electron is gained by gas atoms. [Ex: Explain the relation between Bohr’s first postulate
and matter waves.]
Rule: To excite an atom KE of bombarding electron
must be equal or greater than ∆Eatom between excited 8. Spontaneous and stimulated emission
and ground states. a) Spontaneous emission
Because:
KE (lost by electron)=E (gained by atom) En En
-∆KEelectron = ∆Eatom
An atoms stays in excited state for a very short E1 E1
time(~10-8s). It is improbable to catch an atom in
excited state to excite it to an even higher state.
En
Ex: Mercury gas is bombarded by electrons having
6.28 eV energy. With what energy do they come out?
E1
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Ex: Solve same problem for 9.9 eV electrons. b) Stimulated emission

{Don’t forget the case of electron exciting two For stimulated emission to occur, there must be many
different atoms. Ther are 5 different possible energies atoms in excited state. [Remember we had said it is
(including 9.9 eV for all elastic collisions) with which normally improbable to catch an atom in its excited
electrons may come out.} state. To produce stimulated emission, special
techniques used to overcome this difficulty]
Ex: An atom is at n=4 state. How many different
En En
wavelengths are possible for a photon given out by this
atom?
E1 E1
Ex: Low pressure mercury gasis subjected to 6.80 V
potential difference in a cathode ray tube. How many The two photons are in phase.
lines will be observed in the emission spectrum of this
gas? 9. Laser
White light
Bombarding with photons

Before During After

hf E1 hf
En E1
Monochromatic Light
Rule: To excite an atom, energy of the photon must be
exactly equal to the energy difference between the
excited and ground states of the atom.
Because:
Excitation ⇒ E(photon) = E (gained by atom) Laser
hf=∆Eatom..

Ex: 12.1 eV electrons and photons pass through cold

hydrogen gas. What are the energies of
a) electrons
{Explain how laser works}
b) photons
as they come out of the gas?

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ATOM MODELS Lecture Notes

10. Modern Atom Theory

According to quantum theory electrons form ‘clouds’
around nucleus
The regions with high probability of containing an
electron are called ‘orbits’.
To describe the state of an electron we need four
quantum numbers.

1) Principle quantum number(n)

Determines energy and distance from nucleus.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4… (K, L, M, N…)
States with different n are called ‘shells’.

2) Orbital angular momentum quantum number (l)

Determines shape of orbit and magnitude of angular
momentum
l = 0 , 1, 2 …(n-1)
These are called ‘subshells’

3) Magnetic quantum number (ml)

Determine the orientation of an orbit
ml=-l…0…+l

4) Spin magnetic quantum number (ms)

ms= +1/2, -1/2
determines the sense of rotation of electron around its
own axis!
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{Java applet: Electron orbits}

Pauli exclusion principle:

No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of
quantum numbers

The maximum possible number of electrons in n’th

shell is given by: 2n2.