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Definitions
Presented By: “Pavement maintenance” is defined as the
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamad Yusri Aman function of preserving, repairing, and
restoring a highway and keeping it in condition
CHAPTER 5 for safe, convenient, and economical use.
PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
Pavement maintenance is routine work
performed to keep a pavement, under normal
conditions of traffic and forces of nature, as
nearly as possible in its as-constructed
condition

PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE Important of Maintenance

 Delayed maintenance has indirect costs
Introduction as well.
Roads, and means of transport, make a
 Neglected roads steadily become more
crucial contribution to economic difficult to use, resulting in increased
development and growth and bring vehicle operating costs (more frequent
important social benefits. repairs, more fuel use) and a reluctance
by transport operators to use the roads.

Poorly maintained roads constrain mobility,  This imposes a heavy burden on the
significantly raise vehicle operating costs, economy: as passenger and freight
increase accident rates and their associated services are curtailed,
human and property costs, and aggravate
 there is a consequent loss of economic
isolation, poverty and poor health. and social development opportunities.

Maintenance Categories
To preserve the asset, not to upgrade it. Unlike major road works,
maintenance must be done regularly.
• Routine Maintenance
Road maintenance comprises “activities to keep pavement, shoulders,
slopes, drainage facilities and all other structures and property within the
Page 2 Transport Note No. TRN-4 June 2005 road margins as near as
• Periodic Maintenance
possible to their as-constructed or renewed condition” (PIARC 1994).
• Rehabilitation
It includes minor repairs and improvements to eliminate the cause of
defects and to avoid excessive repetition of maintenance efforts.

For management and operational convenience, road maintenance is

categorized as routine, periodic, and urgent.

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Routine Maintenance
 Routine maintenance, which comprises small-scale works,
conducted regularly, aims “to ensure the daily passability and
safety of existing roads in the short-run and to prevent premature
deterioration of the roads” (PIARC 1994).
Periodic Maintenance
Periodic maintenance, which covers activities on a section of road
at regular and relatively long intervals, aims “to preserve the
structural integrity of the road”
Urgent Maintenance
 Urgent maintenance is undertaken for
repairs that cannot be foreseen but require
immediate attention, such as collapsed
culverts or landslides that block a road.
 Maintenance does not include
rehabilitation, building shoulders, or
widening roads. If the sections to be rebuilt
constitute more than 25 percent of the
road’s length, the work is rehabilitation, not
maintenance.
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Routine Maintenance
 Frequency of activities varies but is generally once or more a week
or month.
 Typical activities include roadside verge clearing and grass cutting,
cleaning of silted ditches and culverts, patching, and pothole repair.
 For gravel roads it may include regrading every six months.
Periodic Maintenance
These operations tend to be large scale, requiring specialized equipment
and skilled personnel and the cost more than routine maintenance
works.
Activities can be classified as preventive, resurfacing, overlay, and
pavement reconstruction. Resealing and overlay works
are generally undertaken in response to measured deterioration in road
conditions.
Rehabilitation Maintenance
 Rehabilitation Includes major work carried out to restore structural
service levels. As such, the treatments are corrective in nature and
include: non-structural overlays, structural asphalt overlays,
reconstruction or recycling of pavement materials, etc.
 Periodic maintenance and rehabilitation activities are typically high cost
treatments that are aimed to last and, therefore, need to be planned and
managed using established project management techniques.
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This is a summary of the major flexible

Flexible Pavement Distress pavement distresses.

Pavement Distresses

Fatigue (alligator) cracking Polished aggregate

Bleeding Potholes
Block cracking Raveling
Corrugation and shoving Rutting
Depression Slippage cracking
Joint reflection cracking Stripping
Lane/shoulder drop-off Transverse (thermal) cracking
Longitudinal cracking Water bleeding and pumping
Patching

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

Description: Series of interconnected cracks caused by
fatigue failure of the HMA surface (or stabilized base)
under repeated traffic loading.
In thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom of
the HMA layer where the tensile stress is the highest
then propagates to the surface as one or more
longitudinal cracks.
This is commonly referred to as "bottom-up" or
"classical" fatigue cracking.
In thick pavements, the cracks most likely initiate from
the top in areas of high localized tensile stresses
resulting from tire-pavement interaction and asphalt
binder aging (top-down cracking).
After repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect
forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces that develop
into a pattern resembling the back of an alligator or
crocodile.
Problem: Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow
moisture infiltration, roughness, may further
deteriorate to a pothole
Possible Causes:
Decrease in pavement load supporting
characteristics Loss of base, subbase or subgrade
support (e.g., poor drainage or spring thaw resulting
in a less stiff base).
Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the
stripped portion contributes little to pavement
strength so the effective HMA thickness
decreases) and..
Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than
anticipated in design) Inadequate structural design
Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking CRACK SEALS

Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be
investigated to determine the root cause of failure or
pavement's structural.
Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent,
repair by crack sealing is generally ineffective.
Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one of two
categories:
Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss
of subgrade support. Remove the cracked pavement
area then dig out and replace the area of poor
subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if
necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.
Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general
structural failure. Place an HMA overlay over the
entire pavement surface. This overlay must be
strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading.
• Crack seal products are used to fill
individual pavement cracks to
prevent entry of water or other non-
compressible substances such as
sand, dirt, rocks or weeds.
• Crack sealant is typically used on
early stage longitudinal cracks,
transverse cracks, reflection cracks
and block cracks.
• Alligator cracks are most often too
extensive to warrant filling with
crack sealer; they usually require an
area treatment such as a patch or
reconstruction.
• Crack filler material is typically
some form of rubberized asphalt or
sand slurry.

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CRACK SEALS Block Cracking

• Purpose: Preventive maintenance. Crack
filling to prevent entry of water or other
non-compressible substances into the
pavement.
• Materials: Heated liquid asphalt (often
some form of rubberized asphalt).
• Mix Design: Various, including
proprietary methods.
Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the
pavement up into rectangular pieces. Blocks range
in size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1 ft2) to 9 m2 (100
ft2). Larger blocks are generally classified as
longitudinal and transverse cracking. Block
cracking normally occurs over a large portion of
pavement area but sometimes will occur only in non-
traffic areas.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

• Other Info: Before applying crack
sealant, cracks need to be routed out
and cleaned. Crack sealing is best done
in moderate temperatures (spring or
fall) and..
is most effective if performed
immediately after cracks develop.
Reported average performance life
ranges from about 3 - 8 years.
Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily
temperature cycling.
Typically caused by an inability of asphalt binder to
expand and contract with temperature cycles
because of:
• Asphalt binder aging
• Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

Block Cracking Joint Reflection Cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid
and extent of the block cracking: pavement. The cracks occur directly over the
underlying rigid pavement joints.
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack
Joint reflection cracking does not include
seal to prevent:
reflection cracks that occur away from an
(1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through underlying joint or from any other type of base
the cracks and (e.g., cement or lime stabilized).
(2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness
can provide years of satisfactory service
after developing small cracks if they are
Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab
kept sealed.
beneath the HMA surface because of thermal and
moisture changes. Generally not load initiated,
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
however loading can hasten deterioration.
cracks with raveled edges). Remove and
replace the cracked pavement layer with an
overlay.

Joint Reflection Cracking Longitudinal Cracking

Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline or laydown
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and
direction. Usually a type of fatigue cracking.
extent of the cracking:
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates possible
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
onset of alligator cracking and structural failure.
infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent

(1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through

the cracks and
(2) (2) further raveling of the crack edges. In
general, rigid pavement joints will eventually
reflect through an HMA overlay without proper
surface preparation.

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and

numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

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Longitudinal Cracking
Possible Causes:
Poor joint construction or location. Joints are
generally the least dense areas of a
pavement. Therefore, they should be
constructed outside of the wheelpath so that
they are only infrequently loaded.
Joints in the wheelpath like those shown in
third through fifth figures above, will general
fail prematurely.
A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not
including joint reflection cracking)
HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future
alligator cracking)
top-down cracking
Potholes
Description: Small, bowl-shaped
depressions in the pavement surface that
penetrate all the way through the HMA layer
down to the base course.
They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole.
Potholes are most likely to occur on roads
with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1 to 2
inches)) and seldom occur on roads with
100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA surfaces
(Roberts et al., 1996).
PATCHES
• Patches are a common method of
treating an area of localized distress.
• Patches can be either full-depth
where they extend from the pavement
surface to the subgrade or partial
where they do not extend through the
full depth of existing pavement.
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Longitudinal Cracking
Repair: Strategies depend upon the
severity and extent of the cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and
infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent
(1) entry of moisture into the subgrade
through the cracks and..
(2) further raveling of the crack
edges. HMA can provide years of
satisfactory service after developing
small cracks if they are kept sealed.
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and
numerous cracks). Remove and replace
the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Potholes
Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage
can result from driving across potholes at higher
speeds), moisture infiltration
Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end
result of alligator cracking.
As alligator cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks of
pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles
drive over them.
The remaining hole after the pavement chunk is
dislodged is called a pothole.
Repair: In accordance with patching techniques.
PATCHES
• Full-depth patches are necessary where
the entire depth of pavement is
distressed.
• Often times, the underlying base, subbase
or subgrade material is the distresses root
cause and will also need repair.
• Partial depth patches are used for
pavement distresses like raveling, rutting,
delamination and cracking where the
depth of crack does not extend through
the entire pavement depth.
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PATCHES
• One form of patching, pothole patching,
probably receives the greatest amount
of public attention.
• Pothole patching procedures cover a
wide range of methods and intentions
from permanent full-depth patches to
temporary partial depth patches.
PATCHES
Semi-Permanent Pothole Patch (from FHWA, 1998)
• Compact the patching material starting
in the center and working out toward
the edges.
• Compaction can be accomplished using a
vibratory plate compactor or a single-
drum vibratory roller. Check the
compacted patching material for a slight
crown.
• This is done so that subsequent traffic
loading will compact it down to the
surrounding pavement height
PATCHES
Throw-and-roll (from FHWA, 1998)
• Although it may seem that the semi-permanent
technique would produce a higher quality patch
than the throw-and-roll technique.
• The FHWA's Long Term Pavement Performance
(LTPP) Study found that the "throw-and-roll
technique proved just as effective as the semi-
permanent procedure for those materials for
which the two procedures were compared
directly" (FHWA, 1998).
• Since the semi-permanent technique is more
labor and material intensive, the throw-and-roll
technique will generally prove more cost
effective if quality materials are used.
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PATCHES
Semi-Permanent Pothole Patch (from FHWA, 1998)
• Remove all water and debris from the
pothole.
• Square up the pothole sides so they are
vertical and have in-tact pavement on all
sides.
• Place the patching material into the
clean squared-up hole.
• The material should mound in the center
and taper down to the edges so that it
meets flush with the surrounding
pavement edges.
PATCHES
Throw-and-roll (from FHWA, 1998)
• Place the patching material into the pothole
without any preparation or water/debris
removal.
• Compact the patching material using the
patching truck tires (usually 4 to 8 passes).
• Check the compacted patch for a slight
crown.
• If a depression is present add more patching
material and compact.
FOG SEALS
• A fog seal is a light application of a
diluted slow-setting asphalt emulsion to
the surface of an aged (oxidized)
pavement surface.
• Fog seals are low-cost and are used to
restore flexibility to an existing HMA
pavement surface.
• They may be able to temporarily
postpone the need for a surface treatment
or non-structural overlay.
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FOG SEALS REJUVENATORS

• Purpose: Preventive maintenance. Fog seals are used to restore or
rejuvenate an HMA surface. They may be able to postpone the need for a
Bitumen Surface Treatment or non-structural overlay for a year or two. • Rejuvenators are products designed to restore
original properties to aged (oxidized) asphalt
• Materials: Slow-setting asphalt emulsion. binders by restoring the original ratio of
asphaltenes to maltenes.
• Mix Design: None. A test patch may be needed to determine the proper
application rate. • Many rejuvenators are proprietary, making it
difficult to offer a good generic description.
• Other Info: Fog seals are suitable for low-volume roads which can be
closed to traffic for the 4 to 6 hours it takes for the slow-setting asphalt
emulsion to break and set. • However, many rejuvenators contain maltenes
because their quantity is reduced by oxidation.
• An excessive application rate may result in a thin asphalt layer on top of
the original HMA pavement.

• This layer can be very smooth and cause a loss of skid resistance. Sand
should be kept in reserve to blot up areas of excess application.

REJUVENATORS REJUVENATORS
• Rejuvenators will retard the loss of surface fines • Purpose: Preventive maintenance. Restore
and reduce the formation of additional cracks, original properties to aged asphalt
binder. Rejuvenators may be able to postpone
• however they will also reduce pavement skid the need for a Bitumen Surface Treatment or
resistance for up to 1 year (Army and Air Force, non-structural overlay for a year or two.
1988).

• Materials: Various compounds. Most

• Because of this, rejuvenators are generally
rejuvenators are proprietary and thus a general
appropriate for low-volume.
description of their constituent materials is not
possible.

• Mix Design: None. A test patch may be

needed to determine effectiveness and the
proper application rate.

REJUVENATORS SLURRY SEAL

• Other Info: A rejuvenator should not be applied to a pavement having an
excess of binder on the surface such as that found in slurry seal,
• When excessive binder is on the surface, the rejuvenator will soften the
binder and cause the surface to become tacky and slick.
• A slurry seal is a homogenous mixture of emulsified asphalt, water,
well-graded fine aggregate and mineral filler that has a creamy fluid-like
appearance when applied.

• The amount of air voids in the HMA being rejuvenated should be at least 5
percent to ensure proper penetration of the rejuvenator into the
pavement. If the voids are less than 5 percent, the rejuvenator may fill the
voids and thus cause an unstable mix (Army and Air Force, 1988).

• Rejuvenators should be applied in hot weather, above 20C (70F), so that

the rejuvenator will penetrate more deeply into the asphalt pavement and
will cure sooner.

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SLURRY SEAL SLURRY SEAL

• Slurry seals are used to fill existing pavement surface defects as either a
preparatory treatment for other maintenance treatments or as a wearing
course.
There are three basic aggregate gradations used in slurry seals:
• Type I (fine). This type has the finest aggregate gradation (most are
smaller than the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve) and is used to fill small surface
cracks and provide a thin covering on the existing pavement. Type I
aggregate slurries are sometimes used as a preparatory treatment for
HMA overlays or surface treatments. Type I aggregate slurries are
generally limited to low traffic areas (ISSA, 2001).

• Type II (general). This type is coarser than a Type I aggregate slurry (it
has a maximum aggregate size of 6.4 mm (0.25 inches)) and is used to
treat existing pavement that exhibits moderate to severe raveling due to
aging or to improve skid resistance. Type II aggregate slurry is the most
common type.

• Type III (coarse). This type has the most coarse gradation and is used
to treat severe surface defects. Because of its aggregate size, it can be
used to fill slight depressions to prevent water ponding and reduce the
probability of vehicle hydroplaning.

MICROSURFACING MICROSURFACING
• Purpose: Preventive maintenance.
• Microsurfacing is an advanced form Repair slight to moderate pavement
of slurry seal that uses the same surface defects, improve skid resistance.

basic ingredients (emulsified asphalt, • Materials: Emulsified asphalt, water,

water, fine aggregate and mineral well-graded fine aggregate and mineral
filler.
filler) and combines them with
advanced polymer additives. • Mix Design: Various, including
proprietary methods.

• Other Info: As opposed to a fog seal, a

slurry seal contains aggregate and can
thus correct minor surface defects in a
variably textured surface - filling cracks
and voids, sealing weather-tight, and
providing color and texture delineation in a
single pass (ISSA, 2001b).

BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT

BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT (BST) (BST)
• A bituminous surface treatment, also known as a seal coat or chip
seal, is a thin protective wearing surface that is applied to a pavement
or base course.

• BSTs can provide all of the following:

 A waterproof layer to protect the underlying pavement.
 Increased skid resistance.
 A fill for existing cracks or raveled surfaces.
 An anti-glare surface during wet weather and an increased
reflective surface for night driving.

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BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT
(BST)
A single layer BST is constructed in the following
steps:
 Surface preparation. Surface defects, such
as potholes, are repaired and the existing
surface is cleaned (e.g., by a street sweeper).
 Asphalt material application. Typically, an
asphalt emulsion is applied from a spray
truck to the surface of the existing
pavement.
BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT (BST)
• Generally, about 50 percent of each aggregate
particle should be embedded in the asphalt
material after final rolling.
• About 70 percent of each aggregate particle
will be embedded after several weeks of
traffic. It is common to place an aggregate
"chokestone" on top of the uniformly graded
larger aggregates after embedment.
• Chokestone is essentially a finer aggregate
gradation (e.g., less than 12.5 mm (0.25
inches)) used to make a more dense
aggregate matrix at the level of embedment.
• This more dense matrix helps prevent
excessive aggregate loss due to traffic.
BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT (BST)
• Other Info: Traditionally, BSTs were
thought of as most applicable to low volume,
low speed roads because they will eventually
involve some amount of loose aggregate.
• On a high volume or high speed road, this
loose aggregate can be picked up and
thrown by wheels, which can result in
chipped paint and broken windshields.
• However, developments in asphalt cement
modifiers and BST construction procedures
have made it possible to use them on high
volume/speed roads including interstates.
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BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT
(BST)
• Aggregate application. A thin aggregate
cover (only one stone thick) is spread over
the asphalt material before it has set.
• The aggregate usually has a uniform
gradation.
• Aggregate embedding. A roller (usually
a pneumatic tire roller) is used to push
the aggregate into the asphalt material
and seat it firmly against the underlying
pavement.
BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT (BST)
• Purpose: Preventive maintenance. Wearing course, waterproof
covering for the existing pavement.
• Materials: Asphalt (as asphalt binder, cutback asphalt or asphalt
emulsion) and aggregate (uniformly graded).
• Mix Design: Various methods.
NON-STRUCTURAL OVERLAYS
• Non-structural overlays do not involve
extensive structural design and generally
contribute little, if anything, to a pavement's
structural capacity.
• Non-structural overlays are generally thin
surface overlays on the order of 12.5 mm (0.5
in.) to 37.5 mm (1.5 in.) that are used to (NAPA,
1995):
• Improve ride quality and Correct minor surface
defects.
• Improve safety characteristics such as skid
resistance and drainage.
• Enhance appearance.
• Reduce road-tire noise
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NON-STRUCTURAL OVERLAYS
● Non-structural overlays can vary widely in composition depending
upon local practice, traffic and general purpose.
● A loose classification of non-structural overlays follows (NAPA, 1995):
 Light volume/residential traffic. The primary objective in light
traffic areas is to retard asphalt binder aging of the underlying
pavement.
Since heavy traffic loads are not of great concern, overlays are
generally less stiff (resulting in a more workable mix, increased
durability and flexibility and a potential for the overlay to reheal
under traffic) and use smaller-sized aggregates.
 Heavy, high-speed traffic. The primary objective in heavy, high-
speed traffic areas is to prevent rutting and provide good friction.
Because of this, overlays typically use larger angular aggregate
and more durable mixes such as SMA or OGFC.
Rutting
Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts
tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is
steered across the rut.
Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any
of a pavement's layers or subgrade usually
caused by consolidation or lateral movement of
the materials due to traffic loading.
Specific causes of rutting can be:Insufficient
compaction of HMA layers during construction.
If it is not compacted enough initially, HMA
pavement may continue to densify under traffic
loads.
Stripping
Description: The loss of bond between
aggregates and asphalt binder that typically
begins at the bottom of the HMA layer and
progresses upward. When stripping begins at
the surface and progresses downward it is
usually called raveling.
Problem: Decreased structural support, rutting,
shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking
(alligator and longitudinal)
Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very
difficult to recognize because it manifests itself
on the pavement surface as other forms of
distress including rutting, shoving/corrugations,
raveling, or cracking.
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Rutting
● Description: Surface depression in the
wheelpath. Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur
along the sides of the rut.
● Ruts are particularly evident after a rain when
they are filled with water.
● There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting
and subgrade rutting.
● Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does not
rut yet the pavement surface exhibits wheelpath
depressions as a result of compaction/mix
design problems.
● Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade
exhibits wheelpath depressions due to
loading. In this case, the pavement settles into
the subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in
the wheelpath.
Rutting
● Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of
inadequate pavement structure) Improper mix
design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high
asphalt content, excessive mineral filler,
insufficient amount of angular aggregate
particles)
● Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be
investigated to determine the root cause of
failure (e.g. insufficient compaction, subgrade
rutting, poor mix design or studded tire
wear).
● Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be
left untreated. Pavement with deeper ruts
should be leveled and overlaid.
Stripping
Typically, a core must be taken to positively
identify stripping as a pavement distress.
• Poor aggregate surface chemistry
• Water in the HMA causing moisture damage
• Overlays over an existing open-graded
surface course.
Repair: A stripped pavement should be
investigated to determine the root cause of failure
(i.e., how did the moisture get in?).
Generally, the stripped pavement needs to be
removed and replaced after correction of any
subsurface drainage issues.
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Water Bleeding and Pumping
Description: Water bleeding occurs when
water seeps out of joints or cracks or
through an excessively porous HMA layer.
Pumping occurs when water and fine
material is ejected from underlying layers
through cracks in the HMA layer under
moving loads.
Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an
indication of high pavement porosity (water
bleeding), decreased structural support
(pumping)
Rigid Pavement Distress
BLOWUP (BUCKLING)
Description: A localized upward slab
movement and shattering at a joint or
crack.
Usually occurs in spring or summer and is
the result of insufficient room for slab
expansion during hot weather.
Problem: Roughness, moisture infiltration,
in extreme cases can pose a safety hazard
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Water Bleeding and Pumping
Possible Causes: Several including:
• Porous pavement as a result of
inadequate compaction during
construction or poor mix design
• High water table
• Poor drainage
Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be
investigated to determine the root cause.
If the problem is a high water table or poor
drainage, subgrade drainage should be improved.
If the problem is a porous mix (in the case of
water bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be
applied to limit water infiltration.
This section is a summary of the major rigid pavement
distresses discussion includes
Rigid Pavement Distresses
Blowup (buckling) Pumping
Corner break Punchout
Durability cracking ("D" Patching
cracking) Polished aggregate
Faulting Reactive aggregate
Joint load transfer system distresses
deterioration Shrinkage cracking
Linear (panel) cracking Spalling
Popouts
CORNER BREAK
Description: A crack that intersects the PCC slab
joints near the corner. "Near the corner" is
typically defined as within about 2 m (6 ft) or so.
A corner break extends through the entire slab
and is caused by high corner stresses.
Problem: Roughness, moisture infiltration, severe
corner breaks will fault, spall and disintegrate
Possible Causes: Severe corner stresses caused
by load repetitions combined with a loss of
support, poor load transfer across the joint,
curling stresses and warping stresses.
Repair: Full-depth patch.
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DURABILITY CRACKING ("D" CRACKING)
Description: Series of closely spaced, crescent-
shaped cracks near a joint, corner or crack.
It is caused by freeze-thaw expansion of the large
aggregate within the PCC slab.
Problem: Some roughness, leads to spalling and
eventual slab disintegration
Possible Causes: Freeze-thaw susceptible
aggregate.
Repair: "D" cracking is indicative of a general aggregate freeze-thaw
problem.
Although a full-depth patch or partial-depth patch can repair the affected
area, it does not address the root problem and will not, or course, prevent
"D" cracking elsewhere.
JOINT LOAD TRANSFER SYSTEM DETERIORATION
Description: Transverse crack or corner break developed as a result of
joint dowels.
Problem: Indicator of a failed load transfer system, roughness.
LINEAR (PANEL) CRACKING
Description: Linear cracks not associated with corner breaks or blowups that
extend across the entire slab. Typically, these cracks divide an individual slab
into two to four pieces.
Problem: Roughness, allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of
base/subbase support, cracks will eventually spall and disintegrate if not
sealed
Possible Causes: Usually a combination of traffic loading, thermal gradient
curling, moisture stresses and loss of support.
Repair: Slabs with a single, narrow linear crack may be repaired by crack
sealing. More than one linear crack generally warrants a full-depth patch.
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FAULTING
Description: A difference in elevation across a
joint or crack usually associated with undoweled
JPCP.
Usually the approach slab is higher than the
leave slab due to pumping, the most common
faulting mechanism.
Faulting is noticeable when the average faulting
in the pavement section reaches about 2.5 mm
(0.1 inch).
When the average faulting reaches 4 mm (0.15 in),
diamond grinding or other rehabilitation
measures should be considered (Rao et al., 1999).
Problem: Roughness
JOINT LOAD TRANSFER SYSTEM DETERIORATION
Possible Causes: Load transfer dowel bars can fail for
two principal reasons:
Corrosion. If inadequately protected, dowel bars can corrode over
time.
The corrosion products occupy volume, which creates tensile
stresses around the dowel bars, and a severely corroded dowel bar
is weaker and may fail after repeated loading.
Misalignment. Dowel bars inserted crooked or too close to the slab
edge may create localized stresses high enough to break the slab.
Misalignment can occur during original construction or during
dowel bar retrofits.
PATCH
• Rigid pavement patches are used to treat
localized slab problems such as spalling,
scaling (e.g., reactive aggregate distress,
over-finishing the surface), joint
deterioration, corner breaks or punchouts.
• If the problem is limited in depth, then a
partial depth patch may be appropriate,
otherwise a full depth patch is
recommended.
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PATCH PATCH
• A high quality patch can be considered a • Partial depth patches are used to restore
permanent repair, although all patches are localized areas of slab damage that are
treated as a form of pavement distress. confined to the upper one-third of slab depth.

• Generally, this includes light to moderate

• Although HMA is sometimes used for spalling and localized areas of severe scaling
emergency patches, PCC should be used (ACPA, 1995).
for permanent patches. Fast-setting PCC
• Partial depth patches are usually small, often
is often used to minimize setting time. only 50 - 75 mm (2 - 3 inches) deep and
covering an area less than 1 m2 (10.8 ft2)
(ACPA, 1995).

• The generally partial depth patching process

proceeds as follows (ACPA, 1995):

PATCH METHOD PATCH METHOD

• Locate the area to be patched. Extend the patch beyond the damaged
area by 75 - 100 mm (3 - 4 inches). • Full depth patches are used to restore
localized areas of slab damage that extend
• Remove the damaged material. Removal is usually accomplished by
sawing and chipping. Small areas can be removed by sawing around the beyond the upper one-third of slab depth
patch edges and then chipping out the interior. The patch should be or originate from the slab bottom.
deep enough to remove all the damaged material.

• Clean the area to be patched. Sandblasting or water blasting removes • Generally, this includes spalling,
loose particles and creates a rough texture to which the bonding agent punchouts, corner breaks, moderate to
can adhere.
severe slab cracking and localized areas
of severe scaling (e.g., reactive aggregate
• Apply a bonding agent. A cementitious grout is used to help the patch
material bond to the original slab material. distress, over-finishing the surface)
(ACPA, 1995).
• Place, finish and cure the PCC. The PCC should be placed so that the
patch is of the same elevation as the surrounding slab. Finishing the
patch from the center to the edges helps push the PCC patch material
firmly against the existing slab and increases the potential for a high
strength bond.

mdyusri@uthm.edu.my 77

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