COMPUTER HARDWARE

The physical parts of a computer (the parts you can touch and discussed next) are called hardware.

Parts Of A Personal Computer

1) Monitor (Visual Display Unit): A display device for a desktop computer.
2) Keyboard: An input device containing numerous keys that can be used to input letters, numbers, and
other symbols.
3) Mouse: A common pointing device that the user slides along a flat surface to move a pointer around
the screen and clicks its buttons to make selections.
4) Speakers: Output devices connected to computers that provide audio output.
5) Printer: An output device that produces output on paper.
6) System unit: The main box of a computer that houses the CPU, motherboard, memory, and other
devices.
a) Motherboard: The main circuit board of a computer, located inside the system unit, to which
all computer system components connect.
b) Fan and Heat sink: they are used to cool the inside of the computer.
c) CPU: The chip located on the motherboard of a computer that performs most of the
processing for a computer.
d) RAM Modules (Memory modules): Chips connected to the motherboard that provide a
temporary location for the computer to hold data and program instructions while they are
needed.
e) Hard drive: The primary storage system for most computers; used to store most programs
and data used with a computer.
f) CD/ DVD Drive: Drives used to read and write CD and DVD discs.
g) Floppy drive: Drives used to read and write floppy disks.
h) Network Interface Card (NIC): Connects the computer to a network.
i) Video Card (Video Graphics Array Adaptor): Connects a VGA monitor.
j) Sound Adaptor (Card) – Audio ports: Connect speakers, headphones, and a microphone.
k) Power Supply: Converts standard electrical power into a form the computer can use.
l) Parallel ports: They are traditionally used to connect printers
m) Serial ports: A connect by which a device sends data one bit at a time.
n) USB (universal serial bus) port: Connect a keyboard, mouse, scanner, USB flash drive,
printer, digital camera, or other USB devices.
o) PS/2 port: A 6-pin mini-DIN connector used for connecting some keyboards and mice.

CATEGORIES OF INPUT HARDWARE (DEVICE):

An input device is any piece of equipment used to enter data into the computer. Examples are Key Board,
Mouse, Track Ball, Joy Stick, Scanner, Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Character
Reader (OCR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Bar Code Reader (BCR), Speech Recognition, Digitizing
Tablet, Digital Camera, Touch Screen, Touch Pad, Light Pen etc.
There are various categories of input devices. Some of these are;
Keyboard: Most PCs today are designed to be used with a keyboard. A keyboard is an input
device containing numerous keys arranged in a configuration similar to that of the type-writer. A
keyboard is either wired or wireless. Wired Keyboards have cables that attach them to the computer.
These cables have either a PS/2 or USB connector which is used attach the keyboard to the
computer. Wireless keyboards can be connected to the computer through infrared signals, radio
waves or Bluetooth. Wireless keyboards are battery powered and send wireless signals to a receiver
that is usually plugged into the computers serial or USB port. Some types of keyboards are special-
purpose keyboards and alpha-numeric keyboards.

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 Special-Purpose Keyboards:
1. Braille keyboard: has keys marked with raised dots to aid the blind.
2. Concept keyboard: Have keys (contact switches) with whole words, pictures or symbols
superimposed. The computer is then programmed to respond appropriately to the keys. Used in
early child education
Alphanumeric keyboards: These keyboards contain letters, numbers and symbols in a
particular layout. They are modeled based on the typewriter. They most common type of this
keyboard is QWERTY keyboard (based on the sequence of letters at the top left).

Parts of The Keyboard

1. Alphanumeric / typewriter keys
2. Numeric keypads
3. Function keys
4. Directional keys (arrow)
5. Toggle keys
6. Special purpose keys

Pointing Devices:
A pointing device is an input device that moves an onscreen pointer, such as an arrow or insertion
point and allows the user to select objects on the screen.
1. MOUSE: A pointing device that the user slides along a flat surface to move a pointer around the
screen and clicks its buttons to make selections. Older mechanical mouse has a ball exposed on the
bottom surface of the mouse to control the pointer movement.
Optical mouse tracks movements with lights. The mouse is commonly used to start program, move
around, and edit documents; draw or edit images etc. Similar to keyboards, mouse can either be wired
or wireless.
2. TRACKBALLS: An input device similar to an upside-down mouse that can be used to control
an onscreen pointer and make selections. The ball is rotated with the hand, finger, or thumb to move
the onscreen pointer. Because the device itself does not need movement, the track ball takes up less
desktop space than the mouse. It is also easier to use for individuals with limited hard or finger
mobility.
3. JOYSTICKS AND OTHER GAMING DEVICES: A joystick is an input device that
resembles a car’s gear shift and is often used for gaming. The movement of the joystick’s stick
controls the onscreen object, such as the player or vehicle in the game. Buttons on the stick are usually
assigned functions, such as jumping or firing weapons. Today, new gaming devices such as game pads,
steering wheels and gloves containing built-in sensor, enabling the computer to detect hand
movements directly are emerging.

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4. POINTING STICKS: A pointing stick is a pencil eraser shaped device found in the middle of
many notebooks, keyboards. It is used to control the onscreen pointer and perform click.
5. TOUCH PADS: It is a rectangular pad across which a fingertip or thumb slides to move the
onscreen pointer. The buttons next to the touch pads surface are used to perform clicks and other
mouse actions.
6. TOUCH SCREENS: A display device that is touched with the finger to issue commands or
otherwise generate input to the connected PC. They are becoming increasingly prominent. Touch
screens are also used in point-of-sale (POS) systems, touch screen kiosks for self-service applications.

7. ELECTRONIC PENS: It is a pointing device that can be used to select objects as well as write or
draw electronically on the screen. It is also called a stylus or a digital pen. Handheld PCs, tablet PCs
and other devices that accept pen input typically use a stylus. The idea behind pen-based input and
digital writing in general is to make computer usage more convenient, while adding extra capacities
such as converting pen-based text to editable, typed tent. Electronic pens are used in conjunction to
pen-based pc, digital writing systems, graphic tablets and signature capture device.
 A graphic tablet is a flat, rectangular input device that is used in conjunction with a stylus
to transfer drawings, sketches, and anything written on it to a PC in digital form. It is used
by graphic artists, photographers and other graphic professionals in conjunction with
graphics editing software to edit or create original images. Note: A graphic tablet is also
known as a digitizing tablet.
 Signature capture devices: They are devices used in conjunction with a stylus to capture a
signature to a computer.

SCANNERS, READERS AND DIGITAL CAMERAS: Some input devices are designed
to convert data that already exist in physical form to digital form or capture data initially in digital
form. Documents that contain data that already exist in physical form (such as receipts, pictures,
invoice, cheques etc) are referred to as source documents. Capturing data directly from a source
document (also known as source data automation) saves time.
SCANNERS (more officially called optical scanner):
Is an input device that reads printed text and graphics and transfers them to a computer in digital form.
TYPE OF SCANNERS:
1.FLATBED SCANNER: An input device that scans flat objects at a time. They are usually
rectangular and flat in shape.
2. DRUM SCANNER: Scanners normally used in the publishing industry to capture
images with high detail.
3. SHEETFED SCANNER: A scanner that can accept a single sheet of paper at a time.
They are usually smaller than the flatbed scanners.
4. HANDHELD SCANNER: It is a smaller, handheld optical scanner. It is designed to be
used away from the PC. The scanned text is stored and can be transferred to the computer
later. It is used to capture short newspaper or magazine articles, web addresses, names or
contact numbers. E.g. C-pen scanner. The quality of scanned images is indicated by
optical resolution, typically measured in the number of dots per inch (dpi).

READERS:
1. Barcode Readers: An input device that reads barcodes. A barcode is an optical code that
represents data with a set of bars with varying widths. To read the data encoded in the
barcode, light from the laser inside the barcode reader is reflected from the light spaces on
the barcode and the barcode reader interprets the pattern of white space as the numbers or
letters represented by the barcode. Barcode readers are used in shops, libraries, warehouse
etc to indemnify items.
2. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers: RFID is a technology that can store
and transmit data located in RFID tags. RFID tags are devices containing chips and radio

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 antennas that is attached to objects that will be identified using RFID technology. They
are used to track dive stock, shipping containers etc to keep track of their movements.
3. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR is mainly used in the banking
industry to read cheques. MICR characters are inscribed on cheques with magnetic ink.
The standard font adopted by the banking industry contains 14 characters 10 decimal
digits 0-9, and four special symbols. As people write and cash cheques, reader/ sorter
machines magnetically read and identify the MICR- encoded bank and account
information on the cheques.
Advantages:
 Documents are difficult to forge.
 Documents can still be read after being written on folded, soiled etc.

Disadvantages.
 MICR readers and encoders are expensive.

4. OMR (Optical Mark Readers): They input data from special forms to score or tally
exams response sheets, questionnaires, ballots and so forth. Typically, users use a pencil
to fill in small circles or other shapes on the form to indicate their selection. The form is
then inserted into an OMR to be scored or tallied. The filled in responses reflect the light
and those responses are recorded by the OMR. This is sometimes called light sensing.
The position of the marks are then analysed or tallied.
5. OMR (Optical Character Recognition): This is a technology used to read optical
characters from paper using OCR readers. The reader includes an optical scanner for
reading the text. The shapes of different characters are detected by shining light on them.
It then converts the reflections into electronic patterns that the reader can recognize. The
OCR reader can identify a character only if it is familiar with the fonts used. There are
various types of fonts available for optical characters. Optical characters are widely used
in processing turnaround documents such as water bills, light bills etc.
6. Biometric Readers: Biometrics is the study of identifying individuals based on
measurable biological characteristics. Biometric readers are devices used to input an
individual’s biometric data into the computer system. Examples of biometric data are
fingerprint, hand geometry, face geometry, iris, voice etc.
DIGITAL CAMERAS:
An input device that takes pictures and records them as digital data images. We have digital still
cameras and digital video cameras.

AUDIO INPUT DEVICES

Audio input is the process of entering audio data into computer. Types of audio include voice and
music.
1. Voice Input System: A system that enables a computer to recognize the human voice. All voice
input systems (also called speech recognition or voice recognition systems) consist of a
microphone or headset and appropriate software. Voice input can also be used to dictate text or
commands the computer will recognize. It can be used as an alternative to a mouse or keyboard.
2. Music Input System: Musical input can be recorded for use in music arrangements, to
accompany a multimedia presentation or create custom music CD. MIDI (musical instrument
digital interface) devices such as a MIDI keyboard can be used to create original compositions.
Once the music is input into the computer, it can be saved, modified or played.
3. Microphone: An input device for converting sound waves into an electrical signal for the
computer. e.g. for recording

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CATEGORIES OF OUTPUT HARDWARE (DEVICE):
An output device is any piece equipment used to present computer data in a form readable to humans.
Examples of output devices are monitor, multimedia projector, printers, speakers, e-paper, digital picture
frame etc.

An output is the result obtained from processing data. There are two types of output

1. Softcopy output: This is an output that is displayed on a screen. This output is usually temporary.
They disappear when the PC goes off.
2. Hardcopy output: A permanent copy of output on paper.

Display Devices:
An output device that contains a viewing screen. Display is a display device built into a notebook computer,
handheld PC or other devices. A monitor is the display device for a desktop PC.

Monitor: A monitor is also known as visual display unit (VDU). It is the most common display device.
Images are formed by many tiny dots of coloured light called pixels (Picture Element). A pixel is the
smallest unit on the unit. It is the pixels that form the images, texts, diagrams etc that appear on the screen.
There are two types of monitors.

1. CRT Monitor: The traditional type of monitor for desktop PCs is the CRT monitor. CRT stands for
cathode ray tube. It uses the cathode ray tube technology to display images. To form images, an
electron gun sealed inside a large glass tube fires at a phosphor-coated screen to light up the
appropriate pixels in the appropriate colours to display images. It is similar to a conventional TV set.
2. Flat –Panel display: Some of them are LCD, Plasma, LED and OLED display.
a. LCD: As the name suggests uses liquid crystals which change their appearance when electric
current pass through them.
b. Plasma Display: A type of flat-panel display that uses layers of gas between glass plates to
display images. They are usually large displays.
c. OLED: A type of display that uses emissive organic material to display brighter and sharper
images.

Characteristics Of A Monitors: There are many characteristics and features of monitors. The quality
(clarity and sharpness) of images displayed depends on these characteristics. Some of them are;

1. Monitor Size: This is measured diagonally from corner to corner. It is the diagonal dimension of the
screen. Common sizes are include 15-inch, 17-inch, 21-inch, 19-inch etc
2. Screen Resolution: Every display screen is divided in a fine grid of small areas- dots (pixels). The
number of pixels used on as screen determines its resolution. The screen resolution determines the
clarity and sharpness of images formed on the screen. Higher resolutions produce clearer images.
Some common resolutions are:
a. VGA (video graphics array) 640 x 480 pixels
b. SVGA (super VGA) 800 x 600 pixels
c. XGA/ XVGA ( extended VGA) 1024 x 786 pixels
d. SXGA (super extended VGA) 1280 x 1024 pixels
e. UXGA (ultra extended VGA) 1600 x 1200 pixels
3. Image Aspect Ratio: This refers to the ratio of the width to height of an image the screen. Most
monitors have an aspect ratio of 4:3 while others have 16:9

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 4. Refresh rate: It is the number of times the image on a screen is repainted or refreshed per second. If
this is slow, the screen may appear to flicker. Refresh rate is measured in hertz (cycles per second).
E.g. 150 Hz means the screen is refreshed 150 times a second.
5. Graphics/Video card memory size: The video card or integrated video component built into the
motherboard of a PC is used to connect a display device to the computer. The type of video card or
component used determines screen resolutions available, number of colours available and the refresh
rate of the monitor.

Multimedia Projector: Projector is a output device which used to produce projection of computer output on
screen. It is used for giving presentations in classrooms and conference rooms.

Speaker / Head Phone / Ear Phone: This is sound device which produce sound output like music, tone and
speech.

Printers: A print is an output device that produces output on paper. This form of output is referred to as
hardcopy. A hardcopy output is permanent. There are many different kinds or categories of printers. Printers
can be grouped according to their characteristics.

Characteristics of Printers:

 Quality of type: The output produced by printers is said to be either letter quality (as good as a
typewriter), near letter quality, or draft quality. Only daisy-wheel, ink-jet, and laser printers produce
letter-quality type. Some dot-matrix printers claim letter-quality print, but if you look closely, you
can see the difference.
 Speed: Measured in characters per second (cps) or pages per minute (ppm), the speed of printers
varies widely. Daisy-wheel printers tend to be the slowest, printing about 30 cps. Line printers are
fastest (up to 3,000 lines per minute). Dot-matrix printers can print up to 500 cps, and laser and
inkjet printers range from about 4 to 20 text pages per minute.
 Graphics: Some printers (daisy-wheel and line printers) can print only text. Other printers can print
both text and graphics.
 Fonts : Some printers, notably dot-matrix printers, are limited to one or a few fonts. In contrast,
laser and ink-jet printers are capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts. Daisy-wheel
printers can also print different fonts, but you need to change the daisy wheel, making it difficult to
mix fonts in the same document.
 Monochrome, colour and photo printers: Monochrome printers print in one colour only. Black
and white printers are monochrome. Colour printers print in full colour. And photo printers are
designed to print pictures and other fine graphics.
 Impact or non-impact:
Impact printers: An impact printer is a type of printer that operates by striking a metal or plastic head
against an ink ribbon. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper, marking the page with the
appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol. These printers are typically loud, but remain in use today
because of their unique ability to function with multipart forms. Daisy-wheel, dot-matrix, golf ball
and line printers are impact printers. Impact printers are environment friendly.
Non-impact printers: A non-impact printer is a printer that produces its output with the print
mechanism not touching the print media or paper. It includes laser printers, ink-jet printers and
thermal printers. The important difference between impact and non-impact printers is that impact
printers are much noisier.
Some Printers We Have:
 Daisy-Wheel: Similar to a ball-head typewriter, this type of printer has a plastic or metal wheel on
which the shape of each character stands out in relief. A hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon,
which in turn makes an ink stain in the shape of the character on the paper. Daisy-wheel printers
produce letter-quality print but cannot print graphics.

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  Dot-Matrix: Creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a dot, and
combinations of dots form characters and illustrations.
 Ink-Jet: Sprays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers produce high-quality text and graphics.
 Laser: Uses the same technology as copy machines. Laser printers produce very high quality text
and graphics.
 LCD & LED : Similar to a laser printer, but uses liquid crystals or light-emitting diodes rather
than a laser to produce an image on the drum.
 Line Printer: Contains a chain of characters or pins that print an entire line at one time. Line
printers are very fast, but produce low-quality print.
 Thermal Printer: An inexpensive printer that works by pushing heated pins against heat-sensitive
paper. Thermal printers are widely used in calculators and fax machines.

PROCESSING HARDWARE (DEVICE):

Processing device is the device in a computer that enables it to process data or execute instructions. The
CPU (central processing unit or processor) is the main processing device, while the main memory aids it by
temporarily storing data and instructions during processing. The CPU is the ‘brain’ of the computer, it takes
raw data and following a set of instructions turns it into information. It is the CPU that that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output
(I/O) operations specified by the instructions.
Most computers nowadays use the microprocessor (A microprocessor is a computer processor which
incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC),
or at most a few integrated circuits). The 3 major giant manufacturers of CPUs used in desktop or laptops
are Intel, AMD and VIA (Embedded devices) while Qualcomm, Samsung and Apple are the top three
manufacturers of mobile processors.
The maximum number of instruction carried by a CPU in one second is used to calculate the speed of that
CPU. That speed of the CPU is calculated in Hertz. Nowadays the speed of the CPU (the speed of the CPU
is the speed of the computer which uses it) is in gigahertz (GHz), which is equal to 1,000,000 times Hertz.
CPUs can be divided in to architectures, 32bit and 64bit. 64bit CPUs are much faster and powerful than their
32bit versions.

Components of a CPU

Figure 1: Basic Components involved in processing

Control Unit
The Control Unit is an internal part of a CPU that co-ordinates the instructions and data flow between CPU
and other components of the computer. It is the CU that directs the operations of a central processing unit by
sending timing and control signals.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit
The ALU is an internal electronic circuitry of a CPU that performs all the arithmetic and logical operations
in a computer. The ALU receives three types of inputs.

 Control signal from CU ( Control Unit )

 Data(operands) to be operated
 Status information from operations done previously.
When all the instructions have been operated, the output that consists of data is stored in memory and a
status information is stored in internal registers of a CPU.

How a CPU Works:

All the CPUs regardless of their origin or type perform a basic instruction cycle that consists of three steps
named Fetch, decode and Execute.

Fetch
A program consists of a number of instructions. Various programs are stored in memory. During this step,
the CPU reads instruction that is to be operated from a particular address in the memory. The program
counter of the CPU keeps the record of address of the instructions.
Decode
A circuitry called instruction decoder decodes all the instructions fetched from the memory. The instructions
are decoded to various signals that control other areas of CPU.

Execute
In the last step, the CPU executes the instruction. For example, it stores a value in the particular register and
the instruction pointer then points to other instruction that is stored in next address location.

CATEGORIES OF STORAGE HARDWARE (DEVICE):

It is a location where a piece of information can be held temporarily or permanently for use at later. Storage
can be of two types; PRIMARY and SECONDARY storage.

Primary Storage Device:

It is main storage unit to hold information ready for processor to use while processing. It is small and fast. It
is sometimes called main memory. Examples are RAM and Catch Memory.

Characteristics of primary storage:

1. Limited capacity – Small in capacity makes searching easy in return it work faster but it is costly.
Modern computers require more and more space. Secondary storage provides large storage space.
2. Volatile in nature – Primary memory gets erased when power turned off. Secondary memory retains
data after power turned off also
3. Costly – Primary memory are semiconductor memory so it is very costly. Secondary memory is
mostly magnetic disc memory.
4. High speed: it is very fast

Secondary storage device:

A storage device is a device used to store computer data on a storage medium. A storage medium is any
medium on which computer data is stored. A combination of storage devices and media is known as a
storage system. It is a device that hold information until it is deleted of overwritten. It also called “additional
or auxiliary memory”. It is used to store large volume of data on permanent basis. Examples of secondary
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storage devices and media are CD/DVD drive, hard disk, flash drive, CD-R, DVD-R, magnetic tape, floppy
disk, floppy disk drive, zip drive, blue ray disk, etc.

Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin magnetisable coating on a long, narrow
strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that record
and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device
that stores computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive (tape unit, streamer). It is most popular storage
medium for large data, which are sequentially accessed and processed. Usually it is ½ inch or ¼ inch wide.
Data is recorded in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots on the coated surface of
the tape.
Advantages:

 Their storage capacity is virtually unlimited.

 With the low cost of tape reels and cartridges, and high data recording densities, the cost per bit of
storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
 Since the tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in weight, they are easy to handle and store.
 Due to their compact size and light weight, they are also easily portable from one place to another.

Limitations:

 Due to their sequential access nature, they are not suitable for storage of those data, which frequently
require to be accessed randomly.
 They must be stored in a dust-free environment, because specks of dust can cause tape-reading
errors.
 They must also be stored in an environment with properly controlled temperature and humidity
levels.
 They must be properly labelled, so that some useful data stored on a tape is not erased by mistake.

Uses:

 For applications, which are based on sequential data processing

 Backing up of data stored on an on-line storage device, so that, if by accident, the data is corrupted or
lost, it can be retrieved from the backup tape.
 Archiving of data which are not used frequently.
 Transferring of data and programs from one computer to another, which are not linked together.
 Distribution of software by vendors.

Magnetic Disk
Is a memory device, such as a floppy disk or a hard disk, that is covered with a magnetic coating. It is the
most popular storage medium for direct-access secondary storage. Due to their random access capability,
magnetic disks are the most popular on-line secondary storage device.

It constitutes a thin, circular plate/platter made of metal or plastic, which is usually coated on both sides with
a magnetisable recording material, such as iron oxide. Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots on the coated surfaces of the disk. EBCDIC is used for
recording data. The disk itself stored in a specially designed protective envelope or cartridge, or several of
them may be stacked together in a sealed, contamination-free container.

Like magnetic tapes, magnetic disks can also be erased and reused indefinitely. Old data on a disk are
automatically erased as new data are recoded in the same area. However, the information stored can be read
many times, without affecting the stored data.

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Types of Magnetic Disks:
Based on their size, packaging and material, magnetic disks are broadly classified into two types:
Floppy Disks: A floppy disk is a round, flat piece of flexible plastic, coated with magnetic oxide. It is
encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket cover. The jacket gives handling protection to the disk surface.
Moreover, it has a special liner, which provides a wiping action to remove dust particles, which are harmful
for disk surface and the read/write head. Floppy disks are so called because they are made of flexible plastic
plates, which can bend, not hard plates. They are also known as floppies or diskettes. They were introduces
by IBM in 1972, and have been produced in various sizes and capacities by many manufactures. Example 3
½ -inch floppy disk, 5 14 –inch floppy disk

Hard Disks: A rigid magnetic disk fixed within a disk drive and used for storing computer data. Hard disks
hold more data than floppy disks, and data on a hard disk can be accessed faster than data on a floppy disk.
Hard disks are the on-line storage device for most computer system today. Unlike floppy disks, which are
made of flexible plastic or Mylar, hard disks are made of rigid metal (aluminium). The hard disk platters
come in many sizes, ranging from 1 to 14-inch diameter.

Types of Hard Disks:

Depending on how they are packaged, hard disk are normally categorized into the following three
1. Zip/Bernoulli Disks: It is a single hard disk platter is encased in plastic cartridge. A commonly
used zip disk is of 3 ½ inch size, having a storage capacity of about 100-250 MB, depending on the
formatting style of computer system. Its disk drive is called a zip drive. A zip drive may be of
portable or fixed type. The zip disk can be easily inserted into or removed from zip drive, just as we
insert and remove floppy disks in a floppy disk drive or a video cassette in a VCR.
2. Disk Pack: A disk pack consists of multiple (two or more) hard disk platters mounted on a single
central shaft. Hence, all the disks of a disk pack revolve together at the same speed. As mentioned
before, the disk drive of a disk pack has a separate read/write head for each disk surface, excluding
the upper surface of the topmost disks, and the lower surface of the bottommost disk. These two
surfaces are not used for data recording in a disk pack. When not in use, disk packs are stored in
plastic cases. They are of removable/interchangeable type in the sense that they have to be mounted
on the disk drive, before they can be used, and can be removed and kept off-line, when not in use.
That is, different disk packs can be mounted on the same disk-pack drive at different instances of
time. This gives virtually unlimited storage capacity to disk packs.

3. Winchester Disk: A Winchester disk also consists of multiple (two or more) hard disk platters
mounted on a single central shaft. However, the main difference between a Winchester disk and a
disk pack is that Winchester disks are of fixed type. That is, the hard disk platters and the disk drive
are sealed together in a contamination-reel container, and cannot be separated from each other.
Hence, as opposed to disk packs, which have virtually unlimited capacity, Winchester disks have
limited capacity. However, for the same number of disk platters of the same size, Winchester disks
can manage to have larger storage capacity than disk packs.
Winchester disks were so named after the 30-30 Winchester rifle, because the early Winchester disk
systems had two 30-MB disks sealed together with the disk drive. The storage capacity of today’s
Winchester disks is usually of the order of a few tens of megabytes to a several gigabytes.

Advantages of magnetic disks:

 Magnetic disks support direct access of data.

 Due to its random access property, magnetic disks are often used simultaneously by multiple users as
a shared device.
 Magnetic disks are suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data.
 The storage capacity of magnetic disks is virtually unlimited.
 Due to their low cost and high data recording density, the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic
disks.

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  They can be erased and reused many times.
 They are easy to handle and store.
 Due to their compact size and light weight, they are easily portable from one place to another.
 Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is normally higher than a tape system.
 Magnetic disks are less vulnerable to data corruption than magnetic tapes.

Disadvantages of magnetic disks:

 For sequential data processing applications, the use of magnetic disk may be less efficient than
magnetic tapes.
 It is more difficult to maintain the security of information stored on magnetic disk, which are used as
shared, on-line secondary storage devices.
 Suitable backup procedures are suggested for data stored on Winchester disks due to disk crash or
drive failure.
 Some type of magnetic disks, such as disk pack and Winchester disks, are not easily portable like
magnetic tapes.
 On a cost-per-bit basis, the cost of magnetic disks is low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even
lower.
 They must be stored in a dust-free environment.
 Floppy disk, zip disk and disk packs should be labelled properly to prevent erasure of useful data by
mistake.

Uses:

 For applications that are based on random data processing.

 As a shared, on-line secondary storage device, Winchester disks and disk packs are often used for
this purpose.
 As a backup device for off-line storage of data, so that if by accident, the data on an on-line storage
device is corrupted, it can be retrieved from the backup storage.
 Archiving of data which are not used frequently
 Transferring of data and programs from one computer to another, which are not linked together.
 Distribution of software by vendors.
 As compared to magnetic tape and magnetic disk, optical disk is a relatively new secondary storage
medium. During the last few years, it has proved to be a promising random access medium for high
capacity secondary storage, because it can store extremely large amounts of data in a limited space.

Optical Disks
An optical-disks storage system consists of a rotating disk, which is coated with a thin metal or some other
material that is highly reflective. Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading of data on the disk.
Due to the use of laser beam technology, optical disks are also known as laser disk or optical laser disks.
Types of Optical Disks
All optical disk are round platters. They come in different size and capacities. The two most popular
types of optical disks in use today are CD-ROM and WORM disks.

CD-ROM
 CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-Read-Only Memory. It is a spin-off of music CD technology,
and works much like the music CDs used in music systems. In fact, if you have a soundboard and
speakers connected to your computer, you can play music CDs with your computer.
 The CD-ROM disk is a shiny, silver colour metal disk of 5 ¼ inch (12 cm) diameter. It has a
storage capacity of about 650 MB. It is so called because of its enormous storage capacity on a
compact size disk, and because it is a read-only storage medium. That is, these disks come pre-
recorded, and the information stored on them can’t be altered.

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 WORM Disk
WORM stands for write-once, read-many. WORM disks allow the users to create their own CD-
ROM disks by using a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive, which can be attached to a computer as a
regular peripheral device. WORM disk, which look like standard CD-ROM disks, are purchased
blank and encoded using a CD-R drive. The information recorded on a WORM disk by a CD-R drive
can be read by any ordinary CD-ROM drive. As the name implies, data can be written only once on a
WORM disk, but can be read many times.

Advantages of optical disks:

 The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low, because of their low cost and enormous
storage density.
 The optical disk a more reliable storage medium than magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.
 Optical disk has a data storage life in excess of 30 years. This makes them a better storage medium
for data archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.
 Since data once stored on an optical disk becomes permanent, the danger of stored data getting
inadvertently erased/ overwritten is not there with optical disks.
 Due to their compact size and light weight, optical disks are easy to handle, store and port from one
place to another.
 Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CD-ROM drive along with a sound board and
speakers. This allows computer systems to be also used as music systems, whenever desired.

Other types of optical disks are CD-RW, DVD-RW. These disks can be rewritten several times.
Disadvantages of optical disks:
 It is a read-only (permanent) storage medium. Data once recorded, can’t be erased, and hence, the
optical disks can’t be reused.
 The data access speed for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks.
 Optical disks required a more complicated drive mechanism than magnetic disks.

Uses:
 For distributing large amounts of data at low cost.
 For distribution of electronic version of conference proceedings, journals, magazines, books,
product, catalogues, etc.
 For distribution of new or upgraded versions of software products by software vendors.
 For storage and distribution of a wide variety of multimedia applications, such as video games.
 For archiving of data, which are not used frequently.

Flash Drives and Memory Cards

A flash drive is a portable storage system that uses sold-state memory ("flash memory") with an interface
like a hard disk drive, often a USB interface. A flash drive is also sometimes called a pen drive or USB
stick.
A memory card is a very small, portable electronic device for flash-memory data storage, which is used in a
digital camera, cell phone, computer or digital media player. Memory cards are flat in shape and would have
to be inserted into a card reader in order to read or write data onto them. Flash drives and memory cards
come in various sizes, ranging from 32mb to tens of gigabytes.

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CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION HARDWARE (DEVICE):
Communications devices allow users to communicate electronically with others and to access remote
information via the Internet or a home, school, or company computer network. Communications hardware
includes modems, routers, network adaptors / Network Interface Cards, etc.

SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions and associated documentation that tells a computer what to do or how to
perform a task. The computer hardware on its own is almost useless if there is no software to instruct or
drive it. Software can be categorised as System Software and Application Software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software consists of the operating system and utility programs that control functioning of your
computer and allow you to use it. These programs enable the computer to boot, to launch application
programs, and to facilitate important jobs, such as transferring files from one storage medium to another,
configuring your computer to work with the hardware connected to it, connecting your computer to a
network, managing files on your hard drive, and protecting your computer from unauthorized use.

Operating System:
The main component of system software that enables a computer to operate, manage its activities and the
resources under its control, run application programs, and interface with the user. The operating system
boots the computer, launches application software, and ensures that all actions requested by a user are valid
and processed in an orderly fashion.
In general, the operating system serves as an intermediary between the user and the computer, as well as
between application programs and the computer system’s hardware. Without an operating system, no other
program can run, and the computer cannot function.

Categories of Operating Systems:

Operating systems are typically designed for a particular type of device. Some categories of operating
systems are;

 Personal operating system: A type of operating system designed to be installed on a single

personal computer; also called a desktop operating system. E.g. are Windows XP, Windows
Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10, Ubuntu, Fedora, Linux Mint, Redhat, Mac OS X,
Chrome OS, CentOS, DOS etc
 Server operating system: A type of operating system designed to be installed on a network
server; also called a network operating system. E.g. are Windows Server 2008, Windows
Server 2012, Ubuntu Server, Fedora Server, CentOS Server, Mac OS Server,
 Mobile operating system: A type of operating system used with mobile phones and other
mobile devices. E.g. are Android, Windows Phone 7, Windows Phone 8, Windows RT, iOS,
Blackberry OS, FireOS, Enyo, Open webOS, Tizen etc.
 Embedded operating system: A type of operating system embedded into devices, such as cars
and consumer devices. E.g. are Windows Embedded, Android etc.

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Functions of an Operating System: Operating systems have a wide range of functions—some of the most
important are discussed next.

 Managing of Computers Resources: The operating system allows application software or user
programs such as word processing, spreadsheet and database packages to communicate with the
computer’s hardware.
 Managing Files And Memory: The operating system manages all the files o a computer. It
keeps tracks of the locations where programs and data are stored in the computer’s memory. For
example when you open a file that has been save to your hard drive, you first instructing the
computer to find that file, and then open it. The operating system also allows you to easily find
files stored in other secondary storage devices. Other file management functions include copying,
erasing, renaming and backing up files. In case of mainframe computers, the operating system
and what they did. Administrators can check the log for breaches and abuse of resources.
 Maintaining security: in network and larger computers each is user is given a username or ID
and password to gain access to the computer system. The operating system keeps a register of all
these names so that only the persons with valid usernames or IDs and passwords can access the
system. This prevents access by hackers and unauthorised persons. The operating system also
keeps a log which records which users logged in, the length of time each user stayed on the
system, and what they did. Administrators can check the log for breaches and abuse of resources.
 Managing tasks: early computers ran one process at a time. However, because of the fast speed
of the CPU and the much slower speeds of input/output devices, the CPU remained idle much of
the time. To reduce the idle time of the CPU multitasking or multiprogramming operating
systems were developed.
 Configuring Devices: The operating system also configures all devices connected to a computer.
Small programs called device drivers (or simply drivers) are used to communicate with
peripheral devices, such as monitors, printers, portable storage devices, and keyboards. Most
operating systems today include the drivers needed for the most common peripheral devices. In
addition, drivers often come on a CD packaged with the peripheral device or they can be
downloaded from the manufacturer’s Web site.
 Interfacing with Users: many operating system functions are never apparent on the computer’s
display screen. What you do see, though, is the user interface. The user interface is the user-
controllable part of the operating system which allows you to communicate, or interact with it.
User Interfaces: A user interface is the manner in which an operating system interacts with its users. There
two types of user interfaces; Command Line Interface and Graphical User Interface.
Most operating systems today use a graphical user interface (GUI). Graphical user interface (GUI), is a
graphically based interface that allows a user to communicate instructions to the computer easily. A GUI
graphical user interfaces allow the user to issue commands by selecting icons, buttons, menu items, and
other graphical objects—typically with a mouse, stylus, or finger. GUI is also graphically appealing to the
user.
Command line interface is a user interface that requires the user to communicate instructions to the
computer via typed commands. The older DOS operating system and some versions of the UNIX and Linux
operating systems use a command line interface, although graphical versions of UNIX and Linux are
available. Command line interfaces require users to input commands using the keyboard.

Utility Programs:
Utility program is a type of software that performs a specific task, usually related to managing or
maintaining a computer system. Many utility programs—such as programs for finding files, diagnosing and
repairing system problems, cleaning up a hard drive, viewing images, playing multimedia files, and backing
up files—are built into operating systems. There are also many stand-alone utility programs available as an
alternative to the operating system’s utility programs (such as a backup program) or to provide additional
utility features not built into the operating system being used (such as a registry cleaner or a file
compression program).
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Some types of utility programs include:

 File Management Programs: File management programs allow you to perform file management
tasks such as looking to see which files are stored on a storage medium, as well as copying, moving,
deleting, and renaming folders and files. E.g. is Windows Explorer, File Explorer etc.
 Search Tools: A utility program designed to search for files on the user’s hard drive. As the amount
of e-mail, photos, documents, and other important data individuals store on their computers
continues to grow, search tools are becoming more important. Search tools are often integrated into
file management programs and they are highly improved in recent versions of some operating
systems, such as Mac OS and Windows. There are also a number of third-party search tools
available.
 Diagnostic and Disk Management Programs: Diagnostic programs evaluate your system, looking
for problems and making recommendations for fixing any errors that are discovered. Disk
management programs diagnose and repair problems related to your hard drive. Diagnostic and disk
management utilities built into the Windows operating system include programs to check your hard
drive for errors and programs to optimize your hard drive (by rearranging the data on the hard drive
so all files are stored in contiguous locations—called disk defragmentation) so it works more
efficiently. Third-party utility programs can perform these and other related tasks, as well.
 Uninstall and Cleanup Utilities: As programs are used, temporary data is often created. When
programs are uninstalled (removed from the hard drive), this data and other remnants of that program
can be left behind on the hard drive or in system files unless an uninstall utility is used. If a user
removes programs by deleting the program’s folder (which is not the recommended method for
removing programs), the extraneous data is left behind, using up valuable disk space and, sometimes,
slowing down the computer. Uninstall utilities remove the programs along with related extraneous
data, such as references to those programs in your system files. Some uninstall capabilities are built
into most operating systems; often an uninstall option is also included in a program’s folder when
that program is originally installed.
 File compression program: A program that reduces the size of files, typically to be stored or
transmitted more efficiently. The most common format for user-compressed files in the Windows
environment is the .zip, or .zipx, .rar format, which is created by file compression programs such as
WinZip, the free 7-Zip program, and is used with the file compression features built into Windows 8.
Mac users typically use StuffIt (which creates files in the .sit or .sitx format) or a similar program,
although many file compression programs can open files compressed with other programs. A file
compression program is required to both compress (zip) and decompress (unzip) files, unless the
zipped file is made executable. WinRar with its form .rar is very popular compression program.
 Backup and Recovery Utilities: Virtually every computer veteran will warn you that, sooner or
later, you will lose some critical files. This could happen due to a power outage (if the file you are
working on has not yet been saved), a hardware failure (such as if your computer or hard drive stops
functioning), a major disaster (such as a fire that destroys your computer), or a user error (such as
accidentally deleting or overwriting a file). Creating a backup of you important files (data and
programs) would save you in such a situation. Backup is a duplicate copy of data or other computer
content in case the original version is destroyed. You can perform backups by manually copying files
using your file management program, but there are backup utility programs (both stand-alone and
built into operating systems) that make the backup process easier, such as the Windows Backup
program used in older versions of Windows and the File History program used in Windows 8 that
can be used to automatically back up your libraries, favourites, and contacts so they can be restored
if the originals are lost, corrupted, or accidentally deleted. Depending on its size, backup data can be
placed on a recordable or rewritable CD or DVD disc, an external hard drive, a USB flash drive, or
virtually any other storage medium. To protect against fires and other natural disasters, backup media
should be stored in a different physical location than your computer or inside a fire-resistant safe.
 Antivirus, Antispyware, Firewalls, and Other Security Programs: These are programs that we
use to protect the computer against malicious attacks/activities. E.g. of these programs include
Windows Defender, Avast, AVG, Windows Firewall, etc.

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APPLICATION SOFTWARE
They are programs that enable users to perform specific tasks on a computer, such as writing a letter or
playing a game. They are frequently referred to as apps. Application software can be categorised as:

 Word processing software: allows users to easily create and edit complex text-based documents
that can also include images and other content. E.g. are Microsoft Word, OpenOffice Writer, Pages,
Lotus WordPro, iWork, etc.
 Spreadsheet software: provides users with a convenient means of creating documents containing
complex mathematical calculations. E.g. are Microsoft Excel, Corel Quattro Pro, and Apple
Numbers etc.
 Database software: allows users to store and organize vast amounts of data and retrieve specific
information when needed. E.g. are Microsoft Access (part of the Microsoft Office software suite),
Corel Paradox, Oracle Database, and IBM’s DB2 etc.
 Presentation graphics software: allows users to create visual presentations to convey information
more easily to others. E.g. are Microsoft PowerPoint, Corel Presentations, and Apple Keynote etc.
 Web (Internet) Browser Software: A web browser is a program designed to you load, view and
send web content. Examples of web browsers are Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla
Firefox, Safari, Netscape Navigator etc.
 Desktop Publishing Software (DTP): are used to produce letters, brochures, newspapers, books and
any other type of graphically designed document. Examples of DTPs are Pagemaker, Microsoft
Publisher, Corel Ventura, QuarkXpress, Serif PagePlus, Adobe Indesign etc.
 Graphics Software: Graphics software (also called digital imaging software) is used to create or
modify images. Graphics software programs are commonly distinguished by whether they are
primarily oriented toward painting, drawing, or image editing, although these are general categories,
not strict classifications, and some products fit into more than one category. Painting programs
traditionally create bitmap images, which are created by colouring the individual pixels in an image.
Examples of graphics software are Microsoft Paint, Adobe Illustrator, CorelDRAW, and Corel
Painter, Adobe Photoshop Elements, Adobe Photoshop, Apple iPhoto, Corel PaintShop Pro etc.
 Media Players: Media players are programs designed to play audio and video files. They are used to
play media available via your computer—such as music CDs, downloaded music, or video streamed
from the Internet. Many media players are available for free, such as RealPlayer, iTunes, Windows
Media Player, and QuickTime Player.
 Educational, Entertainment, and Reference Software: A wide variety of educational and
entertainment application programs are available. Educational software is designed to teach one or
more skills, such as reading, math, spelling, a foreign language, or world geography, or to help
prepare for standardized tests. Entertainment software includes games, simulations, and other
programs that provide amusement. A hybrid of these two categories is called edutainment—
educational software that also entertains. Reference software includes encyclopedias, dictionaries,
atlases, mapping/travel programs, cookbook programs, nutrition or fitness programs, and other
software designed to provide valuable information. Although still available as stand-alone software
packages, reference information today is also obtained frequently via the Internet.
 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software: enables designers to design objects on the computer.
For example, engineers or architects can create designs of buildings or other objects and modify the
designs as often as needed. Example Auto CAD.
 Accounting and Personal Finance Software: Accounting software is used to automate some of the
accounting activities that need to be performed on a regular basis. Common tasks include recording
purchases and payments, managing inventory, creating payroll documents and checks, preparing
financial statements, keeping track of business expenses, and creating and managing customer
accounts and invoices. Personal finance software is commonly used at home by individuals to write
checks and balance checking accounts, track personal expenses, manage stock portfolios, and
prepare income taxes.
 Audio Capture and Editing Software: For creating and editing audio files, audio capture and audio
editing software is used. To capture sound from a microphone, sound recorder software is used; to

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 capture sound from a CD, ripping software is used. Examples are Sony Creative Software Sound
Forge Pro, Adobe Audition, Windows Sound Recorder, Apple GarageBand, and the free Audacity
program.

SOFTWARE OWNERSHIP RIGHTS

The ownership rights of a software program specify the allowable use of that program. After a software
program is developed, the developer (typically an individual or an organization) holds the ownership rights
for that program and decides whether or not the program can be sold, shared with others, or otherwise
distributed. When a software program is purchased, the buyer is not actually buying the software. Instead,
the buyer is acquiring a software license that permits him or her to use the software.

Software license is an agreement, either included in a software package or displayed on the screen when the
software is installed or launched, that specifies the conditions under which the program can be used. In fact,
many software licenses permit the software to be installed on only one computer. In addition to being
included in printed form inside the packaging of most software programs, the licensing agreement is usually
displayed and must be agreed to by the end user at the beginning of the software installation process.

Based on software license, there are four basic categories of software: commercial software, shareware,
freeware, and public domain software.

 Commercial software: Copyrighted software that is developed, usually by a commercial company,

for sale to others. When you buy a commercial software program (such as Microsoft Office,
TurboTax, or GarageBand), it typically comes with a single-user license, which means you cannot
legally make copies of the installation CD or file to give to your friends and you cannot legally
install the software on their computers using your copy. You cannot even install the software on a
second computer that you own, unless allowed by the license. Schools or businesses that need to
install software on a large number of computers or need to have the software available to multiple
users over a network can usually obtain a site license or network license for the number of users
needed. Examples of commercial software are Microsoft Office (office suite), Norton AntiVirus
(antivirus program), Adobe Photoshop (image editing program), Minecraft - Pocket Edition (game)
etc.
 Shareware: Copyrighted software that is distributed on the honour system; consumers should either
pay for it or uninstall it after the trial period. Most shareware programs are available to try free of
charge, but typically require a small fee if you choose to use the program regularly. By paying the
requested registration fee, you can use the program for as long as you want to use it and may be
entitled to product support, updates, and other benefits. You can legally and ethically copy shareware
programs to pass along to friends and colleagues for evaluation purposes, but those individuals are
expected to pay the shareware fee if they decide to keep the product. Examples are WinZip (file
compression program), Video Edit Magic (video editing program), Image Shrinker (image
optimizer), Deluxe Ski Jump 3 (game) etc.
 Freeware: Copyrighted software that may be used free of charge. Although freeware is available
without charge and can be shared with others, the author retains the ownership rights to the program,
so you cannot do anything with it—such as sell it or modify it—that is not expressly allowed by the
author. Freeware programs are frequently developed by individuals; commercial software companies
sometimes release freeware as well. Like shareware programs, freeware programs are widely
available over the Internet. Examples are Chrome (Web browser), LibreOffice (office suite),
QuickTime Player (media player), Evernote (notetaking/archiving software) etc.

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  Public Domain Software: Public domain software is not copyrighted; instead, the ownership rights
to the program have been donated to the public domain. Consequently, it is free and can be used,
copied, modified, and distributed to others without restrictions. Examples are Lynx (text-based Web
browser), Quake 3 (game) etc.

Software can also be categorised as Installed or Cloud Based or Portable software. We also have Mobile or
Desktop Software.
Software can also be classified as open source or proprietary source.
Open source software: Software programs made up of source code that is made available to the public.
Public can there modify, repackage and redistribute these software. An advantage of open source software is
that the public can review, fix, customise and extend the software. Whiles a disadvantage is that you really
get support from the developer. Another disadvantage is that hackers can detect and exploit weaknesses in
the software.
Proprietary source software: Software programs made up of source code that is not made available to the
public. The source code belongs to the developer and copyright owner(s) of the software only. Mostly,
commercial software are proprietary source.

COMPUTERS AND HEALTH

Despite their many benefits, computers can pose a threat to a user’s physical and mental well-being.

Physical Health
Common physical conditions caused by computer use include eyestrain, blurred vision, fatigue, headaches,
backaches, and wrist and finger pain. Some of the can be classified as:
Repetitive Stress Injuries (RSIs), these are hand, wrist, shoulder, or neck pain is caused by performing the
same physical movements over and over again. For instance, extensive keyboard and mouse use has been
associated with RSIs. One RSI related to the repetitive finger movements made when using a keyboard is
carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). CTS is a painful and crippling condition affecting the hands and wrists. CTS
occurs when the nerve in the carpal tunnel located on the underside of the wrist is compressed. An RSI
associated with typing on the tiny keyboards commonly found on smartphones and other mobile devices is
DeQuervain’s tendonitis. This is a condition in which the tendons on the thumb side of the wrists are
swollen and irritated.

RSI Preventive Measures:

1. Take frequent breaks during any long computer session to exercise your hands and arms.
2. Place a wrist rest between the keyboard and the edge of your desk to prevent injury due to
typing.
3. Place the mouse at least six inches in from the edge of the desk to prevent injury while using
the mouse. In this position your wrist is flat on the desk, which causes bending to occur at the
elbow rather than at the wrist.
4. Type on the computer keyboard as you would play the piano, lifting your fingers up and
down rather than your wrist.
5. Position the mouse at the same height as your keyboard. When you slide the mouse around,
move your entire arm and not just your wrist.

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Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) is a collection of eye and vision problems associated with computer
and mobile device use. The most common symptoms are eyestrain or eye fatigue, dry eyes, burning eyes,
light sensitivity, blurred vision, headaches, and pain in the shoulders, neck, or back. Eyestrain and CVS are
growing more common as individuals are increasingly reading content on the small displays commonly built
into smartphones and other mobile devices. Other conditions related to mobile device use include gorilla
arm (a term coined by Apple’s Steve Jobs to refer to the arm fatigue associated with the prolonged vertical
use of a touch screen) and iPad shoulder (a term used to refer to the shoulder and neck injuries that people
who look down at a tablet in their laps are at risk for).

CVS Preventive Measures:

1. Take a break of 5 to 10 minutes away from the computer every hour.

2. Reduce glare and reflections from the computer screen clean your screen and block out
excessive sunlight and reflections from lamps.
3. Adjust the contrast and brightness of the computer screen so that there is a high contrast
between text on the screen and the screen background.
4. Prevent eyestrain the top of your screen needs to be at, or slightly below, eye level; find a
comfortable distance between your eyes and the screen (usually 18 to 28 inches).
5. Gently massage your eyes, checks, forehead, neck and upper back from time to keep blood
flowing and muscles loose.

Lower Back Pain: Lower back pain can be caused by bad posture or poorly designed or incorrectly
assembled furniture or equipment

Lower Back Pain Preventive Measures:

1. Use a firm, adjustable and comfortable chair. Adjust the chair height so that your thighs are
horizontal, your feet are flat on the floor and the backs of your knees are slightly higher than the seat
of your chair. The back of the chair should support your lower back.
2. Stretch your lower back now and then by standing up and pulling each knee to your chest, holding
that position for a few seconds.
3. Relax your shoulders. When you are keyboarding your upper arm and forearm should form a right
angle, with your wrist and hand in roughly a straight line.
4. Take short breaks (5 to 10 minutes per hour) get up from your desk and walk around.

Below are preventive measures for some other common physical health conditions related to computer use;

Wrist/arm/hand soreness and injury:

1. Use a light touch on a keyboard and touch screen.

2. Rest and gently stretch your fingers and arms every 15 minutes or so.
3. Keep your wrists and arms relaxed and parallel to the floor when using a keyboard.
4. When using a touch screen for extended periods of time, place the device more horizontally than
vertically.
5. When using a device with a small keyboard, type short messages, take frequent breaks, and use a
separate keyboard whenever possible.
6. Use an ergonomic keyboard, ergonomic mouse, computer gloves, and other ergonomic devices if
you begin to notice wrist or hand soreness.

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Eyestrain:

1. Cover windows or adjust lighting to eliminate glare.

2. Rest your eyes every 15 minutes or so by focusing on an object in the distance (at least 20 feet away)
for one minute and then closing your eyes for an additional minute.
3. Make sure your display’s brightness and contrast settings are at an appropriate level and the display
is placed at an appropriate distance from your eyes.
4. Use a larger text size or lower screen resolution, if needed. You should be able to read your display
screen from three times the distance at which you normally sit.

Sore or stiff neck:

1. Use good posture; never hunch over a keyboard or device.

2. Place your display and any documents you need to refer to while using your device directly in front
of you.
3. Adjust your display to a comfortable viewing angle with the top of the screen no higher than 3 inches
above your eyes.
4. Use a headset if you spend a significant amount of time on the phone; never prop a phone between
your face and shoulders.

Backache; general fatigue:

1. Use good posture and adjust your chair to support your lower back; use an ergonomic chair, if
needed.
2. Use a footrest, if needed, to keep your feet flat on the floor.
3. Walk around or stretch briefly at least once every hour.
4. Alternate activities frequently.
5. When traveling, bring lightweight devices and carry only the essentials with you.

Ringing in the ears; hearing loss:

1. Turn down the volume when using headphones (you should be able to hear other people’s voices).
2. Wear over-the-ear-headphones instead of earbuds.
3. Limit the amount of time you use headphones or earbuds.
4. Use external speakers instead of headphones when possible.

Leg discomfort or burns:

1. Use a laptop desk, cooling stand, or other barrier between a portable computer and your legs when
using a computer on your lap.

Emotional Health
The extensive use of computers and mobile devices in the home and office in recent years has raised new
concerns about emotional health. Factors such as financial worries, feelings of being overworked, being
unable to relax, and information overload often produce emotional stress. Decades of research have linked
stress to a variety of health concerns, such as heart attacks, stroke, diabetes, and weakened immune systems.

For many individuals, computer use or computer-related events are the cause of, or at least partially
contribute to, the stress that they experience. Another emotional health concern related to computer use is
addiction to the Internet or another technology.

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Some examples of emotional health conditions include:

 Stress of Ever-Changing Technology: As computers and mobile devices have become continually
more integrated into our society, jobs that did not require the use of a computer or a mobile device in
the recent past frequently require it today, and individuals are increasingly required to use a
computer in day-today activities. And, at the rapid pace that technology keeps changing, many
workers must regularly learn new skills to keep up to date. For example, they may need to upgrade to
a new version of a software program, learn how to use a new software program, or learn how to use a
new mobile device feature or app. Although some find this exciting, the ongoing battle to stay
current with changing technology creates stress for many individuals.
 Impact of Our 24/7 Society: One benefit of our communications oriented society is that one never
has to be out of touch. With the use of smartphones, media tablets, and portable computers, as well
as the ability to access e-mail and company networks from virtually anywhere, individuals can be
available around the clock, if needed. Although the ability to be in touch constantly is an advantage
for some people under certain conditions, it can also be a source of stress for most people. For
example, employees who feel that they are “on call” 24/7 and cannot ever get away from work may
find it difficult to relax during their downtime. This results in anxiety.
 Information Overload: The situation where you suffer from access to too much information from
different source such that it affects your productivity and, or wellbeing.
 Burnout: A state of fatigue or frustration usually brought on by overwork.
 Internet and Technology Addiction: The problem of overusing, or being unable to stop using, the
Internet.

ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the science of fitting a work environment to the people who work there. It typically focuses
on making products and workspaces more comfortable and safe to use. With respect to computer use, it
involves designing a safe and effective workspace, which includes properly adjusting furniture and hardware
and using ergonomic hardware when needed. A proper work environment (used in conjunction with good
user habits and procedures) can prevent many physical problems caused by computer use. A proper work
environment is important for anyone who works on a computer or mobile device, including employees using
a computer, media tablet, or smartphone on the job, individuals using one of these devices at home, and
children doing computer activities or texting while at home or at school.

Workspace Design:
The design of a safe and an effective computer workspace (whether it is located at work, home, or school)
includes the placement and adjustment of all the furniture and equipment involved, such as the user’s desk,
chair, computing device, and peripheral devices such as a keyboard and monitor. Workspace lighting or
glare from the sun also needs to be taken into consideration. Proper workspace design can result in fewer
injuries, headaches, and general aches and pains for computer users. Some products that can be used to
improve the workspace include adjustable chairs and tables, footrests, docking stations, device stands, laptop
desks etc. Businesses can reap economic benefits from proper workspace design, such as fewer absences
taken by employees, higher productivity, and lower insurance costs.

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 Figure 2: Shown here are some guidelines for designing an ergonomic workspace

Ergonomic Hardware:
Hardware, typically an input or output device, that is designed to be more ergonomically correct than its
non-ergonomic counterpart. Ergonomic hardware can be used to help users avoid physical problems due to
extensive computer use or to help alleviate the discomfort associated with an already existing condition.
Some of the most common types of ergonomic hardware are;

 Ergonomic keyboards use a shape and key arrangement designed to lessen the strain on the hands
and wrists. They are available in both desktop and mobile versions.
 Trackballs are essentially upside-down mice and ergonomic mice use a more ergonomically correct
design; both can be more comfortable to use than a conventional mouse. A vertical mouse (designed
to be used in a vertical position) is an example of an ergonomic mouse.
 Tablet arms connect to a desk or to a monitor and hold a media tablet at the proper height for
comfortable viewing.
 Document holders can be used to keep documents close to the monitor, enabling the user to see both
the document and the monitor without turning his or her head.
 Antiglare screens (also called privacy filters) cover the display screen and can be used to lessen
glare and resulting eyestrain. Many antiglare screens double as privacy screens, preventing others
sitting next to you (such as on an airplane) from reading what is displayed on your display screen.
 Keyboard drawers/trays lower the keyboard so it is beneath the desk or table top, enabling the user
to keep his or her forearms parallel to the floor more easily.
 Computer gloves support the wrists and thumbs while allowing the full use of the hands. They are
designed to prevent and relieve wrist pain, including carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, and other
RSIs.
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 THREATS TO COMPUTERS
A computer threat refers to anything that has the potential to cause serious harm to a computer system.
Threats are potentials for vulnerabilities to turn into attacks on computer systems, networks, and more. They
can put individuals’ computer systems and business computers at risk, so vulnerabilities have to be fixed so
that attackers cannot infiltrate the system and cause damage. Threats when they occur can result in data loss,
system failure, service delay / denial and other consequences.
Threats can include everything from viruses, trojans, back doors to outright attacks from hackers. Often, the
term blended threat is more accurate, as the majority of threats involve multiple exploits. For example, a
hacker might use a phishing attack to gain information about a network and break into a network.
A computer threat can intentional or unintentional. Computers threats can be categorised by their origin:
natural threats or human threats.
Natural threats are threats to computers systems that are the result of natural disasters. Some examples of
natural threats include fire, heat, flood, storms, lightening etc.
Human threats are threats to computers systems that are the result of human action or inaction. Examples are
malicious code, sabotage, errors & omissions, neglect, fraud, theft, etc.

SOME COMMON COMPUTERS THREATS:

Malicious Code / Malware: Malicious code is program or computer code that is intended to have
undesirable effects on the computer system. These include virus, worms, Trojan horse, spyware etc.

 Virus: A software program capable of reproducing itself and usually capable of causing great harm
to files or other programs on the same computer. A computer virus can be classified as Boot Sector
Virus, File Infector Virus, Macro Virus, and Script Virus based on its characteristics. Examples of
viruses include C-Brain, Macmag, Cascade, Jerusalem, etc.
 Trojan Horse: Is any malicious computer program which misleads users of its true intent. Trojans
do not replicate by infecting other files or computers. Instead, they survive by going unnoticed. They
may sit quietly in your computer, collecting information or setting up holes in your security, or they
may just take over your computer and lock you out. Trojans are classified according to the type of
actions that they can perform on your computer: Backdoor, Exploit, Rootkit, Trojan-Banker, Trojan-
DDoS, Trojan-Downloader, Trojan-Dropper, Trojan-FakeAV, Trojan-GameThief, Trojan-IM,
Trojan-Ransom, Trojan-SMS, Trojan-Spy, Trojan-Mailfinder, Trojan-ArcBomb, Trojan-Clicker,
Trojan-Notifier, Trojan-Proxy, Trojan-PSW. Examples of Trojan Horse is Netbus, Sub7, Back
Orifice, Beast, Bifrost Trojan, DarkComet, Blackhole exploit kit, Gh0st RAT, MegaPanzer
BundesTrojaner, Clickbot.A, Zeus, Flashback Trojan, ZeroAccess, Koobface, Vundo, Meredrop,
Coreflood, Tiny Banker Trojan, Shedun (Android malware), etc.
 Worms: A computer worm is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order
to spread to other computers. Once a worm has made its way onto your system, usually via a network
connection or as a downloaded file, it can then make multiple copies of itself and spread via the
network or internet connection infecting any inadequately-protected computers and servers on the
network. Because each subsequent copy of a network worm can also self-replicate, infections can
spread very rapidly via the internet and computer networks. Worms can be classified as Email-
Worm, IM-Worm, IRC-Worm, Net-Worm, P2P-Worm. Examples of worms are The ILOVEYOU,
Michelangelo, and MSBlast worms are famous examples.

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All malicious code is man-made. Malicious code is usually spread by:

a) Email: Cybercriminals are notorious for including malicious attachments and links in emails that
appear to come from friends, reputable organizations, or other trusted sources. Some malicious
emails can even infect your computer from the email client’s preview pane, without your opening or
downloading an attachment or a link.
b) The Internet: Surfing the Web may feel like a private activity, but in fact you’re exposing your
computer to unwanted contact with anyone else who has a computer and Internet access. All you
have to do is visit a website or click a link and you’re a potential victim.
c) Outdated software: Malware crawls the Internet, looking for vulnerabilities of outmoded software
to spread its influence over computer systems. Be especially careful if you’re surfing the Web with
outdated software (and update with the latest versions as soon as you can), including your browsers,
operating systems, or system plug-ins.
d) Local Area Networks (LANs): A LAN is a group of locally connected computers that can share
information over a private network. If one computer becomes infected with malware, all other
computers in the LAN may quickly become infected as well.
e) Instant messaging (IM) and peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing systems: If you’re using a client for
these online activities, malware may spread to your computer.
f) Social networks: Malware authors take advantage of many popular social networks, infecting the
massive user-data networks with worms. If a social website account is infected with a worm, just
about anyone who visits a poster’s profile page could “catch” the worm on her system.
g) Pop-ups: Some of the most sophisticated malware spreads through well-disguised screen pop-ups
that look like genuine alerts or messages. One particularly devious—and widespread—“hoax pop-
up” claims to have scanned your computer and detected malware. If you attempt to remove the
malware as urged, you’ll actually install the malware.
h) Computer storage media: Malware can be easily spread if you share computer storage media with
others, such as USB drives, DVDs, and CDs. While it may seem safe to open a CD of photos from a
colleague, it’s always best to scan unfamiliar files first for possible corruptions or security risks
before you copy or open them.
i) Mobile devices: Mobile malware threats have become increasingly prevalent (see Chapter 6,
“INSERT CHAPTER TITLE”), as more people use their smartphones and tablets as mini-computers,
helping malware problems proliferate across additional platforms.

Malicious code attacks can be prevented through:

a) Use firewall, antivirus, anti-malware, and anti-exploit technology: Your firewall and antivirus
programs will detect and block the known malicious code or activities. Meanwhile, your anti-
malware and anti-exploit software can fend off sophisticated attacks from unknown agents, stopping
malware infection in real time and shielding vulnerable programs from exploit attack.
b) Log out of websites after you’re done: Did you log into website using your super-strong password?
You could still be leaving yourself vulnerable if you don’t log out, especially if you’re using a public
computer. It’s not enough to just close the browser tab or window. A person with enough technical
prowess could access login information from session cookies and sign into a site as you.
c) Update your operating system, browsers, and plugins. Updates to operating systems, browsers,
other software and plugins are often released to patch any security vulnerabilities discovered. So if
you don’t update your software, cybercriminals can find their way in through the vulnerabilities.
d) Use strong passwords and/or password managers. A strong password is long, is not written down
anywhere, is changed often, and isn’t tied to easily found personal information, like a birthday. It’s
also not repeated for different logins. Admittedly, that’s a tough cookie to swallow. If you don’t want
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 to worry about remembering 5,462 different rotating passwords, you may want to look into a
password manager, which collects, remembers, and encrypts passwords for your computer.
e) Make sure you’re on a secure connection. Look for the padlock icon to the left of the URL. If it’s
there, then that means the information passed between a website’s server and your browser remains
private. In addition, the URL should read “https” and not just “http.”
f) Avoid using infected storage devices on your computer.

Hardware Malfunction: Hardware can malfunction for many reasons. The most common of which are:
 Normal wear and tear of parts and circuitry: Over time, computers will wear down, simply
because they are partly mechanical.
 Poor assembly by manufacturer: Computers are not always perfectly built, in which case the
malfunction is the responsibility of the manufacturer.
 Dust accumulation: This can especially cause the cooling system in computers to fail, resulting in
damage to the equipment and possible data loss.
 Extreme heat: This can cause damage to the magnetic and other parts of computer equipment.
 Power fluctuations: A poor electricity supply that results in fluctuations in a building’s power
supply could cause equipment failure.
 Humidity: Too much humidity can lead to rust of parts of computer equipment.
 Vermin: This refers to creatures that are unwanted in the working environment. They may be
rodents, insects, or other animals. They can cause damage by chewing, urinating or dumping their
waste in and around computer equipment.
 Vandalism: Intentionally causing damage to computer equipment.
You can prevent some hardware malfunction by:
a) Performing regular maintenance/servicing of the computer equipment
b) Keeping the computing environment clean, cool and dry
c) Using power surge protector/suppressor and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
d) Avoid keeping food and liquids (water) in computer environments.
e) Computer rooms must be secure and accessible to only authorised persons.

UNETHICAL USE OF COMPUTERS:

Software Piracy: Is the unauthorized use, reproduction or distribution of copyrighted software. This is an
infringement of ownership rights. Therefore you should use only software that you have license to. And you
must use it only within the terms and conditions of your license. Anything outside of that is illegal.
Hacking and Cracking: The act of gaining unauthorized access to data in a system or computer. Hacking
allows individuals or organisations to access sensitive, personal, business or organisational information
without the right authorisation. Hacking is only legal if it is done with the victim’s permission (In which
case it may be a way to test the victim’s computer security readiness). Hacking if is done for criminal
purposes may be for any of the following reasons:

 To steal important and highly confidential data

 To copy computer programs illegally
 To alter data
 To destroy data by either deleting it or installing virus to destroy or corrupt it
 To transfer funds from the victim’s account to another.
Cyberbullying or cyberharassment: Is a form of bullying or harassment using electronic means. It has
become increasingly common, especially among teenagers. Harmful bullying behaviour can include posting
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rumours, threats, sexual remarks, a victims' personal information, or pejorative labels (i.e., hate speech).
Bullying or harassment can be identified by repeated behaviour and intent to harm. Victims may have lower
self-esteem, increased suicidal ideation, and a variety of emotional responses, including being scared,
frustrated, angry, and depressed. Cyberbullying may be more harmful than traditional bullying.

Internet Fraud: Is a type of fraud which makes use of the Internet. This type of fraud varies greatly and
appears in many forms. It ranges from E-mail spam to online scams. Internet fraud can occur even if partly
based on the use of internet services and is mostly or completely based on the use of the internet.

Cybersquatting: The act of registering a domain name with the intent to profit from the goodwill of a
trademark belonging to someone else.

Computer hoax: An inaccurate statement or story spread through the use of computers. This is common on
social media.

Digital manipulation: The alteration of digital content, usually text or photographs, music, etc. In addition
to being a copyright concern, digital manipulation (digitally altering digital content) can be used to misquote
individuals, repeat comments out of context, retouch photographs—even create false or misleading
photographs—and so is an ethical concern, as well. While there are some beneficial, ethical,
noncontroversial applications of digital manipulation (such as aging photos of missing children to show
what they may look like at the present time, or altering photos of wanted criminals or suspects to show
possible alternate appearances for law enforcement purposes), the matter of altering photos for publication
purposes is the subject of debate.

COMPUTER LAB RULES AND REGULATIONS

General Rules

1) Students will not be allowed in any computer lab without adult supervision.
2) No downloading without teacher approval.
3) Save only to home directory.
4) Limit printing - teacher approved.
5) No gum, candy, food or drinks allowed in computer labs.
6) Do not deface or damage any equipment.
7) Do not place any inappropriate items into or underneath any equipment.
8) Keep cords out of your mouth.

Before You Come In

9) Keep your hands clean.

10) Leave gum, candy, food, and drinks outside.

Before You Leave the Lab

11) Make sure you have saved your work.

12) Make sure you have picked up all printed documents.
13) Close all programs.
14) Log out.
15) Push your chair under the table.

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