Correlation between Cyclic Resistance and Shear-Wave

Velocity for Providence Silts

Christopher D. P. Baxter, P.E., M.ASCE1; Aaron S. Bradshaw, P.E., M.ASCE2;
Russell A. Green, P.E., M.ASCE3; and Jian-Hua Wang4

Abstract: As an alternative to a field-based liquefaction resistance approach, cyclic triaxial tests with bender elements were used to
develop a new correlation between cyclic resistance ratio 共CRR兲 and overburden stress-corrected shear-wave velocity 共VS1兲 for two
nonplastic silts obtained from Providence, Rhode Island. Samples of natural nonplastic silt were recovered by block sampling and from
geotechnical borings/split-spoon sampling. The data show that the correlation is independent of the soils’ stress history as well as the
method used to prepare the silt for cyclic testing. The laboratory results indicate that using the existing field-based CRR-VS1 correlations
will significantly overestimate the cyclic resistance of the Providence silts. The strong dependency of the CRR-VS1 curves on soil type also
suggests the necessity of developing silt-specific liquefaction resistance curves from laboratory cyclic tests performed on reconstituted
samples.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-0241共2008兲134:1共37兲
CE Database subject headings: Silts; Liquefaction; Cyclic tests; Shear waves; Velocity.

Introduction
The objective of this study is to develop a correlation using labo-
ratory tests that relates cyclic resistance to shear-wave velocity
for two natural, nonplastic silts obtained from Providence, Rhode
Island. Previous studies have shown that a large number of factors
affect the shear-wave velocity 共VS兲 in soils, including effective
confining stress, void ratio, stress history, degree of saturation,
grain characteristics, strain amplitude, frequency of the shear
wave, aging effects, soil structure, and temperature 共Richart et al.
1970兲. These same factors also influence the static and cyclic
shear strength of soils, providing impetus for correlating cyclic
resistance to shear-wave velocity.
A recent cyclic resistance-shear-wave velocity correlation de-
veloped from field performance data is shown in Fig. 1 共Andrus
and Stokoe 2000兲. In this figure, the vertical axis is cyclic resis-
tance ratio 共CRR兲 and the horizontal axis is shear-wave velocity
normalized to an effective stress of 100 kPa 共VS1兲. As may be
observed from Fig. 1, the effect of increasing fines content on the
1
Associate Professor, Depts. of Ocean/Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI 02882. E-mail:
baxter@oce.uri.edu
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Merrimack College,
North Andover, MA 01845. E-mail: aaron.bradshaw@merrimack.edu
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail: rugreen@engin.
umich.edu
4
Professor, Geotechnical Engineering Institute, Tianjin Univ., Tianjin,
P. R. China 300072. E-mail: tdwjh@eyou.com
Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2008. Separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible
publication on July 12, 2006; approved on February 6, 2007. This paper
is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineer-
ing, Vol. 134, No. 1, January 1, 2008. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/2008/1-
37–46/$25.00.
CRR curve is similar to the trends observed in the Standard Pen-
etration Test 共SPT兲- and Cone Penetration Test 共CPT兲-based CRR
correlations 共i.e., at a given VS1, CRR increases with increasing
fines content up to 35%; at fines contents greater than 35%, the
CRR-VS1 relationship is assumed to remain constant兲. However, it
is not known whether the correlation shown in Fig. 1 is applicable
to the nonplastic Providence silts.
An alternative approach to using field performance data to
develop correlations between CRR and VS1 is to use laboratory
data. Although there have been a number of laboratory studies
that have investigated the liquefaction resistance of silts 共Ishihara
et al. 1980; Prakash and Sandoval 1992; Boulanger et al. 1998;
Bray and Sancio 2006兲, the authors are not aware of any labora-
tory studies that have developed relationships between the cyclic
resistance of silts and shear-wave velocity. As opposed to previ-
ous laboratory studies where cyclic resistance has been correlated
to in situ penetration resistance using relative density, the advan-
tage of using shear-wave velocity is that it can be measured in
both the laboratory and the field. In the laboratory, VS can be
evaluated using proximity sensors 共Tokimatsu et al. 1986兲, bender
elements 共De Alba et al. 1984; Huang et al. 2004; Zhou et al.
2005; Liu and Mitchell 2006兲, or torsional shear wave transducers
共Wang et al. 2006兲. In the field, VS can be obtained from a variety
of methods including cross-hole tests, down-hole tests, or by the
spectral analysis of surface waves technique. The accuracy and
resolution of the VS measurement depends on the method em-
ployed, but comparisons between laboratory and field VS mea-
surements have been made in sands with good success. For ex-
ample, Robertson et al. 共1995兲 and Chillarige et al. 共1997兲 showed
that laboratory bender element and seismic cone VS data were
comparable when corrections are used to correct the data for over-
burden stress and anisotropic conditions.
This paper first presents the results of previous laboratory cy-
clic resistance/shear wave studies on sands to provide the basis
for extending the approach to silts. The laboratory testing pro-
gram used in this study is then described in detail, and the test

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Fig. 1. Field-based CRR correlations used in the simplified
procedure for evaluating cyclic resistance of soils from in situ
shear-wave velocity 共Andrus and Stokoe 2000兲
results are used to develop a relationship between CRR and VS1.
Finally, the correlations developed in the present study are com-
pared to existing laboratory data as well as existing field-based
correlations.
Previous Laboratory-Based Studies
Beginning with the study by De Alba et al. 共1984兲, several labo-
ratory studies have been performed to investigate the relationship
between shear-wave velocity and the cyclic resistance of sand
共Tokimatsu et al. 1986; Tokimatsu and Uchida 1990; Huang et al.
2004; Zhou et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2006兲. In these studies, cyclic
resistance was evaluated using isotropically consolidated, stress-
controlled cyclic triaxial tests. The cyclic resistance ratio obtained
from a cyclic triaxial test 共CRRtx兲 is defined as the applied cyclic
stress ratio 共CSR兲 required to reach initial liquefaction 共or a speci-
fied level of strain兲 in a given number of loading cycles. The CSR
in an isotropic triaxial test is equal to ⌬␴d / 2␴⬘c0, where ⌬␴d
= cyclic deviator stress, and ␴⬘c0 = initial effective confining stress.
Data from these studies indicate that at constant effective con-
fining stress, the correlation between CRRtx and VS for a given
soil is independent of the method of sample preparation and stress
history. For example, De Alba et al. 共1984兲 and Huang et al.
共2004兲 showed that when samples of the same soil were prepared
using different placement methods over a range of void ratios, the
data plot along the same CRRtx-VS curve. Additionally, Tokimatsu
et al. 共1986兲 showed that samples subjected to preshearing 共i.e.,
seismic history兲 or overconsolidation increased both the cyclic
resistance and shear-wave velocity, such that the samples plotted
close to the data with no prior stress history. This is illustrated by
Tokimatsu’s test data shown in Fig. 2, where CRRtx in the figure
is defined as the CSR to reach 5% double amplitude 共DA兲 strain
in 15 loading cycles. DA strain is defined as the sum of the peak
compressive and extensive strains in a given cycle.
38 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2008
Fig. 2. Cyclic triaxial test results showing the relationship between
cyclic resistance and small strain shear wave velocity for two sands
共adapted from Tokimatsu et al. 1986兲
In addition to investigating various sample preparation meth-
ods, Tokimatsu et al. 共1986兲 compared test results from standard
tube samples to high quality undisturbed samples obtained by in
situ ground freezing. When the tube samples were presheared to
match the VS of the undisturbed samples, the strengths were the
same. Similar findings were obtained by Wang et al. 共2006兲, who
measured the cyclic resistance and VS of intact samples of sands
and silts obtained by thin-walled tube sampling. Additionally,
samples were reconstituted and a combination of preshearing and
overconsolidation were used to match the VS to the intact speci-
mens. At the same shear-wave velocity, the strengths of the re-
constituted samples matched those of the intact samples.
While the above-mentioned laboratory studies show that
CRRtx-VS correlations are independent of stress history and
sample preparation methods, the data shown in Fig. 2 indicate
that the correlations are strongly dependent on soil type. Note that
the data shown in Fig. 2 are for two different clean, uniform
sands. Other studies have drawn similar conclusions 共De Alba et
al. 1984; Tokimatsu and Uchida 1990; Zhou et al. 2005兲.
Based on the literature presented, laboratory-derived correla-
tions relating cyclic resistance to shear-wave velocity are viable
alternatives to those based on field performance data, particularly
when the former is developed for a specific soil. This is true even
when reconstituted samples are used in the laboratory study, thus
avoiding the difficulties and cost of obtaining undisturbed speci-
mens 共Höeg et al. 2000; Long 2001; Baxter et al. 2006兲. How-
ever, as will be discussed later in this paper, both the cyclic re-
sistance and the shear-wave velocity measured in the laboratory
must be corrected to represent the conditions in the field.
Properties of the Providence Silts
The nonplastic silts commonly encountered in coastal Rhode
Island were deposited as proglacial lake sediments during the last
glacial retreat 共Murray 1988兲. The silts are angular in shape and
were deposited as a sequence of seasonal varves, with alternating
finer-grained layers in winter and coarser-grained layers in sum-
Table 1. Properties of the Silts Used in This Study
Specific
Soil gravity % ⬍ 0.075 mm
Olneyville silt 2.71 96
Farmer’s Market silt 2.70 95
a
Maximum void ratio determined by placing a slurry and allowing it to settle in a graduated cylinder.
b
Minimum void ratio determined from a modified compaction test 共ASTM D 1557兲.
mer. Therefore, these soils are anticipated to be normally consoli-
dated in the field unless they are above the water table, where
desiccation may have occurred.
The silts tested in this study were obtained from two sites
located in the Providence area 共Bradshaw 2006兲. These include
the Olneyville silt, which was obtained by block sampling
共ASTM D 7015-04兲, and the Farmer’s Market silt that was recov-
ered by a combination of drilling and split-spoon sampling. A
summary of their geotechnical properties is given in Table 1 and
their grain size distributions are shown in Fig. 3. As shown in
Fig. 3, the Olneyville silt is finer-grained, but both silts are com-
posed of about 95% fines 共i.e., particle diameter less than
0.075 mm兲. The Atterberg limits of the silts could not be deter-
mined, and thus the silts are considered to be “nonplastic”. The
silts are classified as ML according to the unified soil classifica-
tion system.
The block sample of Olneyville silt, shown in the photograph
in Fig. 4共a兲, was carved out of an excavation at a depth of about
1 m below the ground surface. Because the silt was excavated
above the water table, capillary stresses provided a relatively
stiff sample. The block sample was coated with wax and cheese
cloth, and encased in a plywood box for careful transport back
to the laboratory. Consolidation and triaxial specimens were
trimmed and tested within one week of obtaining the block
sample. A photograph of a trimmed specimen in Fig. 4共b兲 and the
profile of dry unit weight in Fig. 5共a兲 illustrate the varved nature
of these deposits. Measurements of unit weight were obtained at
1 mm increments using a multisensor core logger that is com-
Fig. 3. Grain size distribution of the Providence silts used in this
study
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Maximum Minimum
D50 void void
% ⬍ 0.005 mm 共mm兲 ratioa ratiob
6 0.018 1.22 0.61
6 0.033 0.92 0.46
monly used in the offshore industry 共Schultheiss and Weaver
1992兲. The average in situ water content of the Olneyville block
sample was about 34% with a saturation level close to 100%. A
consolidation test performed on a specimen trimmed from the
block sample suggests that the soil is overconsolidated, most
likely from desiccation.
The Farmer’s Market silt was obtained from drilling and split-
spoon sampling. Previous experience with sampling in the field
by the authors indicated that it was not possible to obtain undis-
turbed samples of loose, nonplastic silt using conventional thin-
walled piston samplers 共Baxter et al. 2006兲. Therefore, a 7.6-cm
diameter split spoon with a core catcher was used to recover
representative samples of silt for laboratory testing.
The minimum and maximum void ratios of the silts were de-
termined for calculation of relative density 共Dr兲. The silts would
not densify using the vibrating table method that is commonly
used to determine the minimum void ratio 共ASTM D 4253兲. How-
ever, Polito and Martin 共2001兲 showed that for silty sands, the
modified compaction test 共ASTM D 1557兲 gave similar results to
the vibrating table test. Therefore, the minimum void ratios were
obtained for the silts using the modified compaction test. The silts
also exhibited unreasonably high bulking when a dry sample was
used for determination of the minimum density 共ASTM D 4254兲,
thus the maximum void ratios were obtained by allowing a slurry
to settle out in a graduated cylinder.
Cyclic Triaxial Testing with Bender Elements
Cyclic triaxial tests were performed on both the block samples
and reconstituted samples of silt. Samples were consolidated iso-
Fig. 4. Photographs of 共a兲 block sampling of Providence silt; 共b兲
triaxial specimen trimmed from the block sample
Fig. 5. Typical dry unit weight profiles obtained in triaxial specimens
using a multisensor core logger for a 共a兲 block sample; 共b兲 moist
tamped sample
tropically to an effective confining stress 共␴⬘c0兲 of 100 kPa with an
applied backpressure of at least 500 kPa. To help saturation,
carbon dioxide gas was bubbled through the specimens prior to
inundation with deaired water. B-parameters of 0.94 to 0.98 were
achieved for all the tests. Following consolidation, a 1 Hz sinu-
soidal load was applied to the specimens.
Shear-wave velocity measurements were made prior to cyclic
loading using bender elements mounted in the sample end caps.
The instrumentation was developed at the University of Rhode
Island 共Hanchar 2006兲 based on the systems described in Landon
共2004兲 and Baxter and Mitchell 共2004兲. The bender elements
consist of piezoceramic material that can convert a voltage to
mechanical bending and vice versa. A shear wave is generated
from a bender element mounted on one end of the sample, and
the received wave is detected at the other end. The shear-wave
velocity was calculated from the tip-to-tip distance 共Lee and
Santamarina 2005兲 and the travel time of the wave. The system
delay, determined by placing the benders in contact with each
other, was removed from the measured travel time.
The transmitted wave consisted of a solitary sine wave having
a frequency of 5 kHz. A typical received signal is shown in Fig. 6.
The travel time was taken to be the point of first zero crossing, as
recommended by Lee and Santamarina 共2005兲.
Reconstitution by Modified Moist Tamping
Reconstituted samples were prepared using a modified moist
tamping 共MMT兲 method described in Bradshaw 共2006兲 and
Bradshaw and Baxter 共2007兲. In this approach, samples are
compacted in layers, while systematically increasing the compac-
tive effort in each layer. Uniform density samples, as illustrated in
Fig. 5共b兲, could be prepared quickly and easily. It was also found
by Bradshaw and Baxter 共2007兲 that the molding water content
used during tamping had a significant influence on the cyclic
resistance of silts. The strengths of samples tamped at an initial
saturation 共S兲 of about 55% matched the strengths of both nor-
mally consolidated samples prepared from a slurry, as well as
40 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2008
Fig. 6. Typical shear wave signal received by the bender elements
showing the point of the first zero crossing used for calculation of
shear-wave velocity
overconsolidated specimens trimmed from the block sample.
However, at lower molding water contents, the cyclic resistance
was significantly higher due to differences in fabric. Therefore, to
investigate the influence of sample preparation on the CRR-VS1
relationship in this study, samples were prepared at initial satura-
tion levels of 55% 关i.e., MMT 共S = 55% 兲兴 and 15% 关i.e., MMT
共S = 15% 兲兴.
Cyclic Behavior of the Providence Silts
Cyclic triaxial tests were performed on the Olneyville and Farm-
ers’ Market silts to develop relationships between CRRtx and VS
for each silt. The first series of tests was performed on specimens
of Olneyville silt trimmed from the block sample having a void
ratio of about 0.88 共Dr ⬃ 55% 兲. Although the block samples used
in this study were overconsolidated, they provided a means to
investigate the effect of structural fabric 共i.e., varves兲 as well as
stress history on the CRRtx-VS correlation. Typical results from a
test on the block sample are shown in Fig. 7. The figure shows
applied cyclic deviator stress, DA strain, and pore pressure ratio
共ru兲 versus number of stress cycles. The pore pressure ratio is the
excess pore pressure divided by the initial effective confining
stress. The results from the test shown in Fig. 7 indicate that
excess pore pressures gradually accumulate within the sample,
eventually reaching a pore pressure ratio of unity, indicating ini-
tial liquefaction 共i.e., zero effective stress兲 in about 12 cycles.
After initial liquefaction was reached, the DA strains increased
more rapidly. However, because the sample remained dilative, as
indicated by the downward spikes in the pore pressure data, the
samples have limited potential for large deformations after initial
liquefaction.
Additional tests were performed on reconstituted samples of
Olneyville silt prepared to the same relative density as the block
sample. Typical results from a sample prepared using MMT
共S = 55% 兲 are shown in Fig. 8. In contrast to the block sample,
once initial liquefaction was reached in the reconstituted sample
in about 11 cycles, the DA strains increased very rapidly. The
Fig. 7. Typical cyclic triaxial test results from a specimen of
Fig. 8. Typical cyclic triaxial test results obtained from a sample of
Olneyville silt trimmed from the block sample
Olneyville silt prepared using modified moist tamping

stiffness of the sample was also significantly reduced and was no to those presented above were obtained using ru = 1% and 5% DA
longer able to sustain the applied shear stress. The contractive strain failure criteria, with the results for the latter criterion shown
nature of the reconstituted sample suggests that it may be suscep- in Fig. 11. Because 5% DA strain failure criterion will be used
tible to flow liquefaction, having the potential for large post- later in this paper to compare the laboratory results to field data,
liquefaction deformations. only the results for 5% DA strain are presented in Fig. 11 and
Previous studies on fine-grained soils indicate that at the stan- subsequent figures. As shown in Fig. 11, for a given sample
dard loading rate of 1 Hz, the pore pressures measured at the ends preparation method, the cyclic resistance increases with increas-
of the specimen may not be representative of the pore pressures at ing relative density. However, in comparing the two preparation
the interior of the sample 共Boulanger et al. 1998; Bray and Sancio
2006兲. However, it is clear by the test data shown in Figs. 7 and
8 that the samples reach initial liquefaction in about the same
number of cycles as the initiation of large strains. Therefore, it is
surmised that the measured pore pressures are representative of
the pore pressures in the interior of the sample.
Using a pore pressure ratio of unity as the failure criterion 共i.e.,
ru = 1兲, the cyclic resistance of the MMT 共S = 55% 兲 samples
matched the strength of the block samples as shown in Fig. 9.
Note for these test data, the average shear-wave velocities for
these samples were also similar 共⬃216 m / s兲. Similar results were
obtained using 5% DA strain as the failure criterion, as shown in
Fig. 10. The results of reconstituted samples tamped at an initial
saturation of 15% 关MMT 共S = 15% 兲兴 are also shown in Figs. 9
and 10. These samples had higher strengths and a higher average
shear-wave velocity 共224 m / s兲 than the block samples and the
MMT 共S = 55% 兲 samples. Considering that all the data shown in
Figs. 9 and 10 are from samples prepared to approximately the
same relative density, any differences in strength must be attrib-
uted to differences in fabric. The shear-wave velocity captured the
effect of fabric on cyclic resistance, independent of whether the
fabric was associated with structure 共i.e., varves兲, stress history,
or sample preparation.
Additional tests were performed over a range of relative den- Fig. 9. Cyclic resistance of the Olneyville silt as determined from
sities using reconstituted samples of Olneyville silt tamped at the specimens trimmed from the block sample and prepared by modified
two different saturation levels 共S = 15% and 55%兲. Similar results moist tamping

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Fig. 10. Cyclic resistance of the Olneyville silt as determined from
specimens trimmed from the block sample and prepared by modified
moist tamping
methods, it was observed that relative density alone was not a
good indicator of strength due to differences in the fabric associ-
ated with each preparation method. For example, the MMT
共S = 15% 兲 samples at 36% relative density had higher strengths
than the MMT 共S = 55% 兲 samples at 48% relative density. By
contrast, the shear-wave velocity alone provided an excellent in-
dication of the changes in cyclic resistance. These findings are
consistent with those concluded by others on sand.
The results from Figs. 10 and 11 are used to develop Fig. 12,
which is a plot of CRRtx for 10 and 20 loading cycles versus
average shear-wave velocity. Best-fit curves are drawn through
both sets of data to show the general trend. As may be observed
Fig. 11. Comparison of the cyclic strengths of Olneyville silt
prepared by modified moist tamping 共MMT兲 at initial saturation
levels of 55 and 15%
42 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2008
Fig. 12. Correlation between cyclic resistance and shear-wave
velocity for the Olneyville silt for 10 and 20 loading cycles
from this figure, there is minimal difference between the two
curves. This is consistent with the relatively flat CSR number
of cycles to liquefaction curves for the silt shown in Fig. 11,
which are in contrast to those of sand that are typically steeper.
Fig. 12 also indicates that for a given number of cycles, the data
from the overconsolidated block sample and the data obtained
using two different sample preparation methods fall on the same
curve.
The CRRtx-VS correlations shown in Fig. 12 were derived from
samples having a range of relative density, fabric, and stress
history, and therefore, it is anticipated that they can be used to
estimate the liquefaction resistance of silts having a range of
properties. Also, these correlations suggest that reconstituted
samples prepared by modified moist tamping 共S = 55% 兲 can be
used to develop these correlations in similar soils. Based on this
finding, the same approach was used to develop a correlation for
the Farmer’s Market silt. These results are shown in Fig. 13 for
ten loading cycles along with the correlation for Olneyville silt
that was shown previously in Fig. 12. As may be observed from
Fig. 13, the correlations between cyclic resistance and shear-wave
velocity differ for these soils, even though both soils are nonplas-
tic silt. This reemphasizes the findings of De Alba et al. 共1984兲
and Tokimatsu et al. 共1986兲 that the CRRtx-VS relationship is soil
specific.
The fact that CRRtx-VS correlations are soil specific is not
altogether surprising. Early studies showed that VS is strongly a
function of void ratio 共Richart et al. 1970兲, while cyclic resistance
was shown to be strongly a function of relative density 共Seed and
Idriss 1971兲. Consequently, for a given soil, cyclic resistance cor-
relates well with VS. However, even small differences in the maxi-
mum and minimum void ratios between two soils will result in
very different relative densities for a given void ratio, thus indi-
cating that cyclic resistance does not uniquely correlate to VS for
multiple soils.
Conversion of Laboratory Data to Field Conditions
In order to make comparisons between the CRRtx-VS correlations
developed above and those developed by others using field per-

Fig. 13. Correlation between cyclic resistance and shear-wave
velocity for the Olneyville and Farmer’s Market silts
formance data 共e.g., Fig. 1兲, corrections need to be applied to the
laboratory shear-wave velocities and cyclic resistances to account
for boundary and stress conditions. The correction to shear-wave
velocity is discussed first, followed by the correction to cyclic
resistance.
Shear-Wave Velocity
A similar approach to those presented in Robertson et al. 共1995兲
and Chillarige et al. 共1997兲 was used to convert the laboratory VS
measurements to field values. In the VS-based simplified curves,
the in situ measured shear-wave velocity is corrected to a refer-
ence stress of 100 kPa by the following 共Robertson et al. 1992;
Andrus and Stokoe 2000兲:
冉 冊
0.25
Pa
VS1 = VSCV = VS 共1兲
␴⬘v0
where VS⫽in situ shear-wave velocity; CV⫽effective stress “cor-
rection factor” for shear-wave velocity; Pa⫽reference stress
共100 kPa兲; and ␴⬘v0⫽vertical effective stress at the depth of the VS
measurement.
For normally consolidated silts at level ground sites, the shear-
wave velocity measured in the field corresponds to at-rest stress
conditions. Therefore, VS1 calculated using Eq. 共1兲 corresponds
to VS for ␴⬘v0 = Pa and ␴⬘h0 = K0␴⬘v0, where ␴⬘h0⫽horizontal effective
stress, and K0⫽lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest. Since
the cyclic triaxial tests were performed under isotropic stress
conditions, the shear-wave velocity measured in the specimen
needs to be modified to an anisotropic stress condition to allow
comparisons with VS1 field data. This can be achieved using
the empirical relationship having the form 共Roesler 1979; Bellotti
et al. 1996兲
VS = C␴⬘ana␴⬘bnb␴⬘c nc 共2兲
where ␴a⬘⫽principal stress in the direction of wave propagation;
␴⬘b⫽principal stress in the direction of particle motion;
␴⬘c ⫽principal stress acting normal to the plane defined by
the direction of wave propagation and particle motion; na, nb,
and nc⫽empirically determined exponents; and C⫽empirically
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2008 / 43
determined constant. Laboratory data suggest that nc ⬇ 0 and
na ⬇ nb ⬇ n 共Stokoe et al. 1985; Bellotti et al. 1996兲 and therefore,
Eq. 共2兲 simplifies to
VS = C共␴⬘a␴⬘b兲n 共3兲
As may be observed from this equation, shear-wave velocity var-
ies as a function of the product of the principal stresses ␴⬘a and ␴⬘b.
In a triaxial compression test with bender elements mounted in
the end caps, ␴a⬘ = ␴1⬘; ␴b⬘ = ␴3⬘. Therefore, Eq. 共3兲 can be used to
express the shear-wave velocity for anisotropic and isotropic con-
ditions, respectively, as
VS = CKn0␴⬘12n 共4兲
VS = C␴⬘c02n 共5兲
For ␴⬘1 = Pa, VS = VS1 in Eq. 共4兲. Hence, by solving Eq. 共5兲 for C
and substituting the result into Eq. 共4兲 for ␴⬘1 = Pa, the following
expression can be derived for VS1:
冉 冊
2n
Pa
VS1 = VSKn0 共6兲
␴⬘c0
The stress corrected shear-wave velocity was calculated from the
measured shear wave data using Eq. 共6兲 assuming n equal to
0.125, which is a typical value for most soils 共Andrus and Stokoe
2000兲. Given that the silts in the field are normally consolidated,
an intermediate K0 value of 0.45 was assumed in calculating VS1
from the laboratory data.
Cyclic Resistance
As discussed previously, the existing field-based CRR correla-
tions shown in Fig. 1 are based on observations of the manifes-
tation of liquefaction at the ground surface 共e.g., sand boils,
ground settlements, and ground cracking兲. It is likely that to get
these surface features, the “liquefied” soils exhibited contractive
behavior post liquefaction or the shaking had sufficient duration
and intensity to induce large strains in dilative soils. A strain
criterion of 5% DA strain was therefore used by the authors to
define “failure” in the laboratory cyclic tests. This criterion is
consistent with that used in previous laboratory and field perfor-
mance data comparisons 共Tokimatsu and Uchida 1990; Rauch et
al. 2000; Zhou et al. 2005兲.
Consistent with the existing simplified CRR curves 共e.g.,
Fig. 1兲, the correlation developed in this study for silt will be
developed for an earthquake having a moment magnitude 共M W兲
of 7.5. Equivalent numbers of stress cycles of either 15 or 20
have been proposed for a magnitude 7.5 earthquake 共Seed et al.
1983; Ishihara 1993; Idriss 1999兲. However, a recent study by
Boulanger and Idriss 共2004兲 suggests that the equivalent number
of cycles may be different in “clay-like” soils than in “sand-like”
soils. Since the Providence silts are nonplastic and thus “sand
like,” it is expected that the equivalent number of cycles that have
been previously developed for sands are applicable. Also, the cy-
clic strength of the silt is not drastically different within the range
of 10 to 20 cycles 共Fig. 12兲. Therefore, as recommended by Seed
et al. 共1983兲, 15 cycles was used to represent a M W 7.5 event.
The cyclic resistances obtained in the triaxial tests were also
converted to field values using the following expression, which
accounts for both direct simple shear and multidirectional shaking
共Seed 1979兲:

Fig. 14. Comparison between the existing field-based correlations of
Andrus and Stokoe 共2000兲 and laboratory-based correlations from
two silts and three clean sands
CRR = 0.9 ⫻ cr ⫻ CRRtx 共7兲
where CRR⫽cyclic resistance ratio in the field; cr⫽factor used to
convert triaxial to direct simple shear conditions; and
CRRtx⫽CSR to cause 5% DA strain in 15 cycles in a cyclic
triaxial test. Expressions have been developed that relate cr to the
initial stress state of the test specimen 共Finn et al. 1971; Castro
1975; Yoshimi et al. 1984兲. Seed initially proposed cr = 0.63 for
normally consolidated sand, which was also adopted for the sands
presented in this study. However, more recent data suggests that
cr may also vary as a function of soil type with values of 0.7 to
0.8 being applicable for fine-grained soils 共Boulanger et al. 1998;
Bray and Sancio 2006兲. In line with the higher range of cr, the
following relationship was used for the silts in this study 共Castro
1975兲:
2共1 + 2K0兲
cr = 共8兲
3冑3
assuming K0 = 0.45 for normally consolidated silt, cr = 0.73. It is
important to note, however, that recent studies by Kammerer et al.
共2002兲 suggest that cr may be an oversimplification of a complex
process and thus warrants further research 共Bray and Sancio
2006兲.
Comparison of Laboratory and Field-Based
Correlations
The CRR-VS1 correlations developed in the laboratory for this
and other studies are compared to the field-based correlations of
Andrus and Stokoe 共2000兲 in Fig. 14. The laboratory-based
correlations for clean sands that are shown in this figure are based
on triaxial test data from Tokimatsu et al. 共1986兲 for Niigata and
Toyoura sands and from Huang et al. 共2004兲 for Mai Liao sand.
The two correlations developed for the Providence silts in this
study are also shown in the figure for a range of VS1 values typi-
cally measured in very loose to medium dense deposits in the
field. For example, recent seismic cone penetration tests per-
44 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY 2008
formed in the Farmer’s Market silt yielded VS1 values ranging
from about 160 to 240 m / s 共Bradshaw et al. 2007a,b兲. Although
the laboratory correlations shown in Fig. 14 are based on tests
performed on reconstituted samples, they provide comparable re-
sults to tests performed on frozen sand samples 共Tokimatsu et al.
1986兲 and block samples of silt.
The laboratory data for clean sands shown in Fig. 14 represent
the possible range in properties that could be expected for clean
sands in the field. Because they are clean sands, they are compa-
rable to the field-based curve for soils with a fines content 共FC兲
ⱕ5%. As may be observed from Fig. 14, the field-based correla-
tion significantly underestimates the liquefaction resistance of
Mai Liao and Niigata sands, while overestimating the resistance
of Toyoura sand. It is clear from this data that the correlation
between CRR and VS1 is soil specific.
In evaluating the liquefaction resistance of the Providence silts
using the field-based correlation, the curve for FCⱖ 35% is used
共Fig. 14兲. As shown in this figure, the laboratory-based correla-
tions for both Providence silts plot well below the field-based
curve. Therefore, using the field-based correlation would signifi-
cantly overestimate the liquefaction resistance of these silts. As
with the clean sands, the correlation between CRR and VS1 for
nonplastic silts is also soil specific.
Conclusions
Previous laboratory studies in sands have shown that shear-wave
velocity can be correlated to liquefaction resistance. Therefore, a
new correlation between cyclic resistance ratio and shear-wave
velocity was developed for two natural, nonplastic silts obtained
from Providence, Rhode Island. Cyclic triaxial tests on block and
reconstituted samples of the silt show that shear-wave velocity
captures the influence of relative density and fabric on cyclic
resistance. However, similar to sands, the correlation between cy-
clic resistance and shear-wave velocity is soil specific.
Data from previous laboratory studies on sands and the labo-
ratory data generated as part of this study on silt were compared
to field-based CRR-VS1 curves. The data show that the field
curves of Andrus and Stokoe 共2000兲 can either underestimate or
overestimate cyclic resistance of clean sands, depending on the
type of sand. In addition, the existing field curves significantly
overestimate the liquefaction resistance of the Providence silts.
Based on the strong dependence on soil type, it is suggested that
soil-specific correlations be developed from laboratory tests. The
development of such correlations should be cost effective, par-
ticularly for large projects, because reconstituted samples can be
used in the testing program.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded jointly by grants from the University
of Rhode Island Transportation Center 共URITC兲 and the Rhode
Island Department of Transportation 共RIDOT兲. Special thanks to
Mike Sherrill of RIDOT, Justin Monahan of GZA Geoenviron-
mental, Inc., and Charlie Martino of Pezzuco Construction, Inc.
for help in obtaining the soils used in this study. The writers
would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their
thoughtful criticisms of the manuscript and suggestions.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
C ⫽ constant in the empirical equation for
shear-wave velocity;
cr ⫽ factor to correct CSR in the triaxial test to
direct simple shear;
CV ⫽ overburden stress correction factor for
shear-wave velocity;
CRR ⫽ cyclic resistance ratio in the field;
CRRtx ⫽ cyclic resistance ratio obtained from a cyclic
triaxial test;
CSR ⫽ cyclic stress ratio;
Dr ⫽ relative density;
Gmax ⫽ small strain shear modulus;
K0 ⫽ coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest;
Pa ⫽ reference stress of 1 atm 共⬃100 kPa兲;
na, nb, nc, n ⫽ exponents used in the empirical shear-wave
velocity equation;
ru ⫽ pore pressure ratio;
S ⫽ saturation level at the end of moist tamping;
VS ⫽ shear-wave velocity;
VS1 ⫽ overburden stress-corrected shear-wave
velocity;
⌬␴d ⫽ cyclic deviator stress;
␳ ⫽ soil bulk density;
␴⬘a, ␴⬘b, ␴⬘c ⫽ effective stresses in the direction of wave
propagation, direction of particle motion,
and out of plane stress direction, respectively;
␴⬘c0 ⫽ initial effective confining stress;
␴⬘v0 ⫽ initial vertical effective stress; and
␴1⬘, ␴⬘3 ⫽ major and minor principle effective stresses,
respectively.
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