ABC 3rd Edition Rev.1r

AIRLINE BASIC
COURSE
3RD EDITION
2013
EGYPTAIR AIRLINES
FLIGHT TRAINING DEPARTMENT
Airline Basic Course (ABC)
Second revised edition, 2000
Copyright  1997 and 2000 by

Captain El Nadi (G.M. Flight Training Department).
All rights reserved, including the right to

reproduce any part of this book, by any means,
without the written permission of the publisher.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
To those of you who have tried to do the most difficult of all tasks, which is to write and produce
a document such as this, those are the people whose time, effort and help are solely responsible
for the completion and success of this course.
In no particular order, but with gratitude for their patience and discipline in the face of my
continual demand of improvement thanks to :
Captain Fakhry Tawadros First Officer Ahmed Badr

Captain Mohamed Nassar First Officer Ziad El Nadi
Captain John Elias First Officer Mahmoud El Nadi
Captain Ayman El Mokadem
Captain Sameh Salem Mr Hasan Diab
Captain Mohamed Ghareeb Mr Sobhy El Masood
Captain Hesham El Esawy
Captain Amr Abo El Einin Eng. Mohamed Morsi
Captain Sherif El Manakhly Eng. Fathy Saleh
Captain Alaa Ashour Eng. Magdy Farid
Captain Ayman Nasr Eng. Nabil El Arabi
Captain Sameh El Hefny Eng. Mohamed El Semary
Captain Amir Gaber Eng. Mohamed El Sharkawy
Captain Ihab El Tahtawy
Captain Mohamed Samir
Captain Khaled Sobhy And also to the great effort of :
EgyptAir Training Center Engineers.
Captain Ahmed El Nadi
General Manager Flight Training

AIRLINE BASIC COURSE 3rd EDITION
Preface
The ABC Handbook is written to provide newly hired pilots who lack jet experience
with the necessary knowledge that qualify them for line training. This handbook
introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they
progress in their pilot training, in eventually becoming a qualified EgyptAir First
Officers. This handbook is also useful for line pilots aiming to review any theoretical
knowledge of the vast variety of subjects that this handbook includes.
Occasionally the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is
deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret or
supersede the Civil Aviation Regulations or any regulation in the Operations Manual
of EgyptAir.
This handbook supersedes and is intended to be an updated version of the ABC book,
Second Edition, dated 2000.
This book is produced by EgyptAir’s Flight Training Department, Cairo, Egypt
Comment regarding this publication should be sent in e-mail form to the following
address:
ftd@egyptair.com
Copyright © EgyptAir Airlines, 2013 All Rights Reserved.
ABC THIRD EDITION © 2013 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
i
AIRLINE B ASIC COURS E 3 rd EDITION
WELCOME TO EGYPTAIR
COMPANY PROFILE
Company name EG YPTAIR Holding Company
Address ( EGYPTAIR Holding Company Admin complex, Airport
headquarter) Road, Cairo, Egypt
Date Established May 1932
Main areas of Passenger, Cargo, Catering, Tourism , Duty-free,
business Medical Services, Ground services, Supplementary
Industries, Maintenance &Engineering
EGYPTAIR was found as a private company in May 1932, becoming the 7th airline
in the world to Join IATA. July 2002 EGYPTAIR changed it’ structure into a holding
company with 9 subsidiaries. We are now operating in average 600 weekly flights, to
more than 76 destinations international and domestic destinations; 12 in Egypt, 17 in
Africa, 20 in the Middle East, 7 in Asia, 20 in Europe and 1 in the Americas, Served
by 32,000 employees.
EGYPTAIR Airlines is the main subsidiary of EGYPTAIR Holding. Throughout 81

years of service, we have successfully extended our network to reach major
destinations across the world. We operate more than 366 weekly flights to more than
69 worldwide destinations and also cover additional destinations through code-share
agreements. We are executing a major project for route network restructuring,
focusing on direct flights, and using Cairo International Airport as our main hub.
VALUES
 Safety comes first
 Efficiency.
 Serving the Egyptian economy.
 Teamwork.
 Continuous Learning.
 Serving the Egyptian community.
vi
VISION
A distinguished brand in the airline industry offering value and providing a major
network hub to regional and international destinations.
MISSION
With the state-of-art technology, we link cultures, we sustain growth and maximize
value to our clients; and proudly provide air transport services to various local,
regional and international communities.
OBJECTIVES
 Customer focus, both internal/external.
 Profitability, favorable relation between revenues/costs.
 Staff professionalism, increase staff motivation /professionalism.
MAIN GOALS
 Enhance EGYPTAIR’s image, making it the customer’s first and only choice.
 Improve EGYPTAIR’s competitive stance regionally and internationally.
 Activate Cairo International Airport as a major hub.
 Increase EGYPTAIR’s share in different markets.
 Cohere to the country’s national concept; and achieve the best results in the
national economy during crisis.
 Update to the latest technology to comply with the global trends and open new
markets.
 Generate revenue and achieve profitability.
 Reduce costs not neglecting quality.
 Change EGYPTAIR’s staff culture to reflect the Egyptian spirit in
performance.
DATA WORTH KNOWING
Industry Benchmarks YR. 2009/2010 YR.2010/2011 Change YR .2011/2012 Change

% %
Passenger Traffic 9,033,427 8,242,879 -9% 8,310,855 1%
No. of Destinati ons 61 60 -2% 63 5%
Passenger Load
72% 60% -4 65% -3
Factor (PLF)
Revenue Passenger
19.000 17.514 -8% 17.589 0%
km (RPK Million)
Available Seat km
26.403 25.731 -3% 27.073 5%
(AS K Million)
* Egyptair data includes airlines & express except no. of destinations for airlines only
* Egyptair data includes schedule and non schedule ( additional and hajj)
vii
STAR ALLIANCE
An Alliance is an association between two or more companies designed to further
develop their common interests, to enhance air travel benefits & experiences for the
customer. This creates a competitive business advantage against other alliances that
offer some of the same benefits & enhancements.
Star Alliance was found on May 14th 1997 it began with five of the world’s leading
airlines joined by a common idea-to be the leading global airline alliance for the high-
value international traveler – the mission was to achieve together what would be
impossible alone.
On October 16, 2007 the Chief Executive Board of Star Alliance voted to accept
EgyptAir as a future member. The airline had already forged commercial and
cooperative agreements with several members of the Star Alliance by then, including
Lufthansa, Singapore Airlines, Austrian Airlines, Thai Airways International, Swiss
International Airlines, South African Airways, Turkish Airlines and bmi. Nine months
after being invited as a future member (a record time by any airline joining an
alliance), EgyptAir became the 21st member of Star Alliance in a ceremony held in
Cairo on 11 July 2008.
viii
Sources
“Flight Planning”. Jeppesen. Atlantic Flight Training Ltd. Frankfurter Str. 233. 63263
Neu-Isenburg, Germany. ISBN 0-88487-497-4
“Meterology”. Jeppesen. Atlantic Flight Training Ltd. Frankfurter Str. 233. 63263
“Aerodynamics”. Jeppesen. Atlantic Flight Training Ltd. Frankfurter Str. 233. 63263
“Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge”. U.S. Department of Transportation

FAA. 2008
“Airworthiness Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II),
Versions 7.0 & 7.1 and Associated Mode S Transponders”. Advisory Circular. U.S.
Department of Transportation FAA. 9/25/09
Dickinson Dave. “Top Ten Developments in Aviation H istory”. Listosaur. 8/19/2011.
“How Did We Learn to Fly Like the Birds?”. NASA.

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/historyofflight.html
“Take-off considerations”. Fly Safe. 3/11/2013

http://flysafe.raa.asn.au/groundschool/umodule11.html
“B737-500 Flight Crew Operating Manual”. The Boeing Company.
“B737-800 Flight Crew Operating Manual”. The Boeing Company.
“A318/A319/A320/A321 Flight Crew Operating Manual”. Airbus
“Basic Route Manual”. Jeppesen. The Boeing Company.
ix
Table of Contents
Preface--------------------------------------------------------------------------i
Keynote ------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Acknowledgement -----------------------------------------------------------v
Welcome to EgyptAir -------------------------------------------------------vi
Sources-------------------------------------------------------------------------ix
CHAPTER 1
GEOGRAPHICAL AND CULTURAL ORIENTATION
CHAPTER 2
LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
CHAPTER 3
EGYPTIAN CIVIL AVIATION REGULATIONS (ECARs)
CHAPTER 4
COCKPIT FAMILIRIZATION AND CHECKLIST PHILOSOPHY
CHAPTER 5
JET CHARACTERISTICS
CHAPTER 6
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 7
AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS
CHAPTER 8
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
x
CHAPTER 9
JET PERFORMANCE
CHAPTER 10
INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION
CHAPTER 11
FLIGHT PLANNING
CHAPTER 12
METEOROLOGY
CHAPTER 13
ATC
CHAPTER 14
JEPPESEN
CHAPTER 15
OPERATIONS MANUAL
CHAPTER 16
AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING
APPENDIX
xi
AIRLINE BASIC COURSE 3rd EDITION Rev.1
CHAPTER 1
“GEOGRAPHICAL AND CULTURAL
ORIENTATION”
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is designed to gradually upgrade your local flying experience to an
international perspective. This chapter aims to direct pilots' attention to the fact that
they will be landing in and overflying many countries with different languages,
cultures, and beliefs. Pilots must be flexible enough to react and control their
behaviors and attitudes in different regions of the world, in reaction to different
traditions and beliefs which in comparison with their culture and nature may appear to
be irrational and strange.
This chapter also gives examples of differences between the political borders of a
state or country and flight information region (FIR) borders.
OBJECTIVE
This chapter is designed to build up the Geographical & Cultural awareness of pilots
to enable them to respond to the challenges that they will face throughout their
careers.
Chapter 1
GEOGRAPHICAL AND CULTURAL ORIENTATION 1-1
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD ATLAS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The word GEOGRAPHY is derived from the Greek meaning (Earth Description).
Back in the 16th century a Belgian geographer called Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594)
was the leader of the map-making revolution.
Figure 1.1 Six Panel Map
In 1554, his six-panel map of Europe was the best of its kind for many decades. At
that time Earth had just been recognized to be a sphere. In 1569, he made the first
map that translated the spherical earth into a two dimensional plane. It had parallel
lines of longitude and compass courses. Mercator`s great Atlas began in 1569 and he
used the Titan, supporting the celestial sphere on his shoulders as the cover of his
collection of maps.
Figure 1.2 Titan
Chapter 1
THE ATLAS
The Atlas is a book of maps or charts that may include either a specific region or the
entire world. It may also feature economic statistics, climate, geology, population, and
many other subjects.
Whenever airliners fly from one country to another, they should bear in mind that
they will overfly many countries and states, which each have different geographical
features and structures.
The Atlas of the world is very useful reference for pilots and will generally include a
very wide range of different maps starting from the general map of the world to the
very detailed maps of major cities and countries around the world.
Also the following related statistics are found in Atlas:
- Agriculture
- Average annual precipitation
- World climatic zones
- World population density
- World average temperature (January & July)
Figure 1.3 Atlas
Chapter 1
GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

- The total area of the Earth is 510,072,000 sq. Km (Five hundred and ten
million and seventy two thousand square kilometers)
- The land area is only 148,940,000 sq. km (One hundred and forty eight million
and nine hundred and forty thousand square kilometers) i.e. Almost 29% of
the Earth is land and the rest is water
- The world is organized into 195 independent political states with a population
of 7.054 billion (2012), expected to be between 7.5 and 10.5 billion by the
year 2050.
APPLICABILIY OF USE IN A COCKPIT

Although pilots are not authorized to use other than the company’s official and
updated Jeppesen charts, pilots are expected to show background knowledge about the
exact name of the area they are flying over and some information about the nature and
climate zone of that region of the world. This is why the Atlas is a very good and
unofficial helpful reference in the cockpit.
The following questions may typically arise in a passenger’s mind and it is expected
that the pilot will have an accurate answer.
 What is the name of this Island, sea or city?

 How high is that mountain we have just crossed and what is its name?
 What is the population of the country we are over flying?
And many other questions which you will find the answer to in an Atlas.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AVIATION CHARTS AND ATLAS

CHARTS
Aviation charts are not ordinary charts where one may open and locate cities and
countries names. They are specifically tailored for aviators who are able to interpret
the meanings of its symbols, abbreviations and codes. This is why aviation charts are
considered to be of very limited use like the ordinary charts. The international
language used in aviation charts is the English language. On the other hand, the Atlas
charts are ordinary charts from which anybody can easily locate any information or
data that they need. The Atlas charts are gathered and projected in a very easy manner
and are published in almost all the languages. The Atlas charts are accessible in any
bookstore and in any language.
Aviation charts in general are very limited to scale changes, except when a dense area
of airways exists or when the phase of flight is changed from overflying to arrival and
Chapter 1
landing at an airport. Atlas on the other hand, uses a very wide range of scales to cater
for the needs of people using it for different reasons.
FIRs VS. POLITICAL BORDERS

FIRs & Political borders are not necessarily the same. One may expect that any
country or state is only responsible for the control of the airspace that coincides with
its political borders, but this is not the case. In the aviation world, according to mutual
agreements between neighboring states, an ATC’s area of responsibility may exceed
the political borders of its country and may extend to control a part or all of
neighboring states airspace. These agreements may be based on political, economic or
geographical reasons.
For example:
THAILAND AND CAMBODIA
Bangkok control is not only controlling traffic over Thailand but the whole
Cambodian airspace as well.
Another example:
BAHRAIN AND SAUDI ARABIA
Bahrain is a small island in the Persian Gulf but it controls its airspace and a big part
of the eastern Saudi airspace.
Many other examples are present in the aviation world, which you will see in your
future flights.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
LANGUAGE & ACCENT
Language is a system of communications specific to the human race. It is primarily
orderly patterns of sound produced by the human voice (oral) and perceived and
processed by the ear (aural). There are many theories of how, why, when, and where
languages started, but a specific origin or age hasn’t been identified. Whatever the
details of the first emergence of language, somewhere between 3,000 and 8,000
distinct languages are being spoken in the world at present.
Despite the great variety of languages spoken throughout the world, all languages are
essentially similar in structure and function, most particularly in their basic
architecture and expressive power.
Chapter 1
So many languages and accents exist all over the world, so pilots must be always
prepared to react with any foreign accent, and never feel embarrassed to ask people to
repeat their message in a slower manner in order to receive the correct meaning.
Although the international language of aviation is the English language, since pilots
fly over several countries in one flight, they must closely listen to the way the
different air traffic controllers speak and try to recognize the accents.
For example when flying over the Far East region, it can be noted that many people
there do not pronounce the letter (R) at all.
Another example is when flying over Africa, pilots will barley be able to distinguish
between letters. In order to receive a clearance, pilots have to concentrate extremely
to be sure of what the controller said.
On the other hand, pilots spend a night or maybe several days in different countries
around the world. Different local languages and accents once more may make it
difficult for them to communicate. That is why pilots should try to learn and adapt
with every situation in order to make it easy for them to experience the world.
BEHAVIOR
Researchers are trying to determine how much a behavioral pattern is influenced by
heredity and how much by environment. Some researchers believe that certain
behaviors are determined mainly by genetic inheritance from parents (the nature
theory). Others contend that the environment in which a child is brought up
determines the amount of intelligence expressed (the nurture theory).
Whether the first or the second theory is correct, pilots must believe that both theories
are correct because they will be dealing with different cultures inheriting different
genes and also be exposed to different people coming from different environments.
According to the above facts pilots should always remember this part of the course
whenever they deal with foreign cultures and environments, and always remember
that any irrational behavior from their point of view may be very normal from the
different culture’s point of view.
Pilots should never lose control if someone speaks in a loud voice or if they use body
language, which may be offensive from their point of view. This gesture may be
normal or even a sign of welcoming according to the other culture.
Chapter 1
BELIEFS & TRADITION

Throughout the future career as a pilot, encounter new experiences will be
encountered with different people and their beliefs and traditions during every flight.
The word belief means: The mental act, condition, or habit of placing trust or
confidence in a particular area of thinking by a group of persons.
The word tradition means: The passing down of elements of a culture and mode of
thoughts or behavior followed by a people especially by oral communication from
generation to generation.
Beliefs and traditions are so solid and pilots must re-accept and never try to argue
with anyone about their beliefs or traditions, due to the sensitivity of this area. Most
humans consider it an area of dignity and pride, so the golden rule here is to be
tolerant and accepting everyone’s beliefs and traditions.
An example to illustrate the above will take us to India, where cows are considered by
many to be a sacred animal. If a cow is crossing the road, all traffic is expected to wait
for it and in this case, it would be appropriate to respect and accept that as part of their
beliefs.
Another example is that it is illegal to chew chewing gum in Singapore. So you see it
is always a good idea to research about the culture and geography of the places that
pilots are going to beforehand to avoid embarrassment and to ensure that they can
make the most out of your time.
EgyptAir pilots represent the company and their country at all outstations, and it is
imperative that having a good background of the place they are in to be able to act and
respond in an appropriate and honorable way according to anyone’s beliefs.
Chapter 1
CHAPTER 2
“LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS”
INTRODUCTION
International organizations deal with each and every aspect in aviation with regards to
three major parties:
- Pilots
- States
- Companies
Let`s review how these international organizations and boards represent, symbolize and
embody those three parties.
PILOTS
Pilots are the official license holders who carry out regulations dictated by states, and are
hired by companies to perform commercial transport of passengers and cargo for profit.
As you see two interest approaches of the law, one for its application & one for profit so
there is a need for representation to these pilots (IFALPA), a need for monitoring
regulations application by the pilots (ICAO) and the need for optimizing the quality of
airline operation by the pilot (IATA).
Chapter 2
LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 2-1
STATES
Are the law makers according to international agreements and conventions and also the
monitoring site for the application of the law, so there is a need for organizations,
international and local, to work in coordination with other
parties (they are the local law enforcement of aviation
(FAA) in USA, local (ECAA)).
Also for the benefit of aviation industry several

foundations and boards have been established to improve
technology (NASA) or to investigate an accident (NTSB),
although these boards are in the USA their benefit is
worldwide and there are same boards in each and every state that work with the same
effort or a completing effort according to agreements between different states.
COMPANIES
Are the commercial transports of real people with real airplanes applying the rules of the
states and hiring pilots to perform the duty, therefore they needed an organization to
represent them optimizing profit while abiding with the law and in the time implementing
technology to improve working standards and providing comfort for passengers using the
airline for the best revenue (IATA).
Chapter 2
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION

(ICAO)
Figure 2.1 ICAO
HISTORY
ICAO`s fifty year history started on 7 December 1944 in Chicago, with the signing of the
Convention on International Civil Aviation by 52 nations. Pending endorsement of the
Convention by 26 other countries, the Provisional International Civil Aviation
Organization (PICAO) was established and functioned from 6 June 1945 until 4 April
1947. ICAO came into being on 4 April 1947. In October of the same year, ICAO
became a specialized agency of the United Nations linked to Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC).
GOALS
The Organization is made up of an Assembly, a Council of limited membership with
various subordinate bodies and a Secretariat. The chief officers are the President of the
Council and the Secretary General.
The Assembly, composed of representatives from all Contracting States, is the sovereign
body of ICAO. It meets every three years, reviewing in detail the work of the
Organization and setting policy for the coming years.
The Council, the governing body which is elected by the Assembly for a three-year term,
is composed of 33 States. It is in the Council that Standards and Recommended Practices
are adopted and incorporated as Annexes to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation.
Chapter 2
The Secretariat, headed by a Secretary General, is divided into five main divisions: the
Air Navigation Bureau, the Air Transport Bureau, the Technical Co.-operation Bureau,
the Legal Bureau, and the Bureau of Administration and Services. It relays the
organization`s activities to the international level.
ICAO is one of the two most abided by air transport regulations providers. It plays a very
important in the following:
- Law
- Standardization.
- Economics
- Regional Planning
- Facilitation
- Technical co-operation for development
ADDRESS
Middle East Office: Egyptian Civil Aviation Complex, Cairo Airport Road, Cairo, Egypt
Mail: P.O. Box 85, Cairo Airport Post Office Terminal One, Cairo 11776, Egypt
Telephone: +20 2 2267 4840
Fax: +20 2 2267 4843
E-mail: icaomid@cairo.icao.int
Chapter 2
INTERNATIONAL AIRLINE TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION

(IATA)
Figure 2.2 IATA
HISTORY
IATA was first founded in Havana, Cuba, in April of 1945. It is the successor of the
International Air Traffic Association founded in the Hague in 1919, which was the year
of the world`s first international scheduled service. At its foundation IATA had 57
members from 31 nations and its most important tasks were technical, because safety and
reliability were, and still are, fundamental to airline operations. But since the air transport
industry has grown more than one hundred times since 1945, IATA now has over 230
members from more than 130 nations worldwide, and its duties have expanded to comply
with the ever-growing world of aviation.
GOALS
The main objective of IATA as an organization is to represent and serve the airline
industry and act as a link between effective components. In order to do so, it provides its
services to the four groups that contribute the most to the smooth operation of the air
transport system:
AIRLINES
For them IATA allows the opportunity to connect each of their individual networks into a
worldwide system despite the differences in language, currencies, laws and national
customs.
Chapter 2
GOVERMENTS
Benefit from IATA since the Industry`s working standards are developed within IATA.
Therefore it is the most effective source of expertise and airline experience upon which
governments can rely on to help establish their aviation policy.
THIRD PARTIES
This refers to passenger/cargo agents and equipment manufacturers, IATA acts as a

collective link between them and the airlines. This coordination defines the way air
transport goes about its business.
THE GENERAL PUBLIC
Are the most effective factor in aviation economics and so to the industry flourish IATA
facilitates ticket sales, it also contributes to cheaper tickets and therefore helps to control
airline costs.
Chapter 2
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF AIRLINES PILOT

ASSOCIATION (IFALPA)
Figure 2.3 IFALPA
HISTORY
IFALPA was founded in 1948 to represent the interests of airline pilots at all levels
within the industry. In other words it can be seen as the worldwide federation of national
pilots` associations (e.g. EGALPA). The federation was initially established to provide a
counterpoint to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Starting with the
membership of thirteen national associations, IFALPA now has over ninety member
associations from all around the world.
STRUCTURE
The day-to-day activities of IFALPA are supervised by six principle officers, the
President, Deputy President and four Principle vice-presidents, each of whom is an active
airline pilot, elected for a two year period.
There are 21 Regional vice-presidents who form an important link between the
Federation`s center and its member associations around the world.
Ten Specialist Committees are categorized to deal with the specific aspects of the
Federation`s activities. They meet once or twice a year to examine the existing
international standards, new developments in aviation and draw up proposals for IFALPA
policy.
Chapter 2
GOALS
The IFALPA is a body that works for the benefit of airline pilots all around the world. Its
primary concern is to provide safe and acceptable working standards for them. This is
done through the Federation`s concentration on the following areas:
- Pilots speak for pilots, IFALPA representatives that attend meetings in which
decisions affecting the industry are being made are all active airline pilots.
- Technical Standards, the analysis of accidents and the continuous update of
navigational equipment and aircraft systems is readily noted by over 60 appointed
representatives to ensure the safety and practicality of the technical aspect of
aviation.
- Professional Standards, in the social and professional field, the Federation
assesses developments in human performance, focusing particularly on training,
licensing and medical certification.
- The Secretariat, based in the Federation`s Administrative headquarters in
Cheertsie, London, it is responsible for conducting the routine business of the
Federation and provides a support function policy development and the
implementation of its activities.
- Communications, in order to keep the Member Associations Informed of news
and activities within the Federation, it uses the fastest way of communication such
as electronic mail, a special CompuServe forum, frequent news letters sent by fax,
the Inter-Pilot magazine which is published four times a year, and IFALPA`s
newest publication the News Link which is distributed once a month.
- Loss Of License Insurance, The IFALPA feels that the loss of a pilot`s license is
critical to his mental state of mind, so it has devised a scheme which will provide
in the case of an accident, illness or disability.
- The Annual Conference, each year the IFALPA supervises a Conference with
the primary function of formalizing the Federation`s standpoint and it`s policy.
Over 350 delegates attend and in addition to its formal duties, presentations from
aircraft and equipment manufacturers give the delegates the opportunity to learn
about new products and developments in the industry.
Chapter 2
ADDRESS
Mail: Gogmore Lane Chertsey Surrey KT16 9AP UK
Telephone: +44 1932 571711
Fax: +44 1932 570920
E-mail: ifalpa@ifalpa.org
Chapter 2
EGYPTIAN CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY (ECAA)
Figure 2.4 ECAA
HISTORY
The ECAA has been active in one form or the other ever since the introduction of flight
in Egypt. It was officially introduced as an authority in the form of a small sub division of
the Ministry of Defense, in the early 1930s. Between that time and up until 1952 (the
Revolution), its authority was scattered between the ministries of defense and
transportation. The first independent name given to this authority was the Civil Aviation
Organization in 1958. With the progression and expansion of the aviation industry in
Egypt, and also with the change of rule in the country, the organization itself naturally
had to go through a lot of changes in its size, duties and management description. Finally,
in 1971 an official Ministry of Civil Aviation was formed and the Egyptian Civil
Aviation Authority came to be, empowered by that Ministry, and solely in charge of any
civilian aviation activity.
GOALS
The duties and responsibilities of the ECAA cover all aviation activities in Egypt. Its
broad range of control and services surrounding all aircraft activities is tailored especially
to fit the needs and demands of aviation here in Egypt, with off course guidance and
integration from international bodies such as the ICAO and the FAA. Its official duties
and services can be summed up as follows:
- The issuance of all aviation regulations and policies concerning pilots & other
crewmembers, aircrafts, airlines, air traffic controllers and aircraft dispatchers.
The rules that apply to us being employees in an airline are known as the
Egyptian civil aviation regulations (ECAR`s).
-
Chapter 2
- The issuance of all licenses and permits required by law to be an active member
in the process of air transport as a whole (pilots, dispatchers, ATC`s, airport
personnel, ground crews etc.…).
-
- The ECAA is in charge of monitoring all the above mentioned personnel and of
all aviation activities. This is to ensure a high standard of safety and efficiency.
This is done in the form of regular system of inspections, examinations continual
supervision over all activities related to air transport.
- It provides services in the form of airport facilities and their maintenance,
passenger processing and is responsible for the building and updating of
navigational aids all over Egypt to facilitate flying.
ADDRESS
Office: Airport Road, Cairo International Airport
Telephone: +202-22688355
E-mail: info@civilaviation.gov.eg
Chapter 2
NATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL AUTHORITY
Figure 2.5 National Meteorological Authority
HISTORY
Meteorological activity first started in Egypt in 1829, but it wasn`t until 1900 that a
Meteorological department was established as part of a survey service. Weather
observation and forecasting service for aeronautical purposes started in 1934. Specialized
forecasting centers were established in the Department`s headquarters, Cairo
International And the Almaza Airports directly linked to the Civil Aviation Authority. In
1971 the Meteorological Department became a government authority by the republican
decree number 2934 and since then it has become a part of the Ministry of
Transportation.
GOALS
As most Meteorological services around the world, this government-based organization
handles the task of general weather forecasting in Egypt. This includes:
- Temperature and humidity observation, recording and the broadcasting.

- Observing and calculating wind speeds.
- The production of all kinds of weather charts (e.g. prognostic weather charts).
- The relay of weather information to the concerned authorities such as the ECAA.
Chapter 2
ADDRESS
Mail: The Meteorological Authority, Khalifa El Maamoon St., P.O box 11784 Cairo,
Egypt.
Telephone: 2849860 / 2849859
Fax: 2849857 // E-mail: ma@idsc.gov.eg
Chapter 2
EGYPTIAN AIRLINE PILOT`S ASSOCIATION (EGALPA)
Figure 2.6 EGALPA
HISTORY
The EGALPA was founded in 1967 by a group of young Egyptian pilots. At that time the
commercial aspect of flight in Egypt was beginning to embark on a new era of progress
and expansion. This made it necessary for pilots to represent themselves and their needs
as one voice strong enough to have influential power in front of the increasingly growing
civil aviation activities, as there was no official governmental syndicate for pilots. The
first pilots to head the foundation were Captains Mohammed Ramadan and Talaat
Soliman. In the years since its birth and with the increase of memberships throughout the
years, the EGALPA has become powerful enough to have a strong hand in shaping the
rules and rights set for airline pilots in Egypt.
STRUCTURE
The organization`s structure is very similar to that of the IFALPA. Its constitution is
based on the presence of a president, six board members, a secretary and a treasurer.
Under which there are the heads of the committees corresponding to those found in the
IFALPA.
(See IFALPA organizational chart)
GOALS
The main purpose of the establishment of the EGALPA was to have a national model of
the worldwide bodies responsible for the representation of airline pilots in front of the
rest of the aviation industry. Its mission can be summarized in the following points:
- EGALPA`S major activities revolve around the professional, technical and social
aspects of an airline pilot`s life.
Chapter 2
- EGALPA stays in touch with all the major organizations concerned with the
aviation industry, and it receives periodic publications from the ICAO,
- IFALPA...etc. it then circulates this knowledge and information to the Egyptian
airline pilots.
- EGALPA issues a magazine to inform its members of what is taking place
nationally and internationally in relation with aviation news.
- One of the main goals of EGALPA is to pass the experience of senior pilots to the
generations of the younger and less experienced ones.
- And finally, EGALPA has a code of ethics governing the relationship between it
and its members together within the sphere of aviation.
ADDRESS
Mail: P.O. Box 62, Cairo International Airport, Cairo, Egypt
Telephone/Fax: (202) 2660232
Chapter 2
EGYPTIAN CIVILIAN PILOT SYNDICATE (EGYCPS)
Figure 2.7 EGYCPS
HISTORY
The syndicate was incepted in June 2011 after the revolution of the 25th of January of the
same year to represent all Egyptian pilots.
GOALS
 To provide pilots with an organizational union to ensure their rights, and to
preserve the dignity of the profession.
 Organize member’s efforts towards the development of the profession, and to

improve their performance to make recommendations for international legislation
for aviation organizations.
 Cooperation with internal and external organizations, the General Union of

workers of the international and domestic air transport, to closer ties with them
and exchange information and experiences including participation in the study of
topics of common nature projects as well as participate in International Union of
pilots, the International Labor Organization and the international conferences
which are linked to these goals and to be held in Egypt.
Chapter 2
 Work on raising the level of members on professional, social and physical aspects
and to secure their life and care of their families socially, economically,
culturally, medically, and to present assistance when needed.
 Work on the settlement of disputes related to the profession that arise between the
members of the syndicate or which arise between them and those who are
 employed. Seeking employment opportunities for members of the syndicate both

for Egyptian graduates or foreign private schools who have a commercial pilot
license or qualified on different models upon priority of graduation or retirement
date for air force pilots who retired or got training qualifications for each model
individually.
 Issuance of bulletins on the activities of the Association for cultural and social
goals and also publish scientific research on aviation and outer space.
 Participate in drafting regulations and financial systems and contracts of

unionized pilots with all air carriers in the Arab Republic of Egypt
ADDRESS
Office: Egyptian Civilian Pilots syndicate 22 Soliman Azmy St., Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt
Telephone: +202 26207759
Email address: info@egycps.net
Chapter 2
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINSTRATION (FAA)
Figure 2.8 FAA
HISTORY
The United States Air Commerce Act of May 1926, was considered the first time United
States Federal Government`s interference in the regulation of civil aviation over the
nation. Its role was to set standard safety rules and became in charge of pilot certification.
As years past the government`s department of commerce also introduced aerodrome
equipment, airport lighting and the system of Air Traffic Control (ATC). In 1958 the
passage of the Federal Aviation Act prompted the creation of the Federal Aviation
Agency, which later renamed as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and became
an official part of the Department of Transportation (DOT). With these changes came a
huge expansion of the Administrations duties and its power. Today it is considered the
bible of flight in the USA.
GOALS
As the FAA is now part of the Government`s DOT, it is simply regarded as The United
States Civil Aviation Authority. Its duties are similar to most national CAA`s around the
world:
- Issuing and enforcing air traffic rules through its control of the ATC system and
the coordination between civil and military flight operations.
- The certification of pilots, aircraft`s and air carriers.
Chapter 2
- The setting of minimum safety standards for the operation of airports and all other
air services available to the general and commercial aviation in the USA
- The authority to investigate all air hazards and maintain security in air travel over
the country.
As a summary of the role the FAA plays in our lives as pilots, it can be said that in order
to be a pilot in command or operator of any aircraft or airline over the boundaries of the
USA, it has to be approved by the Federal Aviation Administration.
ADDRESS
Office: Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Ave, SW, Washington, DC
20591
Telephone: 1-866-835-5322
Chapter 2
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE

ADMINISTRATION (NASA)
Figure 2.9 NASA
HISTORY
NASA is a U.S. government agency responsible for civilian aeronautical and space
research programs. It was established by the national aeronautics and space act of 1958. It
began operating that same year under the supervision of the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which it then replaced.
GOALS
As we all know, NASA is popularly referred to when talking about space and the subjects
related to its travel. Although this is true, it is in charge of the space program in the USA,
it is important for us to know that NASA also plays a big part in the research and
advancement of aeronautics as a whole, inside and outside the atmosphere.
The agency has four offices or major departments, the most important of which, for us as
airline pilots, is The Office of Advanced Research and Technology. This facility is the
base for aeronautical and space flight for the future through a large program of aircraft,
spacecraft, launch vehicles, nuclear and other propulsion systems research, electronics
and biotechnology. It has management responsibilities for Ames, Flight, Langley and
Lewis research centers. It`s projects include research on supersonic transport, lifting
bodies, vertical short takeoff and landing airplanes, fatigue and stress in metals, computer
applications, fibers and plastics, high strength alloys, miniaturization of instruments, fuel
cells, lubricants, noise suppression and finally aircraft safety.
ADDRESS
Office: Public Communications Office NASA Headquarters, Suite 5K39, Washington
DC // Telephone: (202) 3580000 // Fax: (202) 3584338358-00
Chapter 2
FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION (FSF)
Figure 2.10 FSF
HISTORY
More than fifty years old, the FSF is the world`s oldest and pre-eminent aviation safety
organization. The foundation was, and still is, an independent, nonprofit, nonpolitical
international organization dedicated entirely to aviation safety with more than 660
members from 77 countries around the world.
GOALS
Zero Accidents, this is the primary goal of this nonprofit organization. In order to achieve
this, the FSF offers its management of the following aviation safety services, individually
or in combination:
- Operation Safety Checking

- Design and Development of Safety Program
- Regulatory Compliance checking of Operator / Independent Maintenance
Organization
- The Review of Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Safety Oversights
- Contingency Planning for Aircraft Accidents and Incidents
- The Assessment of Aircraft Airworthiness
ADDRESS
Mail: Flight Safety Foundation Aviation Safety, Services Department, 601 Madison St.
Suite 300, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA
Telephone: (001) 703- 739-2373
Chapter 2
NATIONAL TRASPORTATION SAFETY BOARD (NTSB)
Figure 2.11 NTSB
HISTORY
The NTSB is an independent federal agency charged by congress with investigating
every civil aviation accident in the United States and significant accidents in other modes
of transportation, railroad, highways, marine and issuing safety recommendations aimed
at preventing future accidents.
The NTSB opened its doors on April 1967, although independent, it relied on the U.S.
department of transportation for funding and administrative support. In 1975, under the
independent safety board Act, all organizational ties to DOT were served. The NTSB is
not part of DOT, or affiliated with any of its model agencies.
Since 1967, the NTSB has investigated more than 100,000 aviation accidents and
thousands of surface transportation accidents.
GOALS
- Maintaining the government data base on civil aviation accidents
- Conduct special studies of transportation safety issues of national significance.
- Serve as court of appeals for any airman when civil penalties are assessed by the
FAA.
- On call 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, NTSB investigators fly to every corner of
the world to investigate significant accidents.
- Issue recommendations and since 1990, the NTSB has highlighted some issues on
most wanted list of safety improvements.
Chapter 2
SAFETY ASSESMENT OF FOREIGN AIRCRAFT

PROGRAM (SAFA)
Figure 2.12 SAFA
HISTORY
The SAFA is an inspection program developed by the ECAC that complements ICAO
safety oversight audits in Europe by concentrating checks of aircraft during stops at
European airports. Inspections include evaluation of the aircraft's documents and crew,
the apparent condition of the aircraft and the carriage of mandatory cabin equipment.
GOALS
 Collect by means of a centralized database the inspection reports of the Member
States engaged in the EC SAFA Program
 Maintain and further develop the centralized database
 Analyze all relevant information concerning the safety of aircraft and its operators
 Report potential aviation safety problems to European Commission and the
Member States
 Advise the European Commission and the Member States on follow-up actions
 Advise on the future development and strategy of the EC SAFA Program
 Develop SAFA procedures
 Develop training programs and foster its organization and implementation
Checks may include
 Licenses of the pilots

 Procedures and manuals that should be carried in the cockpit
 Compliance with these procedures by flight and cabin crew
 Safety equipment in cockpit and cabin
 Cargo carried in the aircraft
Chapter 2
 The technical condition of the aircraft
ADDRESS
Office: International Aviation, Safety and Environment Division Department for
Transport 1/22 Great Minster House 33 Horseferry Road
Email: safaresponse@dft.gsi.gov.uk
Chapter 2
AIRLINE OWNERS AND PILOT ASSOCIATION (AOPA)
Figure 2.13 AOPA
HISTORY
The Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association was founded by five aviators from
Philadelphia in the United States in 1939. Today it has a membership base of more than
three hundred and forty thousand pilots and is considered one of the largest and most
influential aviation associations in the world.
GOALS
The Association was formed to make flying (more useful, safer, less expensive and more
fun.) Although it is an international body, it is mostly comprised of private and
instrument certified pilots, certified flight instructors and aircraft owners in the USA and
provides a lot of services such as the representation of pilots at the federal, state and local
levels of the US legal system.
It also provides the fundamental services of any pilots’ association such as insurance for
pilots and aircrafts, financial services, tutoring programs and it publishes the AOPA Pilot,
which is one of the most popular general aviation magazines.
ADDRESS
Mail: AOPA, 421 Aviation Way, Frederick, MD 21701-4798, USA
Telephone: 001 301 695 2000
Fax: 001 301 695 2375
Chapter 2
WORLD METEROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO)
Figure 2.14 WMO
HISTORY
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) was created after the World
International Convention took place in 1947 it was then known as the International
Meteorological Organization (IMO). The convention itself didn`t come into force until
1950 and in 1951 the IMO commenced its operations and was renamed as the WMO.
Ever since then it has been established as a specialized agency of the United Nations. Up
until June 1996 the WMO had 185 members within the organization comprising 179
member state and six member territories.
GOALS
The only difference between the WMO and many other meteorological authorities around
the world is that is concentrates on the global activity of the weather rather than
concentrating on one region. From weather prediction to air pollution research, climate
change related activities, ozone layer depletion studies and tropical storm forecasting, the
WMO coordinates global scientific activity to allow the increasingly prompt and accurate
weather information and services for public, private and commercial use.
To achieve the WMO`s effective role, it concentrates on the application of the following:
 The promotion of the rapid exchange of meteorological information producing an

efficient method of weather forecasting and prediction.
 It helps in the standardization of meteorological observations and statistics.
 It furthers the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, agriculture, water
problems and human activities.
Chapter 2
Major WMO Programs include:
1. World Weather Watch (WWW)

2. World Climate Program (WCP)
3. Atmospheric Research and Environment Program
4. Application of Meteorology
ADDRESS
Mail: WMO, Information and Public Affairs Office, 41 Avenue Giuseppe-Motta,1211
Geneva 2/ Switzerland
Telephone: (41 22) 730 8314/15
Fax: (41 22) 733 2829
E-Mail: wmo@wmo.int
Chapter 2
THE RELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT

ORGANIZATIONS
We will review in this section some organizations` order of work and how they
communicate and react with each other.
ORGANIZATION BOARD
Boards are either appointed or elected to perform the assignment as most of them are non
profit bodies and the help to international or local community towards more safe,
cooperative & efficient industry. The following is a general example:
Usually a president heads the board and his job is to act as chairman in all conferences,
monitor the activities of the organization.
Vice president(s) also does the same job either regionally or from an office as the rules of
the organization dictates.
Committee`s always headed by committee chairman which studies the different proposals
submitted by the members or the secretariat for example (Effect of temperature on
altimeters).
Secretariat usually non-pilots or ex pilots and they carry on paper work and prepare
committee meetings and annual conferences.
Annual conferences. Each organization holds its annual conference which is always to
review the outcome of the working groups, committees and panels also to lay down any
change in policies and strategies of the organization. It is always positive participation of
members, which improve the standards of aviation industry in all aspects.
Not all organizations and boards are typically like this board but they are more or less the
same as this is an international board compilation (united nation).
ICAO & IFALPA
ICAO is the source of rules, annexes and regulations. No one can imagine regulations to
be issued without the participation of which these rules are going to be implied on, let us
take it step by step:
Chapter 2
How does ICAO issue any regulation?
First there is a draft paper, which is proceeded to the different committees. The
committee or the panel or the working group studies this paper in each and every aspect
and its effect on all sides of aviation. After this complete study, it is forwarded to the
council who approve its application. There must be a pilot representation in these
working panels and committee (IFALPA). It is usually ex pilots or pilots who work in
ICAO, but also this healthy participation leads to more realistic regulations and
application
IATA & IFALPA
IATA set industry standards and address industry issues through the board of governors,
which approve the recommendations of the standing committees. These
recommendations are always the optimization of cost looking for profit to the member
airlines. IFALPA reviews these recommendations and their impact on pilots; contact
IATA either through their participation in the annual conference, or through another
organization that carry the pilot’s point of view to IATA.
How can you help?
“WE NEED TO CONSTANTLY EXAMINE OUR ACTIVITY, REVIEW OUR PRIORITIES

AND UPDATE OUR METHODS” -----IFALPA PRESIDENT, 1996
Why is any organization found?
Any organization is found to examine the activity of the aviation industry, is it worth it?,
is it correct, is it safe, what made that accident happen & so many more questions is the
answer to the existence of any organization.
Different committees, boards, working groups are formed to review the priorities and to
set new rules, policies and recommendations for the world of aviation. This leads to an
update in the methods and the implementation of safer operation in aviation.
Examine your activity
Imagine you are an organization; Are your activities up to standard?
Chapter 2
Do you in look up after any organization publication in libraries, news stand or Egypt Air
operations library?
Do you follow the rules, recommendations of these organizations or you do not know
about them?
Review your priorities
Always reconsider your priorities put them in order between now and then, this is only
going to happen if you are in touch with these organizations in any form.
Update your methods
If your methods are not keeping up to the standards try changing them, look up for new
methods, try adopting from the way these organizations work, the Egyptair operations
manual has been formed according, to these rules and recommendations stick to it and the
least you can do is apply its regulations strictly.
Chapter 2
CHAPTER 3
“EGYPTIAN CIVIL AVIATION
REGULATIONS (ECARs)”
GENERAL
The general rule making of the Egyptian Civil Aviation Regulations (ECARs) consists of:
 Rules and regulations issued under Egyptian Civil Aviation law#28 for the year
1981 and rules the Egyptian Civil Aviation Authority decides to use from the
public rulemaking procedures.
The above procedures for rules and regulations do not apply to rules for airspace
assignment and use
 Rules and regulations applying for airspace assignment and use which are
contained in the aeronautical information publication (AIP).
(Any contradiction between any ECAR and the AIP concerning assignment and use, the
AIP shall be the controlling document).
LIST OF EGYPTIAN CIVIL AVIATION REGULATIONS

ECAR SUBJECTS
1 Definitions and abbreviations
11 General rule making procedures
13 Investigate and enforcement procedures
21 Approved design and manufacture organizations
23 Very light aircraft Airworthiness standards
36 Noise standards
39 Airworthiness directives and reporting system
Chapter 3
EGYPTIAN CIVIL AVIATION REGULATIONS 3-1
43 Maintenance, preventive maintenance, and alterations
45 Identification and registration marking
61 Certification: Pilots and flight instructors
63 Certification- Flight crewmember other than pilots
65 Certification: Airmen other than flight crewmember
67 Medical Standards and Certification
91 General operating and flight rules
97 Standard instrument approach procedures
101 Hot air balloons
105 Parachute jumping
121 Certification and operations: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Air-Carriers.
129 Operations: foreign air carriers and operators
137 Agricultural aircraft operations
141 Pilot schools
145 Approved maintenance Organization & repair station
147 Aviation Maintenance Engineers Schools
175 Transport of dangerous goods
183 Representatives of the ECAA
Chapter 3
ECAR 121 HIGHLIGHTS

Certification and Operation:
Air Carriers and Air Taxi Operators
SUBPART-A General
SUBPART-B Certification Rules for Air Carriers and Air Taxi Operators
SUBPART-D Rules Governing All Certificate Holders under this ECAR
SUBPART-E Approval of Routes: Domestic and Flag Air Carriers
SUBPART-G Manual Requirements
SUBPART-H Aircraft Requirements and Performance Limitations
SUBPART-J Special Airworthiness Requirements
SUBPART-K Instrument and Equipment Requirements
SUBPART-L Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alteration
SUBPART-M Pilot, Flight Engineer, and Crewmember Requirements
SUBPART-N Training Program
SUBPART-O Crewmember Qualifications
SUBPART-P Aircraft Dispatcher Qualifications and Duty Time

Limitations: Air Carriers
SUBPART-Q The avoidance of excessive fatigue in air crew
SUBPART-T Flight Operations
SUBPART-U Dispatching and Flight Release Rules
SUBPART-V Records and Reports
Chapter 3
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
 Crew Licenses
o Type Rating
o Validity
 Aircraft Documents
o Certificate of Airworthiness
o Radio License
o Certificate of Registrations
o Certificate of Insurance
o Permission Of Landing In ARE
o Noise Certificate
o Operation Specifications
o Air Operator Certificate
 Aircraft Library (Refer to Flight Operation Manual FOM )
 Technical Log Book + Deferred Defect Log Book
 Emergency Equipment (ECAR 121.309 )
 Flight Control ECAR 121.111-127
o Dispatch
o Flight Following
 Maintenance Inspection ECAR 121.361-379
o Periodic Checks
ECAR 121 FOCUS

 Flight Operations ECAR 121.531-589
 Flight Control ECAR 121.111-127
 Maintenance Inspection ECAR 121.361-379
 Flight and Duty Time Limitation ECAR 121.465-519
 Pilot Qualifications ECAR 121.437-455
 Training Program ECAR 121.400
 Records
Chapter 3
MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION (THE ECAA

INSPECTOR)
ECAR 13
ECAA authorities shall have the right to inspect any aircraft and detain it from flying.
Inspection takes place to ensure Airworthiness and flight operations requirements.
The inspector is the representative of the ECAA, they have the right while performing his
official duties, to verify compliance with ECARs.
The commander, after verifying credentials or identifications may grant the inspector the
permission for admission to the flight deck.
Airline personnel will facilitate the inspector’s mission prior, during and after the flight.
They will have access to all documents and logs.
The inspector will have direct access to records concerning the flight crewmembers.
The inspector will be admitted to the flight dispatch control and will verify flight
following procedures as per ECAR.
Chapter 3
CHAPTER 4
“COCKPIT FAMILIARIZATION AND
CHECKLIST PHILOSOPHY”
INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the newly hired pilots to their new working environment. Details
of systems, indications, or new terms shall be covered thoroughly throughout the
remainder of the course. This chapter will also include a brief introduction to glass
cockpits. The following sub-topics will be discussed in detail:
 Introduction to New Terms In The Cockpit

 Introduction To Glass Cockpit
 Cockpit Cut-Off Angle And Visual Segment
 Checklist Philosophy
Cockpit components, conventional or glass, are basically very similar in all aircrafts with
slight variations, due to the differences in size and power of the aircraft (jet propulsion
vs. Propeller engines). For example, the cockpit of a Cessna contains the same features
(eg. radio panel, control yoke, rudder, engine instrument panel, etc.), as that found in any
aircraft. However, a jet aircraft cockpit contains additional panels and controls for the
following reasons:
 The jet transport cockpit is operated by multi crewmembers to allow different

areas of responsibility for each crewmember
 Duplication of instrument panels and flight controls to allow complete control of
the aircraft from right and left hand seats in all circumstances and all phases of
flight
 The addition of more panels to accommodate various aircraft systems controls
and indicators, which were not required in small airplanes, for example:
o Hydraulic system
o Anti-ice system
o Flight control system
o Bleed system
o Air-conditioning and pressurization systems
Chapter 4
COCKPIT FAMILIARIZATION AND CHECKLIST PHILOSOPHY 4-1
o Flight Management Systems (FMS)
There are so many differences resulting from the addition of these systems, which cannot
be all explained at this stage, but during the course, these differences will be clarified.
GLASS COCKPIT TERMS
Figure 1.1 Glass Cockpit
The commercial aircraft cockpits are full of new terms, panels, systems and indicators.
To simplify the introduction to the new working environment, the following will be
introduced:
 Panels
 Systems
 Glass cockpit and Electronic indicators
 Crew composition (Crew complement)
 Visual Segment in Low Visibility Approaches
Chapter 4
PANELS
In the figure above, the new panels, which were not normally found in smaller airplanes,
are identified, like:
 Right and left side panels (Consoles)

 Pedestal
 Glare Shield panel  which contains the EFIS and the FCU (Airbus) or MCP
(Boeing)
 Overhead panel  Systems controls
 Circuit breaker panels
These panels are basically the same in all modern aircrafts. However they might have
different names in different aircrafts.
SYSTEMS
There are so many systems required to operate big jets. With the introduction of glass
cockpit at the beginning of the 80`s, lots of new systems and indicators have emerged.
The following are some of the systems and new indicators currently available in the
cockpits:
These different systems include:
 Nose Wheel Steering System (NWS)

 Flight Director system (FD)
 Flight Management System (FMS)
 Auto Pilot system (A/P)
 Auto Throttle System (Boeing Airplanes), Auto Thrust System (A/T, Airbus)
INDICATORS
 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

 Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
 Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM)
 Primary Flight Display (PFD)
 Navigation Display (ND)
 Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)
Chapter 4
CREW COMPOSITION (CREW COMPLEMENT)
A commercial aircraft requires more than one crewmember to operate. When commercial
operations started at the beginning of this century, aircrafts were flown with five
crewmembers (Captain, Co-pilot, Flight Engineer, Navigator and Radio operator).
However, as a result of the huge development of science and technology in the aviation
field, crew composition has been dramatically reduced to two crewmembers (Captain and
First Officer).
Some of the old generation aircrafts are still flying with three crewmembers, Captain,
First Officer and Flight Engineer (For example B747, DC10, Tri-Star L1011, B707,
A300-B4, etc.).
Modern aircrafts are designed to allow complete control of the flight path from the right
and left hand seats. This means that the first officer can act as Pilot Flying (PF) from the
right hand seat, while the captain acts as Pilot Not Flying (PNF), or Pilot Monitoring
(PM) from the left seat or an instructor pilot can act as PNF from the right seat, while the
captain under training acts as Pilot Flying (PF) from the left seat. The following are the
terms used for crew activity and seat position:
CAPT Captain
F/O First Officer
PF Pilot Flying
PNF (PM) Pilot Not Flying (Pilot Monitoring)
F/E Flight Engineer
GLASS COCKPIT
Glass cockpit is simply a conventional cockpit at which the electromechanical displays
are replaced by Electronic Instrument Systems (EIS). All system parameters and
indications are displayed on liquid crystalline displays (LCDs) instead of conventional
gauges and dials.
Electronic Instrument Systems (EIS) is a system utilizing advanced computer

technology, to collect and process all the signals received from all aircraft system
sensors, and generate electronic images to be displayed on LCDs, called Display Units
Chapter 4
(DU`s). This greatly reduces maintenance costs for instruments while providing a higher
overall reliability.
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS) displays mainly flight instrument

parameters and navigation data on the Primary Flight Display (PFD) and Navigation
Display (ND).
With the replacement of conventional electromechanical displays by Electronic

Instrument Systems (EIS), the first glass cockpit was born. For example, the Primary
Flight Display (PFD) replaces the primary flight instrument indicators (Air Speed
Indicator, Attitude Indicator, Altimeter, Heading Indicator, Vertical Speed Indicator, Slip
Skid Indicator). In other words, virtually all the information a flight crew needs is
available in a single instrument.
Figure 4.2 EIS
Chapter 4
1. FMA
2. Airspeed Indicator
3. Attitude Indicator
4. A/P&F/D status
5. Altimeter
6. Vertical Speed
7. Heading Indicator
Figure 4.2A B738 PFD
The glass cockpit displays have improved significantly since that time, while the first
generation of glass cockpits was equipped with 5X5 - inch CRT displays, the current
generation is equipped with 8X8 - inch (flat panel) Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD`s)
Figure 4.3 Glass Cockpit Outline – A320
Chapter 4
1. CPT Outboard
Display
2. CPT Inboard
Display
3. Upper Display
Unit
4. F/O Inboard
Display
5. F/O Outboard
Display
6. Lower Display
Unit
Figure 4.3(A) Glass Cockpit Outline – B738
COCKPIT CUT-OFF ANGLE AND VISUAL SEGMENT

In the commercial flying environment, low visibility approaches are a common practice
in the daily operation. Therefore, crew training for approach and successful landing in
reduced visibility situations is also very common for obvious safety and commercial
reasons. Unfortunately a large part of visual range is of no use for the pilots, because the
nose of the aircraft cuts off their view of the nearest 35% of the visual range of the
respective DH/RVR. However, there are other factors affecting visual range, or to be
precise, affecting visual segments.
To understand the effect of Cockpit cut-off angles on the Visual segment in low visibility
approaches, the following issues have to be addressed:
 Visual Concept
 RVR/SVR
 Down Vision Angle
 Cockpit Cut-off Angle
 Visual Segment
 Factors Affecting Visual Segment
VISUAL CONCEPT
Flying a Cessna with a maximum landing weight of around 500kg and a final approach
speed of 60 knots, in a low visibility instrument approach, is a totally different from
Chapter 4
flying a commercial jetliner having a maximum landing weight between 50 to 300 times
heavier and at least twice as fast on its final approach speed. This difference stems from
the huge momentum difference and the time available to assess the available visual cues
at decision height. Therefore, understanding visual requirements, human limitations and
visual illusions are of great importance.
Scientific analysis shows that the control of an aircraft by visual reference is an extremely
complex task requiring perception of even small changes of the limited visual
information available. During the last few seconds of a compressed time and visibility
situation, the pilot has to be aware of the factors affecting his visual perception, such as
visual illusions and eye adaptation problems, he/she must be also aware of the required
visual references to control the aircraft along its three axes below decision height.
A classic example of visual illusion is the sudden decrease of the visual segment below
decision height. This is justified by a natural reaction of suddenly increasing pitch
attitude, to increase the time until reaching the decision height, which ends up reducing
the visual segment. On the contrary, some pilots near the decision height tend to lower
the nose increasing their visual segment. This increases the rate of descent and may
create an undesirable situation very close to the ground.
This confusion can be best avoided by establishing clear flight deck procedures, i.e.
scanning of the basic flight instruments, down to and including flare and roll-out.
Research using simulators and flight trials has shown that in general:
 Visual contact needs to be established about 3 seconds above DH to enable

assessment of the external references and evaluation of the flight path in relation
to those references
 To control the flight path in lateral plane not less than 3 axial light segments of
the approach lights (3 lights along the extended runway centerline), runway center
line or edge lights should be visible
 To control the flight path on the vertical plane, including the flare, using purely
external cues, a point on the ground which has a low or zero rate of apparent
movement relative to the aircraft (i.e. the aiming point) should be visible
Chapter 4
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR) and SLANT VISUAL RANGE

(SVR)
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)
It is an instrument derived value, based on standard calibrations, that represents the

horizontal distance a pilot will see down the runway from the approach end.
Figure 4.4 RVR Equipment
SLANT VISUAL RANGE (SVR)
The distance between the pilot`s eye and the farthest point he can see. To understand the
relation between RVR and SVR, the most dominant phenomenon of the low visibility
approaches, which is FOG, will be discussed.
Fog will only form and persist, if particular values of temperature and humidity exist
simultaneously. Small changes of any one of these parameters will result in variations in
the extent, density and depth of the fog. Even under stable conditions, a large variation in
the vertical plane of the concentration and size of water droplets is known to occur, with
a tendency for the greater concentration to be at the higher levels. This factor is
responsible for the visual range within the fog to increase closer to the ground.
Despite its variability, the only fog parameter that currently renders itself to rapid,
accurate measurement, is the RVR. Since it is a measure of the opacity of a horizontal
sample of the atmosphere at a low height, it can take no account of vertical density
changes. Assuming that in general cases density increases with height, any SVR will be
less than the RVR.
Chapter 4
Only at very low altitude (less than 30`) will the SVR be nearly the same as the RVR as
shown in figures.
Figure 4.5 RVR and SVR
Figure 4.6 During the final descent the SVR increases, as the fog density decreases
Chapter 4
Figure 4.7 Height Vs Length of Visual Segment
DOWN VISION ANGLE

The down vision angle is the angle between the line of sight, at the neutral (correct) eye
height in the cockpit, and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The Down Vision Angle is
a fixed angle for each aircraft`s make and model and its value is normally between 15° to
20° depending on aircraft design.
Figure 4.8 Down Vision Angle
Chapter 4
The line of sight is the line between the neutral eye height and the tangent line of the nose
of the aircraft.
Figure 4.9 Line of Sight Illustration
Chapter 4
COCKPIT CUT-OFF ANGLE

Unlike the Down Vision Angle, the Cockpit Cut-Off Angle is not a fixed angle, it varies
depending on many factors; for example, the aircraft`s geometry (attitude) and the pilot`s
seat adjustment (eye height).
The Cockpit Cut-Off Angle equals the Down Vision Angle only when Pitch Attitude Is
ZERO. In other words, the cockpit cut-off angle equals the down vision angle minus
pitch attitude when pitch attitude.
*The cutoff angle increases with negative pitch attitude. However, it is limited to the
down vision angle.
For example, on final approach with full flaps configuration:
B747 - Down vision angle = 18.5°
Pitch attitude (on 3° G.S.) = 2.7°
Cockpit cut-off angle = 15.8°
The importance of the cockpit cut-off angle is its effect on the visual cues required in low
visibility approaches at decision height (DH) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) during
precision and non-precision approaches, respectively.
VISUAL SEGMENT
Visual ground segment is limited by the line of sight in its AFT boundary, and limited by
the slant visual range in its forward boundary.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.10 Visual Segment
FACTORS AFFECTING VISUAL SEGMENT
The AFT boundary of the visual segment is limited by the cockpit cut-off angle.
Therefore, any reduction of the cockpit cut-off angle will affect the total length of the
visual ground segment during low visibility approaches.
In other words, the factors affecting the cockpit cut-off angle are the same factors
affecting visual segments during final approach, which are:
 Aircraft geometry (pitch attitude)

 Weight
 Configuration
 Approach angle
 Seat adjustment and eye position
Chapter 4
In order to discuss the above factor and its effects on visual segment and cut-off angle,
the next table is extracted from the Boeing 737-800 unreliable airspeed schedule.
Table 4.1 Final Approach Data Based on a 3° Glide Slope
AIRCRAFT GEOMETRY
Aircraft geometry is the pitch attitude of the aircraft during any specified phase of flight.
The aircraft geometry or pitch attitude during final approach will be affected by: weight,
aircraft configuration and the approach angle. However, the pitch attitude alone will be
discussed, assuming everything else is constant. With increasing pitch attitude (thus
positive angles), the visual segment and the cut-off angle is reduced, because the aft
boundary will be more restricted by the airplane's nose.
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT
From the data in table 4.1, it is identified that the aircraft weight has a minor effect on the
pitch attitude. However, in general as the weight of the airplane increases, its pitch angle
slightly increase, which reduces its visual segment and cut-off angle.
AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION
From the data in table 4.1, it is identified that increasing configuration (for example, from
flaps 1 to 3 in the Cessna, which corresponds to flaps 30 and 40, respectively) will reduce
the pitch attitude. This reduction in pitch attitude will increase the visual segment and the
cut-off angle.
Chapter 4
APPROACH ANGLE
The above data is based on a 3° ILS glide slope angle. An increase in the glide path angle
(from 2.5° to 3°); will be accompanied by lower pitch angle to maintain the profile. The
reduction in the pitch angle will increase the visual segment and the cut-off angle.
SEAT ADJUSTMENT and EYE POSITION
As the pilot`s eye position will determine the aft field of vision, correct seat positioning
is a Must, it should be forward and high enough to take full advantage of visibility over
the nose of the airplane, consistent with comfort and the ability to see instruments and
operate flight controls efficiently. For this reason each aircraft has an eye position
indicator to allow you to adjust your seat to the correct eye height position.
As a rule, it can be said that sitting 1 centimeter (1 cm) lower than the neutral eye height
(neutral eye height get full range of the down vision angle) results in a reduction of the
cockpit cut-off angle approximately 1°, corresponding to a loss of 10 meters (10 m) of
the visual ground segment from a height of 100 feet (100`).
Any reduction of visual cues, due to seat position has a negative effect on pilots' decision
to continue the approach for safe landing or to divert to an alternate airport (refer to
Fig.4.9).
Figure 4.11 Cut-off Angle Illustration
Chapter 4
CHECKLIST PHILOSOPHY
Checklists were created to eliminate errors of omission in the cockpit; it serves as a safety
net for the crew especially when the workload is high or under stressful situations. In
general, a checklist is a list of items which must be completed or checked before
performing a specific task during different phases of a flight. Commercial jetliners
require certain disciplines and Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) in all phases of
flight.
In a light aircraft, student pilots were familiar with a checklist called (vital actions),
which was basically some memory items they used to perform in a certain sequence.
However, to operate safely in a multi-crew aircraft, the tasks are further defined in
accordance with Phase of flight and the Nature of the task and listed in a checklist form
as follows:
PHASE OF FLIGHT
 Exterior safety inspection
 Cockpit Safety inspection
 Preliminary cockpit preparation checklist
 Cockpit preparation
 Before start checklist
 After start checklist
 Before takeoff checklist
 After takeoff/climb checklist
 Approach checklist
 Landing checklist
 After landing checklist
 Shutdown/Parking checklist
 Securing the aircraft checklist
NATURE OF THE TASK

 Normal checklist  Scan flow and associated actions
 Abnormal checklist  Read and do (reference items)
 Emergency checklist  Memory or recall items, then read and do items
Chapter 4
NORMAL CHECKLISTS
Normal checklists are to be carried out after the items in the checklist are completed or
checked. The Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) for each aircraft type allocates the
tasks for each crewmember in respect of reading and responding to checklists and their
items, also defining the exact response for each checklist item, for example:
Checklist line item with a response of (DISENGAGE) cannot be responded to by (OFF).
On the other hand, checklist line items with a response of (AS REQUIRED) must be
responded to with a statement of condition or position, for example:
(Cabin Signs . . . . . AS REQUIRED). The (AS REQUIRED) means that depending upon
the existing condition, the cabin signs may be required to be ON or OFF.
SCAN FLOW PATTERNS AND ASSOCIATED ACTIONS
A scan flow pattern has been established to allow crewmembers to perform the checks in
the required sequence.
Figure 4.12 Scan Flow Pattern – A320
Chapter 4
Figure 4.12 Scan Flow Pattern – B738
Chapter 4
Associated actions, on the other hand, are signals for pilot monitoring to start defined
sequences of action or flow patterns before reading a specific normal checklist, for
example:
Selecting landing gear down on final approach is a signal to PM to advise cabin crew.
Retraction of speed brakes after landing, is a signal to PM to start after landing flow
pattern
 Retract flaps
 Switch off transponder
 Start the APU
ABNOMRAL CHECKLISTS
All abnormal checklists are based on the (Read and Do) concept, which means that, the
check of the items must be performed by reading the specific checklist, except
cancellation of warnings (audio or visual).
A crewmember reading the abnormal checklist shall read the item and the checklist`s
response to it, and it has to be performed by the concerned crewmember and confirmed
by the other pilot.
Irreversible items must be cross-checked by both crewmembers, for example:
 Switching off an Inertial Navigation System (INS) or Inertial Reference System

(IRS) must be cross-checked by another crewmember.
 Disconnecting an Integrated Drive Generator (IDG)
*Irreversible items are items that can't be reversed while flying
In case of a system failure, which requires an abnormal checklist to be carried out, the
normal checklist of the current phase of flight must be carried out first, followed by the
abnormal checklist, for example:
A window heat failure after takeoff; the normal after takeoff checklist must be carried out
before the abnormal checklist for the window heat.
Chapter 4
EMERGENCY CHECKLISTS
Emergency checklists are based on (Memory or Recall items), which means that the
memory/recall, or boxed items, must be performed immediately and without any delay
after evaluating the failure, followed by performing the rest of the checklist by (Read and
Do) concept. Cancellation of warning (audio or visual) is always the first crew action.
Irreversible items or items which significantly affect the safety of the flight must be
cross-checked by the other crewmember.
The Emergency Checklist and appropriate aircraft or system configuration have priority
over the normal checklist during any phase of flight, for example:
An engine failure after takeoff requires that engine failure and shutdown checklist to be
carried out before the after takeoff checklist.
No action will be taken apart from warning cancellation until:
 Flight path is stabilized.

 Appropriate command by (PIC).
 At least 400` above ground level (AGL), whether the failure occurred after
takeoff or before landing.
CHECKLIST PRIORITY
To summarize the above discussion, the following list shows the priority of calling and
performing the different types of checklists in case of an emergency or abnormal
situation:
During Takeoff:
 The emergency checklist has to be performed immediately and by recall, followed

by normal checklists
 Abnormal checklist shall be carried out, after the normal checklist of the current
phase of flight has been completed
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During Landing:
 The emergency checklist has to be performed immediately and by recall, followed

by abnormal checklists
 Abnormal checklist shall be carried out, before the normal checklist of the current
phase of flight
On the other hand, in normal situations i.e. with no failures, the normal checklist shall be
carried out in accordance with the phase of flight and aircraft configuration. All
checklists have been designed to be quickly and easily accomplished.
TASK SHARING AND AREAS OF RESPONSIBILITY
To optimize cockpit workload and to enhance the overall safety of the flight during
normal, abnormal and emergency procedures, tasks and areas of responsibilities have
been defined and allocated for each crewmember.
1. NORMAL PROCEDURES
WITH A/P ENGAGED
PF-Pilot Flying- is Responsible for:
 Flight path control (Manipulation of FCU/MCP) Airspeed, Altitude and

Heading
 Aircraft configuration Orders
 Navigation
PM-Pilot Monitoring- is Responsible for:
 Normal Checklist reading (Paper/Electronic/ECAM)

 Execution of required actions on PF request
 Actions on overhead panel
 Communication
Chapter 4
WITH A/P DISENGAGED
 Manual Flight path control

 Navigation
 Manipulation of FCU/MCP) Airspeed, Altitude and Heading on PF

request
 Checklist reading (Paper/Electronic/ECAM)
 Actions on overhead panel
 Communication
Chapter 4
EMERGENCY AND ABNORMAL PROCEDURES

WITH OR WITHOUT A/P
 Communications
 Flight path and airspeed control
 Navigation
 Thrust levers handling
 Checklist reading (Paper/Electronic/ECAM)

 Actions on overhead panel, Engine master switch and engine fire handle
or push buttons, on the PF command
NOTE:
In some of the old generation aircrafts currently flying with Flight Engineers, if the
Captain desires to work the checklist with the F/E, he should direct the F/O to fly the
airplane.
It is important that one pilot be totally involved with the flying of the airplane at all times.
The Captain must be especially alert during abnormal flight conditions, as other
crewmember can be distracted from normal duties accomplishing Emergency or
Abnormal procedures.
Always Remember FLY THE PLANE
As a rule of thumb whether in a small propeller plane or a heavy jet aircraft, the priority
is always to AVIATE, then to NAVIGATE, and finally to COMMUNICATE.
Chapter 4
CHAPTER 5
“JET CHARACTERISTICS”
INTRODUCTION
Transportation through the air was a dream that many people have had since inception.
Dream of flying is traced to the early ages of the Greek Era and even before that. A
Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, statesman and strategist, designed and
built a bird-shaped instrument trying to use it to fly. Scientists and researchers through
the ages came up with different application in order to pursue their ancient dream of
flying.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
THE HUMAN DREAM SINCE THE BEGINNING OF TIME
An old Greek story tells how ICARUS tried to escape the island of Crete using wings
made of wax and feathers, which was designed by his father. Ignoring his father's
instructions, which was not to fly near the sun, the feather fell off after being melted by
its heat and he fell into the sea.
Figure 5.1 ICARUS designing the Figure 5.2 ICARUS falling after the wax melted
feathers for his son
Chapter 5
JET CHARACTERISTICS 5-1
TOWER JUMPERS
Based on the same idea as ICARUS, somewhere in the Middle Ages, a long succession of
tower jumpers trusted their lives to homemade wings built on the assumptions that the
bird’s wings are the source of lift, and the flapping motion is the source of its propulsive
power. However, it was observed that the bird’s ability to fly through its wings only, is
because it has huge wings in relation to its weight. This means that for a man to fly using
one surface, an averaged-sized person of 75 kilograms should have a breastbone of 3
meters long. Tower jumpers benefited the aviation industry in many aspects, one of
which is differentiating between lift and propulsive sources.
LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519)
By the end of the 18th Century, famous artist and scientist LEONARDO DA VINCI
developed a hang glider design in which the inner parts of the wings are fixed, and some
control surfaces are provided towards the tips. While his drawings exist and are deemed
flight worthy, in principle, he himself never flew. It was said that his drawings and
analysis contributed to the basic idea of helicopter and wing designs. However, his work
was not tested at his age; DA VINCI is considered one of the major contributors to
aerodynamics.
Figure 5.3 One of Da Vinci’s drawings
LIGHTER-THAN-AIR BALLOONS (late in the 1700s)
After DA VINCI’s work, researchers were halted in the wing designs, and an era of
studies in air began. Although the history of the invention and the discovery of lighter-
than-air balloons are debatable, its invention was traced to the Chinese ancient history.
Named as the “Three Kingdom Era,” ZHUGE LIANG was assumed to be the first to use
unmanned lanterns for military signaling. The idea of the lanterns is to heat the air inside
the envelope (bag), and the temperature difference will cause the lantern to fly as the
Chapter 5
heated air moves upwards. The same concept was then developed to accommodate for
carrying passengers, and successfully the first manned balloon flight was recorded in
1783 (most likely October the 15th).
Figure 5.6 The lantern

was the first air
utilization in aviation
Figure 5.5 Some ancient designs for

lighter than air balloons
Figure 5.4 Modern lighter than balloon

applications
SIR GEORGE CAYLEY (1773-1857)
Considered one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics, Sir GEORGE
CAYLEY is the first scientific aerial investigator and the first engineer to understand the
underlying principles and forces of flight. In 1799, he set forth the concept of the modern
airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and
flight controls. He was the first to analyze the resistance produced by a body moving
through air. He examined the amount of lifting surfaces required to support a given
weight in birds, and recognized that the lifting properties of wings varied with its angle
through the air mass. Finally, being the first to name the four forces of flight (Lift,
Weight, Thrust and Drag,) he was called “The Father of Aerodynamics.” In1804 his
findings paved the road for the first glider model (including cambered wings), which was
then accepted by historians to be the first airplane ever built.
Chapter 5
THE WRIGHT BROTHERS

WILBUR (1867-1912) & ORVILLE (1871-1948)
In 1900, Wilbur and Orville Wright, the bicycle makers from Ohio, had done
considerable research of their own, inspired by prior findings. After considerable study,
they decided to build a full-sized glider. It was a tailless biplane with a horizontal control
surface forward of the wings.
Figure 5.7 The picture from left to right ORVILLE and

WILLBUR Wright
In October 1900, at Kitty Hawk, exactly at the North Carolina beach site (selected
especially for its consistently steady winds and absence of obstacles, like trees), the
Wright’s made a dozen brief manned flights. Calculating their needs, they designed and
built their own engine. Although it weighed 180 pounds (circa 80 kilograms), it produced
only 13 horsepower. In addition, they produced a propeller where the blade itself was an
airfoil, with similar aerodynamics characteristics as a wing. In 1903, The “Flyer” was the
result of these extensive researches. The Flyer had a span of approximately 40 feet and
weight of 605 pounds. It was a biplane with two propellers that were driven by bicycle-
type gears and chains connected to the engine shaft.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.8 The Flyer
THE HISTORICAL FIRST MANNED POWERED FLIGHT
(December 17, 1903)
The Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight
at Kill Devil Hills, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December
17, 1903. The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was
recorded in a famous photograph. Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first
few hundred feet were up and down, as before, but by the time three hundred feet had
been covered, the machine was under much better control. The course for the next four or
five hundred feet had but little undulation. However, when out about eight hundred feet
the machine began pitching again, and, in one of its darts downward, struck the ground.”
The Wright brothers were the first to utilize wind tunnels in their aviation experiments.
Wrights’ former competitors (like Sir CAYLEY) used wind tunnel when it was just an
apparatus that measures drag only. Between 1871 and 1901, two scientists, FRANK H.
WENHAM and ALBERT ZAHM developed a more sophisticated wind tunnel. This
device made it easier to test and analyze the lift to drag ratio of different aspect ratios.
This was then utilized by Wright Brothers to develop their “Flyer.”
Wind tunnels have been the basis for any aviation researches concerning aerodynamics
since its inception. It makes it easier to derive analysis from wind tunnels with different
variables without risking Man's life or expensive equipment. Wrights Brothers were
considered the first to think of safety before progress, and this is the main benefit from
utilizing wind tunnels.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.11 One of the first Figure 5.9 Wind Tunnel nowadays
Wind Tunnel rooms
Figure 5.10 Wind Tunnel application

on military aircraft in WWII
GOLDEN AGE OF AVIATION (1918-1939) & WWII (1939-1945)
Introduction to airplane as a war tool was in the early 1900s. It was first used in the
Italian-Turkish war in 1911. After this war, airplanes took a minor role in World War I
(1914-1918). After WWI, a huge progress in aviation industry took place. The twenty
years between the end of WWI and the beginning of WWII, was referred to as the
“Golden Age of Aviation.” In this period, airplanes changed from being slow, wood and
wired framed biplanes, to faster all metal monoplanes. European countries began their
search for the commercial potential in the aviation industry just after the WWI has come
to an end. Leading the aviation industry, Germany was the first to initiate passenger
airline service using heavier-than-air crafts, followed by France and Britain modifying
military bombers to carry passengers between London and Paris. Late 1920s, United
States passengers carrying services began. This start was faced by low demands, due to
the unknown capabilities of airplanes presented to the public. These low demands took
place mainly because the fear of flying, especially military aircrafts. These fears affected
mostly the United States and led to the closure of many growing and developing aviation
businesses.
With the beginning of WWII, research and development of airplanes has increased
rapidly, creating more sophisticated and efficient airplanes for battle combats. Although
the development was favoring smaller airplanes with very accurate and precise targeting,
spending on carriers and cargo transporting airships was yet sufficient for a very fast
development. Introduction of radars also helped the industry to even increase the amount
of flying aircrafts. Radars allowed for coordinating air-traffic flow.
Chapter 5
JET TRANSPORT
After the WWII has come to an end, a new fast developing era served aviation industry.
Commercial aviation grew very fast to meet the booming market demand. As prior to
WWII, commercial aviation started converting military crafts to civil passenger carriers.
A very high pace race appeared between different manufacturers to monopolize the green
field industry. The manufacturer started their development in three main branches,
Aerodynamic Designs (wings and air frames), Propulsion systems (Engines) and flight
controls. In 1952, this race and development delivered the first commercial jet airliner
“De Havilland Comet.” Produced by De Havilland, the Comet was a low-wing all metal
monoplane with four jet engines. With clean, low-drag wing design, this airplane was a
state of the art of its age. As first to serve as a commercial jetliner it was featured by
design elements that were uncommonly used at its time. With its level of sophistication,
the Comet needed a crew of two pilots, flight engineer and a navigator.
Figure 5.12 The Comet
In the years since Kitty Hawk, the airplane has undergone a dramatic evolution. Where
the Wright’s Flyer managed to reach 30 MPH for a distance of 120 feet, modern military
and civilian aircrafts have exceeded 4,000 MPH at heights above 60,000 feet. Civil
aviation development in twenty-four years can be further explained by comparing the
comet to the latest civil airplane, like the Boeing 787 (Dream liner) and the Airbus 380.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.13 Comet Cockpit Figure 5.14 Dreamliner Cockpit Figure 5.15 A380 Cockpit
Chapter 5
AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid mechanics science focusing on studying air in motion.
Aerodynamics is considered the main science that aviation is based on. It has been
developing dramatically in the last era. These fast developments wouldn’t take place,
except for the invention of wind tunnels. The best aspect of the wind tunnel is the ability
to examine and understand all the forces acting on a body moving through air without
sacrificing Man’s life.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
PRESSURE
Pressure is simply the weight of an air column. This column of air is measured from the
top of the atmosphere to the point where the pressure is measured. For example, if
measuring the pressure at ground level, it will equal the weight of air from this ground
level to the top of the atmosphere.
This means the mass of air (weight) always decreases, as the altitude increases, or get
closer to the top of the atmosphere.
The general rule is as the height increases above ground, pressure decreases.
Figure 5.16 Pressure Figure 5.17 Column of Air

measurements
PRESSURE & DENSITY ALTITUDE
Temperature affects the mass of air. The general rule is as temperature increases, pressure
also increases. This rule is based on experiments with gases confined in a closed system.
On the contrary, atmospheric air’s temperature and pressure relation are the opposite
(given the same altitude). The air molecule’s kinetic energy increases (moves faster)
when its temperature increases. Thus, it diverts from the surface area where the weight is
Chapter 5
concentrated, resulting in less number of molecules, leading to a decrease in weight per

square inch, meaning less pressure. If this diversion is not contained in a confined
system, the molecules are allowed to escape the surface area where they are concentrated.
On the other hand, as altitude increases, temperature decreases. The increase in the
displacement between air molecules is the reason behind decreasing temperatures. As the
displacement increases, the energy in the air molecules decreases, resulting in less
temperature in the whole air mass. Temperatures' decrease with higher altitudes, are
usually uniform. As the altitude increases by 1,000 feet, temperature decreases by 2°C (in
standard atmospheric conditions). This is called "lapse rate."
In real life, the standard atmospheric conditions do not always take place. In non-standard
days, temperature effects are not reflected in pressure altitude. However, density altitude
further corrects pressure altitudes for non-standard temperatures.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS (ISA)
There are internationally agreed standard atmospheric conditions for the aviation
industry, which is called ISA (International Standard Atmospheric conditions). ISA is a
state of the atmosphere, when atmospheric temperature and pressure at sea level are 15
degrees Celsius and 1013.25 hPa, respectively. The normal lapse rate in ISA is 2°C per
1,000ft.
BASIC RULES
CONSERVATION OF MASS LAW
This law implies that matter can be neither created nor destroyed. Matter remains
unchanged, even if there were changes in its physical properties (speed or area or
pressure), or its chemical properties (temperature). This applies on the three main
elements of matter: solid, liquid and air. If a mass of air entering a tunnel from one side,
and it was exposed to different pressure and/or temperature differences; it will come from
the other side with the same mass.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Continuity equation assumes that the mass should be conserved, whether passing through
any temperature changes or smaller surface areas. Disregarding the temperature for now,
this equation states that for a mass, the product of the area and velocity is constant
throughout the media it is passing through.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.18 Continuity Equation example
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton is one of the most influential people in the history of physics. He set forth the
three laws of motion, which is considered the basic rules of fluid mechanics in general
and aerodynamics specifically. These laws helped significantly in explaining the creation
of the lift on an aerofoil. Below are the three laws of motion:
1. A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to

remain in motion at a constant speed and in the same direction. For
example, if a car is moving with a constant speed it will continue
moving with that speed until an external force is applied. This force
can be a negative force (meaning in the opposite direction), like
releasing the gas pedal or hitting a wall, or in a positive force (meaning
the same direction), like being hit from behind
2. When a constant force acts upon a body, its resulting acceleration is
inversely proportional to its mass and directly proportional to the
applied force. This means that moving a bigger mass needs a higher
force, and for the same force, a smaller mass can be moved with higher
acceleration. For example, pushing a small car will require two men
and it will accelerate by 10 km/hr. However, pushing a heavier car
(thus higher mass) will require either more than two men or it will
accelerate slower than a relatively smaller one
Chapter 5
F = Mass x Acceleration
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, equal in

magnitude and opposite in direction
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle states “as the velocity of a fluid (ex. air) increases, its internal
pressure decreases”.
Figure 5.19 As the fluid passes through the smaller area cross-section, pressure decreases and velocity
increases
Fluid tends always to move from high pressure to low pressure, in order to reach a state
of equilibrium. Using Bernoulli's principle and knowing the previously stated fact, wings
were designed to create a state of differential pressure. This differential pressure is
created using airfoil designs with curvatures, producing a vertical force referred to as
“Lift.”
Chapter 5
Figure 5.20 Bernoulli’s principle benefited in designing

cambered wings, to get use of the pressure difference
AERODYNAMIC DESIGNS
It is always said that the high pressure pushes the airfoil from the down side causing it to
elevate, on the contrary, the aerofoil is more pulled from the low-pressure part (the upper
side of the aerofoil). The high speed (lower pressure) on the upper side of the aerofoil
creates a vacuum on its surface, pulling the wing upwards. The same as the straw
concept, a low-pressure system is created at the upper side of the straw, and the pressure
on the lower side of the straw remains unchanged. So the liquid moves from the high-
pressure side (lower part) to the relatively lower pressure side (higher part) of the straw.
Figure 5.21 Forces caused by pressure differences on an

airfoil. The forces on an airfoil are totally dependent on its
design.
Chapter 5
The above figure illustrates that both surfaces produce forces resulted from the pressure
difference. The force vectors around any airfoil are dependent upon its shape. The net
force resulting from both sides are focused on a point called “Center of Pressure.”
THE LIFT EQUATION
Using wind tunnels, researchers came up with an equation describing the relation
between the Lift forces and the factors affecting it. The understanding of the next
equation will ease any further explanations of aerodynamics' related topics. This
Equation states the following:
CL  Coefficient of
2
L = ½ p (CL x V x S) Lift
Ρ  Air Density
V2  Airspeed
(squared)
S  Surface Area
This equation states that Lift is directly proportional to its coefficient, density of air (the
airfoil is moving through), air speed of the air moving over the airfoil and the airfoil
surface area.
CL Coefficient of Lift
CL is the variation in Lift depending on the shape and inclination of the airfoil. CL is a
constant number for the same airfoil with same angle of attack, but different for different
airfoils or same airfoil with different angle of attacks. Aerodynamics' engineers used the
CL curve to describe the relationship between different angle of attacks and the overall
lift force.
Chapter 5
Compared to a similar airfoil, as

angle of attack increases (α),
Resultant force increases, thus the
horizontal component of this
force (Lift) increases
Figure 5.22 Lift forces act on a point called "CP"
At a given airspeed, lift increases due to the increase in Lift Coefficient, resulted from
increasing angle of attack. This relation is linear (constant increase) till a certain angle of
attack is reached. At this angle of attack the airflow begins to detach from the airfoil
surface, and the CL curve diverts from its linearity. With a further increase in angle of
attack, lift coefficient will increase but with a lower percentage. Increasing the angle of
attack further than this will cause the airflow to leave the upper surface and lift will be
lost. The point at which the airflow is completely separated is called “Coefficient of Lift
max,” and the corresponding angle of attack is called “Critical Angle of Attack.” At the
critical angle of attack, the wing is totally stalled.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.23 CL has a linear relation to α until reaching a certain angle where the
relation diverts from its linearity
Another finding resulted from wind tunnel tests showed that as airfoil angle of attack (α)
increases, the downwash generated near the wing tips reduces the overall lift coefficient.
This lift reduction is justified by the tilt backward of the resultant force at higher angle of
attacks. This tilt causes the vertical component (Lift) to decrease and its horizontal
component (Drag) to increase. This drag is referred to as "Induced Drag”, because it is a
by-product of the Coefficient of Lift. Thus, induced drag increases at high lift-
coefficients (due to higher of angle of attacks).
Figure 5.24 Induced drag is the backward

line drawn between the vertical component
(Lift) and the resultant force.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.25 Induced drag increases with the increase in

angle of attack, because the resultant force moves
further away from the vertical component
RELATIVE WIND AND ANGLE OF ATTACK (α)
The Relative wind is the air moving across the airfoil. The direction of this wind is
always opposite and parallel to the airfoil's direction of motion. The angle of attack on
the other hand, is the angle between the chord line and the relative wind.
Figure 5.26 Angle of Attack
Chapter 5
AIRSPEED
Airspeed referred to in this equation is not the airspeed of the aircraft; rather it is the
speed of the air that flow chord wise. In some wings (not swept back wings), the airspeed
that meets the leading edge of the wing is the same speed at which the aircraft is cruising,
and equal to the chord wise airspeed. On the contrary, swept back wings create a
difference between the chord wise airspeed and the cruising speed of the aircraft (will be
discussed later). Thus, both speeds should always be differentiated.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPEEDS
INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)
Speed indicated by the airplane's instruments. This speed is calculated assuming a

constant air mass density, and not corrected for position error. This speed is correct at sea
level in ISA conditions. The use of this speed is limited to the crew usage.
CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS)
CAS is the IAS corrected for position error. This position error is the nature of the probe
position on the fuselage. This speed is used to determine speed limits for legal
requirements.
EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS)
EAS is CAS corrected for compressibility error at the actual cruising level of the aircraft.
Compressibility error is an error caused by the compressibility factors of the air. This
speed is used to determine the overall stresses on the airplane, including speed limits.
TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)
TAS is EAS corrected to air density variation. This calibration corrects for the height of
the aircraft and the difference between the actual Static Atmospheric Temperature (SAT)
and the ISA condition temperature at this height. In real life, as the aircraft climb with the
same IAS the TAS increases until it reaches the tropopause layer where the TAS remains
constant (through the tropopause layer).
GROUND SPEED (GS)
GS is correcting TAS for wind. This speed is used for navigation.
Chapter 5
TAS = 445 Kts
+ 120 Kts EAS+ 120 Kts D ensity Correction
EAS = 325 Kts CAS- 10 Kts Compressibility Correction

- 10 Kts
CAS = 335 Kts IAS+ 2 Kts Position Error Correction
+ 2 Kts
IAS = 333 Kts
FL 200
M= 0. 72
TAS=EAS=CAS=332 Kts IAS- 1 Kts Position Error Correction
IAS = 333 Kts

SEA LEVEL
M= 0. 50
250 300 350 400 450
AIR SPEEDKts
-
Figure 5.27 Different types of Airspeed
DRAG
Drag forces are any force that opposes an airfoil in its forward motion. Drag forces are
always opposite to the direction of motion of an airfoil. These forces are categorized into
Induced and Parasite Drag. The induced drag is directly related to the angle of attack.
Parasite Drag, on the other hand, is a drag that neither created with lift, nor avoidable.
INDUCED DRAG
The portion of the total drag force that is created by the production of lift is called
induced drag. At positive angles of attacks, low-pressure air from above the wing joins
high-pressure air from beneath the wing at the wingtip and wing trailing edges, creating
vortices. The overall effects of these vortices are downward deflection of air, which
create downward forces on the wing, causing reduction in lift.
Chapter 5
To summarize, induced drag solely depends on the coefficient of lift. Induced drag
always increases as the angle of attack increases, thus significantly higher at lower
speeds.
PARASITE DRAG
Parasite drag is the opposite force created by any part of the airplane not contributing to
useful lift. Parasite Drag is caused by any aircraft surface, which deflects or interferes
with the smooth airflow around the airplane. Parasite drag is divided into 3 types:
 Form Drag  results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow
from the surface of the structure
Ex. The shape of the airfoil itself
 Interference Drag  occurs when varied currents of air over an airplane meet and
interact
Ex. Mixing of the air over structures such as wing and

tail surface brace struts and landing gear struts
 Skin Friction Drag  caused by the roughness of the airplane’s surfaces.
Ex. Rivet heads on the aircraft components
All these types of drags result in disruption of the smooth airflow on different aircraft
components. It is divided into drag forces acting on the wing, and forces acting on other
aircraft parts. Parasite Drag acting on the wing is referred to as “Profile Drag”. On the
other hand, the drag acting on other aircraft’s structure (Ex. Fuselage, tail, Engine
Nacelles, etc.) is called “Structural Drag”.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.26 Types of Drag
TOTAL DRAG
The total drag of an airplane is the sum of induced and parasite drags. Induced drag is the
predominant drag at low airspeeds, and parasite drag is the predominant drag at high
airspeeds. The intersection of the induced drag and parasite drag curves corresponds to a
point where total drag is at its minimum. This is the speed where the aircraft is operating
at its best lift to drag ratio, or L/Dmax.
Parasite Drag
Figure 5.27 Drag Curves

Chapter 5
BASIC ELEMENTS THAT DEFINES A WING

The following are the basic elements of any wing:
 Leading Edge  is the first part of the wing that meets the oncoming wind
 Trailing Edge  is the aft end of the wing, where the airflow over the upper
surface meets the airflow from the lower surface
 Chord Line  is an imaginary line that connects the leading and the trailing edges
of the wing. Fairly constant in nature, the chord line is used as the reference
surface where lifting forces act upon
 Mean Line  is the line equidistant from the upper and the lower surfaces of the
wing
 Camber of the wing  is the displacement between the Chord Line and the Mean
Line
Figure 5.28 Basic elements that define any aerofoil
Chapter 5
BASIC FORCES AFFECTING AIRCRAFT DURING FLIGHT

1. THRUST & DRAG
An aircraft moves forward because of the thrust supplied by its propellers or jet engines.
Forward motion continues as long as the thrust forces are equal or greater than the drag
forces.
2. LIFT & WEIGHT
The force of lift acting on a wing is concentrated on the CP. However, the weight of the
aircraft opposing this lifting force is concentrated on a point known as the Center of
Gravity (CG).
Figure 29 Forces Acting on an Airplane
WING DESIGNS
Wing designs have different factors; each affects the lift and drag forces generated on its
surface. Aircraft designers are always concerned with the trade-off between economic
high-speed requirements and the low-speed requirements to meet takeoff, approach and
landing performance criteria. For an aircraft to fly with higher speeds, its wings need to
be less thick. However, thin wings don’t accommodate for low landing speeds.
Chapter 5
WING PLANFORM
The shape of a wing is a compromised design optimum for the intended operational use
of the aircraft. The wing planform determines the three-dimensional flow of air around
the wings. Wing's planforms vary, and these variations categorize its pressure patterns on
its cord lines along its span. The following wings' planform designs are accepted to be the
most-used designs:
 Rectangular Wing
 Elliptical Wing
 Tapered Wing
 Delta Wing
Figure 5.30 Some wing designs
Chapter 5
FACTORS AFFECTING AERODYNAMICS' FORCES OF A

WING
There are other factors that affect aerodynamics forces over a wing other than its
planform. The following are some of these factors:
 Wing Area
 Wing Span
 Wing Sweep
 Mean Aerodynamic Cord (MAC)
 Aspect Ratio
 Taper Ratio
 Thickness to Chord Ratio
 Dihedral
 Angle Of Incidence
WING AREA
The surface area of the wing is a factor that affects Lift. As the surface area of the wing
increases, the Lift force increases. However, this increase in lift will also be accompanied
by an increase in drag.
Figure 5.31 Surface area (S) and wingspan (β)

Chapter 5
WINGSPAN
Wingspan is the tip-to-tip dimension of the airplane wing, regardless of its geometric
shape. The symbol for wingspan is β. Induced drag decreases, for the same lift force
produced, in higher span wings. In other words, if two sets of wings produce the same lift
force, the set with the higher span will have less induced drag than the other. Because of
the increased distance between the CP and the vortices in the wing tips, the reduction in
lift is reduced. Thus, the effect of these vortices will decrease.
WING SWEEP
Sweep back is the angle between a line perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the
airplane and the quarter chord, c/4. The symbol of the sweep angle is the Greek Lambda
letter, λ. The sweep angle of the wing helps the aircraft to fly at speed higher than the
airspeed flowing chord-wise, because there is an angular difference between the airflow
directly meeting the wing, and the chord-wise flow.
Figure 5.32 Sweep calculation
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)
Mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC, is the chord section of the infinite cross-sectional
chords of a wing, which has force vectors throughout the flight range identical to those of
the actual wing. In other words, MAC is the assumed chord that represents the whole
wing. CP is assumed to be located on the MAC. MAC is used to aid in weight and
balance calculation. The displacement between the CP and CG determines the
longitudinal stability of the aircraft.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.33 MAC calculations (Note: Cr is the root chord & Ct is the tip
chord)
ASPECT RATIO
The aspect ratio is the relationship between the span and the average chord of the wing. It
is one of the primary factors in determining lift/drag characteristics. At a given angle of
attack, a higher aspect ratio produces less induced drag for the same amount of lift.
Increasing the span, increases the aspect ratio, which reduces the induced drag as
explained above.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.34 Aspect ratio calculations
TAPER RATIO
Taper ratio is the ratio between the root chord and the tip chord. A ratio of about 2 to 1
gives approximately the optimum lift across the span, i.e. elliptical loading (each section
of the wing producing the correct proportion of the total lift of the wing avoiding
unneeded tilting).
THICKNESS TO CHORD RATIO
Thickness to chord ratio is a ratio between a wing thickness (its camber) and its chord.
This ratio is used to compromise between flying fast and having thick wings to
accommodate for other aircraft’s parts carriage (for example, landing gear). Simply, the
thicker the wing, the less its maximum flying speed will be (will be discussed later).
DIHEDRAL
The dihedral is the upward angle of the airplane’s wings with respect to the ground
(horizontal axis). The dihedral makes the wings appear to form a spread-out V. This
angle usually is just a few degrees. This design is inherently beneficial for the aircraft’s
lateral stability, because when the aircraft enters an uncoordinated roll during gusty wing
conditions the lower wing tends to meet the air at a higher angle of attack. This higher
Chapter 5
angle of attack produces more lift, which consequently raise the lower wing again to level
flight.
Figure 5.35 Dihedral angle (front view)
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The angle of incidence is the angle between the wing chord line and a line parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the airplane. A slight positive angle of incidence provides a positive
angle of attack, while the airplane is in level flight at normal cruising speed.
Angle of Incidence
Longitudinal Axis
Figure 5.36 Angle of Incidence (side view)
Chapter 5
HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS

There are other factors that affect the aerodynamics forces over the wing in high-speed
regimes. These factors are trivial and can be ignored when flying with low speeds.
However, as the aircraft flies higher and faster, the airflow around the wings acts in a
different way than when flown at slower speeds and at lower altitudes.
These differences stem from the compressibility factors of air at high speeds.
COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility is a term that describes a change in the volume of matter, when external
force is applied. This matter can be solid, liquid or gas. The farther the medium particles
are displaced, the more this medium can be compressed, or the more its volume can be
changed. Experiments showed that solids and liquids are less compressible than air,
because air particles are more displaced from each other than solids and liquids.
Density and pressure altitudes in a way give an indication of the particles displacement in
a medium, they are inconsistent. This inconsistency resulted from the difference of
pressure altitudes and temperatures of the day-to-day operations. Thus, another consistent
reference was needed to express the characteristics of the medium, the particles
displacements, and its effects. The best consistent reference was the speed of sound.
SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound solely depends on the medium through which it propagates and does
not depend on the frequency of the sound wave. For example, when listening to a band
concert from a long distance all the instruments will be heard, from the bass drum to the
piccolo at the same time. Although these instruments have a very broad frequency range,
but the speed of sound is dependent on the medium, wherever the location from the stage.
Sound is transferred through vibration. When the band on stage play their instruments,
they vibrate. The air surrounding their instruments will then vibrate, and this vibration is
transferred through the air particles until it vibrates the air near the eardrum. The eardrum
will then vibrate, and the signals will be then transferred to listeners' mind for decoding.
The properties of the medium that determine the speed of sound are its compressibility
and density. The harder a change can be produced to a volume of a medium (by
compressing it), the higher the sound velocity. Because air has a low density, the speed of
sound is quite slow, thus it can be easily compressed. Solids, on the other hand, are
generally difficult to compress and thus have higher sound speeds.
Chapter 5
The following table illustrates different speed of sound in different media:
SPEED OF SOUND IN SELECTED MEDIA
Sound Velocity
Medium m/sec ft/sec
Air (20 C) 343 1.125
Water 1,498 4.915
Seawater 1,531 5.023
Steel 5,060 16.600
Aluminum 5,100 16.700
Pyrex glass 5,640 18.500
Table 5.1 Speed of Sound in different Media
HOW COMPRESSIBILITY AFFECTS AIRCRAFTS
Whenever an object moves through air, it continually causes small pressure disturbances
in the air stream. These disturbances cause small changes in air pressure, which is
transmitted outward in the form of a wave from the point where it was originated. These
expanding pressure waves travel at the speed of sound and move outward equally in all
directions.
If an object is moving at a low speed (below the speed of sound), the pressure waves
generated (disturbances) travel well ahead of it. As the speed of the object increases,
these pressure waves begin to pile up in front of the disturbance, causing an increase in
the air density. As the object reaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves begin to pile
up directly in front of the object. This causes the particles of air directly in front of the
object’s path to be delayed or slowed down, while its density and pressure have been
continually increasing.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.39 Air disturbances
As the object’s speed is increased beyond the speed of sound, the air ahead of it is further
compressed. This compressed region of air, where there is a sudden change in
temperature, velocity, pressure and density, extends some distance ahead of the object,
depending on the speed and size of the object and the air temperature. This compressed
region forms a line known as boundary line. The boundary line is a line between the
undisturbed air and the compressed air. This boundary line is called the shock wave.
The drag caused by shock waves is called wave drag.
SHOCK WAVE AND ITS RELATION TO THE AIRCRAFT SPEED
The phenomenon of shock wave appears because of the compressibility characteristics of

air. This phenomenon is further amplified whenever the aircraft reaches the speed of
sound.
Current civil passengers' carrying aircrafts are not approved to fly at speeds above the
speed of sound. Thus the actual flown airspeed is set to be a ratio of the speed of sound,
in the current medium. This ratio is referred to as “Mach Number”.
Chapter 5
MACH NUMBER (M)

Mach number is the ratio between the actual speed of the aircraft (True Air Speed), and
the actual speed of sound. When the speed of sound decreases, the Mach number
increases (given constant TAS). And when the TAS increases, Mach number increases
(given constant speed of sound). This insures keeping an adequate margin between the
aircraft actual speed and speed of sound. When flying Mach number (of less than 1
Mach), the aircraft wouldn’t reach the speed of sound, where the compressibility effects
are amplified.
The Mach number is defined as the relation between the (TAS) and the speed of sound
(a):
Mach Number =
Note: Speed of sound () = 39 × √ (273 ± SAT) = kts.
The speed of sound is dependent only on Temperature (the lower the temperature, the
lower the speed of sound).
Example:
Calculate the Mach number based on the following givens:
 ISA conditions at sea level + 15C (SAT)

 If TAS = 332 kts
Mach Number = Mach
ISA conditions at 20,000 feet - 25C (SAT)
Chapter 5
If TAS = 445 kts
TAS 445
Mach Number =   0.7 2Mach
a 3 9 (2 7 3 2 5)
The difference between the indicated and true Mach number is very small up to the
maximum operating Mach. However, at very high Mach numbers, near the maximum
demonstrated Mach number, the position error tends to get larger. This is because of the
changes in the pressure around the pitot and static sources. Most of the new generation jet
airplanes have over-reading mach indicators at very high Mach numbers to overcome this
error.
For instance, at 0.955 indicated Mach the true Mach is 0.94
AIRCRAFT SPEED REGIMES
There are different categories of aircrafts based on their cruising Mach Numbers. These
categories are:
a) Subsonic Mach numbers  below 0.75

b) Transonic Mach numbers  from 0.75 to 1.20
c) Supersonic Mach numbers  from 1.20 to 5.00
d) Hypersonic Mach numbers  above 5.00
a) SUBSONIC FLIGHT REGIME
The actual airplane speed is below speed of sound (thus less than 1 Mach). This speed
will accelerate over the wing. The maximum speed (due to this acceleration) still
wouldn’t reach the speed of sound. In other words, subsonic flight regime aircrafts
always fly with a speed that is lower than speed of sound, and the air speed over its wings
will not reach speed of sound. These aircrafts are generally accepted to have maximum
speeds of Mach No below 0.75.
b) TRANSONIC FLIGHT REGIME
Most of the current airplanes are flying at airspeeds below Mach 1 (their maximum
speeds are less than speed of sound), airflow over the wing upper surface can reach Mach
Chapter 5
1 or greater over some portions of the airplane. These aircrafts are known to have
transonic flight regime.
It is within this speed that the greatest effects of compressibility take place, which
consequently causes difficulties to smooth flying. The transonic speed range is from
Mach 0.75 to Mach 1.2.
Figure 5.37 Transonic speed regime
c) SUPERSONIC FLIGHT REGIME
As the speed increases, the shock waves grow, so does the drag rise, but when the shock
waves reach the trailing edge of the wing, the drag rise decreases rapidly. This decrease
in drag rise occurs at about Mach 1.2. Beyond the 1.2 Mach, the decrease in drag rise
enables the aircraft to fly normally.
Supersonic flight regimes extend from Mach 1.2 to Mach 5.
d) HYPERSONIC FLIGHT REGIME
Mach numbers above Mach 5 are considered hypersonic.
Chapter 5
SHOCK WAVE FORMATION ON THE WING
Jet transports have increased their performance envelope as compared to their piston-
engine forerunners. This increased performance capability results in normal operations at
higher altitudes and faster airspeeds where compressibility effects occur.
When airspeed of the airplane nears the speed of sound, the air over the wing accelerates
smoothly and transfers to sonic speed (near the most curved part of the wing). In this
phase, shock waves normally don’t form, but it rather form when the speed is reduced
from sonic speeds to sub sonic speeds (which happens when the airflow begins
decelerating over the less curved part of the wing). When the airspeed decelerates to sub
sonic from sonic speeds, rapid changes in density, pressure, and temperature causes the
shock wave formation.
Wake turbulence is found after the shock wave. This wake turbulence causes a buffet
referred to as high-speed buffet. Initially, this buffet is gentle, but as the shock wave
increases in size, the buffet becomes more vigorous.
Figure 5.38 Shockwave formation over the wing
SHOCK WAVE DEVELOPMENT
The speed of the air increases over the wing and the area of supersonic flow increases
causing the shock wave to move aft toward the trailing edge. Followed by supersonic
flow development below the wing and another shock wave begin to form from below.
Eventually, the entire wing will become supersonic and the shock waves on both surfaces
Chapter 5
of the wing will move aft to the trailing edge. At the same time, a new shock wave begins
to form in front of the leading edge, due to the air piling up in front of the wing.
Figure 5.39 Development of shockwave
Chapter 5
Figure 5.41 Shock wave development
Figure 5.40 Airspeeds over different sections over the wing
Chapter 5
SUMMARY OF SHOCK WAVE CHARACTERISTICS:

 The density and pressure of the air passing through a shock wave increases
 The velocity of the air decreases suddenly from supersonic to subsonic as it
passes through a shock wave
 The temperature of the air increases suddenly as it passes through a shock wave
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER, SPEED MARGINS, and SPEED LIMITS
Shock wave formation is always accompanied by a sudden and a massive increase in

drag. This drag rise, referred to as sound barrier, requires the aircraft to have an
exceptional amount of thrust to overcome. Although civil aircrafts are equipped with very
powerful engines that may reach high-speed buffets in level flight, it doesn’t have extra
thrust that can overcome this drag rise; simply, it was not designed to do so.
Critical Mach Number of a wing is defined to keep the aircraft away from this drag rise.
In simple form, aircrafts are not allowed to fly at speeds at which the airflow over the
wing becomes sonic. This happens when the aircraft flies at or above the Critical Mach
Number. Critical Mach Number is defined as the speed at which the Coefficient of Drag
rises by 0.002%.
Figure 5.42 The start of the dashed line is where the drag rise of 0.002% takes place
Chapter 5
SPEED MARGINS
The speed margins are different operational or limit speeds. Examples of these speeds
are:
1. Stalling Speed  it is the minimum speed required to keep the air tact to the
aircraft’s wings. The stalling speed of any wing is a function of weight and
center of gravity. Stalling speeds occur at fairly constant EAS. At very high
altitudes the stalling speeds tend to slightly increase
2. VMO / MMO  these are the maximum operating speeds. These speeds are the
maximum indicated air speeds in knots or in Mach number, at which the
airplane should be flown intentionally and at which the normal strength and
normal level of handling qualities are guaranteed. The MMO is always below
the critical Mach number
3. VDF / MDF  these are the maximum demonstrated speeds (IAS) in knots and
Mach number used during certification testing. When the airplane is flown at
these speeds a reduction in handling qualities is noted
FACTORS AFFECTING CRITICAL MACH NUMBER

Critical Mach number can be altered to allow the airplane to fly at higher speeds. Factors
that would increase Critical Mach number are:
a) Swept Back Wings

b) Less Thickness to Chord Wings
c) Vortex generator
Chapter 5
SWEPT BACK WING
Increasing the wing sweep causes a difference between the aircraft actual speed and air
speed flowing chord wise. By tilting the wing, the actual chord-wise airspeed is lower
than the aircraft forward speed. Consequently, a sweptback wing allows an aircraft to fly
faster without allowing airflow speeds over the wing to become sonic. Thus increasing
the wing’s critical Mach number.
Figure 5.43 Actual chord-wise airflow is lower than the airplane’s

actual speed
Chapter 5
Figure 5.44 Effect of sweep on drag rise curve (given same thickness wings)
THICKNESS TO CHORD RATIO
The thickness to chord ratio defines the amount of acceleration taking place on the upper
surface. Thicker wings cause higher acceleration, resulting in higher speeds. In contrast,
if the wing is less thick, there will be limited acceleration on its upper surface, thus the
highest point over the wing won’t reach sonic speeds. Consequently, the aircraft can fly
at higher speed without facing shock wave problems.
Figure 5.45 The higher T/C the lower the critical Mach number
Chapter 5
VORTEX GENERATOR
Another device used to reduce the effects of compressibility is the vortex generator. The
vortex generator is a small low-aspect ratio wing placed vertically at a fixed angle of
attack on large wing's surface. The generator will produce lift under these conditions, and
it will also have an associated tip vortex. This vortex will be large in relation to the
generator since its aspect ratio is small.
When airflow separation happens behind the shock wave, vortex generator provides
energy to the air in the boundary layer to accelerate the slow-moving air particles, hence
delay its separation. In other words, the generated vortex is taking relatively high-energy
air from outside the boundary layer and mixing it with the low-energy air in the boundary
layer. It is designed to penetrate through the boundary layer.
Figure 5.46 Vortex generator designs
Although vortex generators increase critical Mach number, it produces additional drag,
which makes its overall benefit in question.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.47 The tradeoff between the increase in critical

Mach number and the extra drag resulted from the vortex
generator is in question
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH SPEED

AERODYNAMICS
MACH TUCK (TUCK UNDER)
Normally, a longitudinally stable airplane pitches nose up as airspeed increases and a

push force is required to hold the nose level. However, airplanes don’t exhibit this
characteristic if flown at airspeeds at which compressibility affects its stability.
Above certain airspeed an aft movement of the center of pressure due to shock wave
formation is manifested until a gradual drop of the nose occurs (commonly called Mach
Tuck). Unless corrected with a pull force, or stabilizer trimming, this induces a further
speed increase, intensifying the nose drop.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.48 Shock wave is formed first near the root, reducing the wing size shifting the CP outward (aft
due to the sweep)
DUTCH ROLL
Swept wing airplanes are generally subject to a more pronounced roll-yaw coupling than
straight-wing airplanes. This roll, due to yaw, is referred to as the dihedral effect on
straight-wing airplanes.
When a swept wing airplane with a dihedral yaws, not only the advancing wing is at a
higher angle of attack (dihedral effect), but it also presents a greater span to the airstream.
The retreating wing becomes less effective, because of the change in airflow to a more
span-wise direction. The lift differential developed by the swept wing is greater and
produces a greater rolling moment than a straight-wing.
The foregoing characteristics generate a yaw-rolling oscillation known as the (Dutch

roll.) Due to the lesser damping of swept-wing airplanes, a sudden gust or a short
uncoordinated rudder deflection initiates a Dutch roll.
Chapter 5
DUTCH ROLL OSCILLATION
During Dutch roll, the vertical fin and rudder develop opposing forces that tend to offset
the yawing movement, if maintained in a fixed or streamlined position. The vertical fin
and the rudder, along with the inertia of the airplane help in regaining the stabilization in
the form of damped oscillations. As the airplane recovers from Dutch roll, the magnitude
of the oscillations gradually decreases.
Chapter 5
Figure 49 Dutch Roll
Chapter 5
MODERN AERODYNAMIC DESIGN

In making an aerodynamic analysis of an aircraft, it is necessary to consider the
component parts and to calculate the airflow around each part separately. The results are
combined to obtain the total forces acting on an aircraft, including the force vectors
acting on the fuselage. In modern aerodynamic design, the availability of computerized
iterations enabled researchers to study the complete wing, body, and tail configuration to
come up with optimized components.
Chapter 5
JET PROPULSION
Jet transport aircrafts are operating in a completely different spectrum of weights,
altitudes and speeds than the flight schools' Cessna. The propulsion system is a system
producing a force required to move a mass in straight line or change its state of motion.
There are basically two types of engines producing propulsion force required for airplane
thrust:
 Reciprocating Engines
 Jet Turbine Engines
EVOLUTION OF PROPULSION SYSTEM

Propeller transport airplanes were not able to meet the market requirements of increased
seating capacity (Heavier), congested capacity of air spaces (Higher) and high speed
(Faster), simply because the propulsion force of the propeller piston engines has reached
its limits.
The most advanced piston engine produced a maximum of 3,400 thrust horsepower at sea
level; by simple calculations, approximately 20 engines are needed to lift the weight of a
jumbo jet during takeoff at its maximum weight.
The first application of jet propulsion was demonstrated by Hero of Alexandria in the
first century. This first application of propulsion was in the form of a steam engine. This
steam engine used expansion of liquids (due to high thermal energy), to spin a sphere
creating mechanical motion.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.50 Development of

Jet engines was traced to
Steam engine
Development of jet engines is traced from steam engines. However, the first application
of the jet engines as known today was traced to the 1930s prior to WWII. Jet engines in
airplanes were the market leader, as its developments were rapid, and then broadened to
include ships, hovercraft, power stations and industrial installations.
The jet engine was the solution to meet the ever-increasing market demands because of
its inherent qualities, which are:
 High power output per engine

 Low weight (Power to weight ratio)
 Small frontal area (Lower drag)
 Low fuel consumption at high altitudes
 Overall efficiency and reliability
Chapter 5
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN RECIPROCATING AND JET ENGINES
SIMILARITIES
Both reciprocating and jet engines shares the following:
 Both obtain their power from gaseous expansion by burning fuel

 Both utilize ambient air oxygen to support combustion
 Both obtain thrust utilizing the basic laws of motion
 Both pass by the four-stage cycle:
o Intake
o Compression
o Combustion
o Exhaust
DIFFERENCES
On the other hand, reciprocating and jet engines differ in the following two major areas:
 Applications Of Newton’s Laws In Design Philosophy

 Engine Basic Components Design
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAW IN DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Newton’s Laws of motion:
 First Law  A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion tends to
continue in motion in a straight line, unless an external force is applied
 Second Law  The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force
causing it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body
F= M X a
 Third Law  For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Chapter 5
The thrust of an aircraft’s propulsive system is the reaction of a force required to

accelerate a mass of air. This mass of air is accelerated by propeller blades in case of a
propeller, or all its internal components in case of a jet engine.
The second and third laws of motion are the most applicable to the development of thrust
in general, and the equations for jet thrust may be derived directly from the second law.
The first major difference between propellers and jets is the relation between mass and its
acceleration in the following equation:
M  is the mass of the air that is being
accelerated to provide thrust
a  is the acceleration of this mass of air
The acceleration through a conventional propeller is comparatively small, because it’s

directly dependent upon the surface area of the propeller blade. The blade collects and
forces the air backwards, and the thrust is the reaction to the backward force. So in order
to increase the thrust, either the mass of air should increase, by increasing the blade
surface area, or increase its acceleration through increasing its rotation speed. Although
increasing the blade size increases the mass of air being accelerated, it has limits due to
its maintenance costs, drag penalties and in extreme cases; it possibly can hit the ground.
On the other hand, increasing its rotation speed (to enhance acceleration) is limited to
certain speeds. Increasing its speed further result in entering sonic phases, or losing
contact to the spinner (due to the very high centrifugal forces).
On the other hand, jet engine produces thrust by giving a comparatively small mass of air
an extremely larger acceleration.
ENGINE BASIC COMPONENTS DESIGNS

Both reciprocating and jet engine obtain their power from gases expanded by burning
fuel using a four-stage cycle. The second main difference between them is that
reciprocating engine uses the same chamber for the four-stages. On the other hand, jet
engines use different chambers for each and every stage.
The reciprocating engine designs its chamber based on compromises between the four
strokes. On the contrary, jet engines use different designs for different chamber providing
flexibility for each design. Each chamber design is optimized to give the best results for
the intended process.
Chapter 5
This also allowed adding turbine section. The turbine sections allow favorable alterations
to the speed and pressure of the air in the engine. The turbine blades use the high speed
air stream from the combustion chamber to produce extra shaft power to rotate other
engine components.
Figure 5.51 Differences between reciprocating engine and jet engine
Chapter 5
Figure 5.52 Velocity, total pressure, total temperature and thrust variation at
different stages
BASIC COMPONENTS
The basic components of any jet engines are:
1. Air intake
2. Compressor section
3. Burner section
4. Turbine section
5. Exhaust section
AIR INTAKE
Air intake is the initial part of the engine. This part is responsible for collecting the air
that will enter the compressor section. Although the air enters directly the engine because
of the airplane forward movement, designs for the intake section are diffuser like.
Chapter 5
Diffusers are tunnels with a low area opening and a wider area after. This design
increases air pressure. However, this pressure increase is negligible.
COMPRESSOR SECTION
Located at the front of the engine, the compressor draws air in, compresses it, and then
delivers it into the combustion chamber. Air is drawn into the compressor by two means,
either the ram airspeed from the engine forward movement, or low-pressure system
created by the compressor's blades in front of the compressor. This low-pressure system
withdraws the air into the compressor.
The compressor efficiency is measured by a ratio called compression ratio. The

compression ratio is the ability of the compressor to reduce the volume of the outcome
air, thus increasing its pressure. Compression ratio is calculated by dividing the pressure
of the output over the pressure of the input. For example, a compressor that has a
compression ratio of 4 to 1 means that the compressor is able to compress or reduce the
volume of air to approximately one-fourth of its original volume. The more the
compression ratio, the more efficient is the compressor.
There are two types of compressor design:
 Centrifugal Flow Compressor

 Axial Flow Compressor
CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The centrifugal flow compressor is composed of an impeller, a diffuser, and a compressor

manifold. The impeller is mounted within a diffuser and the compressor manifold
encloses the entire assembly. The impeller is made up of a series of blades. As the blades
revolve, the incoming air begins to revolve and its velocity increases. Centrifugal force
causes the air to move outward from the center toward the diffuser. As the air leaves the
impeller blades, it strikes the diffuser with considerable velocity. Its kinetic energy
(speed) is converted to potential energy (pressure), increasing the air overall pressure.
The diffuser does not rotate and consists of blades. The diffuser blades hit the incoming
air converting its velocity to pressure. From the diffuser, the compressed air is collected
by the compressor manifold and fed into the burner section.
Each set of impellers and diffusers is called a stage. In a single-stage centrifugal flow
compressor, the compression ratio is about four to one. Additional stages are incorporated
Chapter 5
to increase the compression ratio. However, because of the drastic change in direction,
centrifugal compressors are relatively limited. The air hits the diffuser at a 90-degree
angle. In high speed, this very high collision angle may obstruct the airflow and directs it
forward, causing the compressor to stall.
Figure 5.53 Centrifugal flow compressor
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The axial flow compressor consists of rotating and stationary airfoil-section blades. Each
set of alternate rotating and stationary blades represent a stage. The rotating blades are
carried on discs or a drum and driven by a turbine via a connecting shaft. As the air
passes through the rotating blades, it accelerates. After leaving the rotor blades with
considerable velocity, it then hits the stationary blades converting its velocity to pressure.
The high-pressure air is then forced rearwards, because of the stationary vanes' angle.
Then the air goes through another stage of rotating blades (which increase its velocity and
reduce its pressure) and stationary vanes (which convert its velocity to pressure), which
further increase its pressure, and so on.
Although the rotating blades of the second stage reduce the air pressure and increase its
speed, the pressure of the air is still higher than the previous stage. The pressure is
gradually built up as the air passes through the compressor stages, until it reaches the
combustion chamber.
Chapter 5
An axial compressor compresses air as it flows in an axial direction through the engine.
Figure 5.54 Axial Flow Compressor
The stator vanes, also designed like an airfoil, are mounted behind each set of rotor
blades. The stator vanes are stationary. The air directed from the rotor blades are received
by the stator vanes and directed towards the next stage of rotor blades.
Jet engines often have more than one compressor, because many stages of compression
are required to achieve a higher overall pressure. Increasing the number of stages proved
to be limited, because each compressor stage has an ideal rotational speed. If all stages
are connected through a shaft, there will be some stages not revolving at their optimum
speed. To overcome this, the compressor can be divided into two or three parts, each
driven by a separate turbine, connected by a separate shaft and rotating at its most
Chapter 5
efficient speed. This method resulted in compression ratios up to 30:1, resulting in

extremely high efficiency and very low specific fuel consumption.
BURNER SECTION
Burner section has three forms in design, Annular tube, Can (which is basically a ring of
tubes), or Can-Annular. All chambers are made from heat resistant steel, to withstand the
high temperatures resulting from fuel and air ignition. It is designed to achieve the most
efficient combustion of the mixture, to achieve the highest possible gaseous expansion.
Once the air leaves the compressor, it is forced to the burner section where it is mixed
with fuel and burned in a continuous combustion process.
Figure 5.55 Combustion chamber cross-section
About 25 percent of the total volume of air entering the burner section is mixed with fuel
for combustion. The rest of the air bypasses the fuel nozzle and is used to cool the
combustion chamber liner. The temperature of the burning gases reaches as high as
3000F (1650C). However, because of the bypassed air, these temperatures never reach
the lining of the burner section.
The ignition system for jet engines is significantly different than those used for
reciprocating engines, because the requirements are not the same. Basically, the fuel-air
mixture is continuously burning in jet engines. In contrast to reciprocating engine, the
same chamber is used for the other strokes, so after completing the combustion stroke the
mixture will be flamed out to allow for the other strokes that don’t require combustion.
That’s why a reciprocating engine ignition system has to be used continuously for
Chapter 5
extended periods of time. On the other hand, jet engines ignition systems are used in
engine starting and in specific cases only, because the chamber is always flaming with
the mixture combustion. Moreover, jet fuels, at extremely cold temperatures (encountered
at high altitudes); require a very hot spark in order to re-light the engine in case of a
flameout. That’s why the spark of the ignition system in jet engines has to be very
powerful. Normally, there are two igniter plugs that serve the entire combustion section.
Turbojet engines may have as many as 14 separate combustion chambers forming a circle
shape. These chambers are connected with crossover tubes (in case of can combustion
chambers), to allow the initial flame to ignite from one chamber with an igniter plug to
other chambers with no igniter plugs. Once the engine is running, high-pressure air
blanket then blocks off the openings of the crossover tubes before the temperatures reach
very high limits.
TURBINE SECTION
The turbine wheel is the strongest part (thus more expensive) of a jet engine, because of
its exposure to very high temperatures and stresses. The temperature of the gases striking
the turbine wheel may reach as high as 1500F (815C).
The turbine consists of one or more stages of alternate stationary (Nozzle Guide Vanes
 NGV) and rotating airfoil-section blades. The rotating blades are carried on discs, in a
similar way to the compressor, which is connected to the compressor rotating assembly
by a shaft. The function of the turbine is to absorb sufficient energy from the hot
expanding gases leaving the combustor, to keep the compressor rotating at its most
efficient speed.
Figure 5.56 Turbine section
Chapter 5
Note that the assembly of the turbine is different from the compressor. In the compressor
the rotating blades are located before the stationary vanes, but in the turbine the NGV is
located before the rotating blades. NGV is suited first to guide the air from the
combustion chamber directly to the center of the blades, to ease its rotation and
efficiency.
EXHAUST SECTION
After the gases leave the turbine section, they exit the engine through the exhaust section.
The exhaust section is a slightly tapered tubular duct that connects the turbine outlet to
the exhaust nozzle. The exhaust duct is designed to increase the velocity of the gases to a
point where they furnish the maximum thrust as they leave the engine. The velocity of the
gases, as they leave the nozzle, is maintained below the speed of sound to avoid shock
wave formation. The formation of shock waves will obstruct the air exiting the nozzle,
causing the air to flow backwards resulting in an engine failure (known as engine surge).
Figure 5.57 Exhaust nozzle designs
Chapter 5
DEVELOPMENT OF THE JET ENGINES

Jet engines witnessed many developments since its invention. The following is a brief
discussion on the development of jet engines:
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ENGINE
The centrifugal compressor engine has been developed using extensive developments in
superchargers, for piston engines, which were applied directly to the jet engines.
However, the compressor's efficiency is relatively limited, because of the drastic change
in direction of the airflow. Limited also by its huge drag penalty, because of its high
frontal surface area and weight, this type of engines was soon substituted with the axial
flow compressor engines.
Figure 5.58 Compressor Flow engine
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ENGINE
The axial flow compressor (single spool) replaced the centrifugal compressor, driven by
the need of minimum frontal area (saving fuel) and better compression ratios.
The majority of today’s turbojets use an axial flow compressor. These compressors
produce high compression ratios (in excess of thirteen to one).
Chapter 5
Figure 5.59 Axial Flow compressor engine
TWIN SPOOL ENGINE
Although the axial flow compressor engine was a breakthrough, it was proven limited. It
was discovered that its compression ratio cannot be increased further, even with the
increasing number of stages. Because whenever the rotating speed of the rotor blades
increases, the blades stall and disrupt the airflow, causing it to move forward. The rotor
blades have an efficient speed, which limits its compressing capabilities.
This problem was resolved using twin spool engines. The twin spool engines have two
compressors; each rotates at its optimum speed. Reducing the size and the angle of attack
of the second compressor rotor blades resulted in higher compression ratio without
disrupting airflow.
The dual-compressor engines or twin spool, consist of a low speed compressor (LPC 
which has high blade sizes with higher angle of attack) and high-speed compressor (HPC
 which has small blades with lower angle of attack allowing higher speeds); both
compressors are subject to the same airflow. Also, each compressor has its own turbine.
The rear turbine (LP  Low Pressure) drives the LPC by a shaft referred to as N1, and
forward turbine (HP  High Pressure) drives the HPC by another shaft, which is
mechanically independent, referred to as N2. Axial flow compressor engines provide
greater flexibility and are capable of maintaining high compression ratios at high
altitudes.
Note: The compressors and turbines are called after the name of the shaft connecting it.
For example, N1 compressor or N2 Turbine
Chapter 5
Note: There are some engines equipped with an extra shaft to drive the fan only, this type
of engines are called "triple-spool engines" (A330 engines)
Figure 5.60 Twin spooled engine
TURBOPROP ENGINE
Another idea came to horizon, instead of using the combustion to provide thrust; the jet
engines may be used to provide torque for the propeller, and the propeller produces the
thrust instead. The turboprop was the application of this hypothesis.
The Turboprop Engine has an additional turbine, which uses the energy remaining in the
air stream, after sufficient energy has been absorbed to drive the compressor, to rotate a
propeller. This additional turbine is called the power turbine.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.61 Turboprop engine
The turboprop engine can supply the propeller with double the horsepower of a
conventional reciprocating engine. However, a reduction gearing must be used on the
propeller to reduce its RPM and keep its tip speed below the speed of sound. Therefore,
the limitations of a propeller still apply to the turboprop engine.
Chapter 5
TURBOFAN ENGINES
Figure 5.62 Turbofan engines
The turbofan engine, sometimes referred to as a ducted fan or bypass engine, is the most
common type of jet engines used for modern aircraft propulsion today.
The turbo fan engine divides the air entering the engine into; air that is compressed fully
and passed into the combustion chamber and the rest provides cold thrust through fan
blades.
The overall jet velocity is reduced to give better propulsive efficiency, lower noise levels
and improved specific fuel consumption, which make the turbofan ideal for both civil and
military aircraft.
Some turbofan engines mix the hot and cold flow inside the engine cowling, and are
called long duct engines (Fig 5.64). Other turbofan engines don’t mix the hot and cold
flow inside the engines, and are called short duct engines (Fig 5.65).
Chapter 5
Figure 5.63 Modern Turbo-Fan engines with no flow mixing
The following are the characteristics of a typical fan engine:

 Maximum Thrust (ISA sea level)  26,000 lbs
 By-Pass Ratio  5. : 1
 Fan Thrust (Cold)  80 %
 Turbine Thrust (Hot)  20 %
 Compression Ratio  30 : 1
 EGT (limit)  950C
Higher by-pass ratios of fan thrust, up to 80% to total engine thrust, are used.
THRUST REVERSERS
Due to the high landing speeds and high gross weights of modern jet-powered aircraft,
thrust reversers have been developed in order to help in deceleration. Also, thrust
reversers were used to minimize the wearing of wheel brakes.
Thrust reversers mechanically block the airflow and divert it forward to assist in
deceleration. Although the basic types of thrust reversers are in question, according to
most of the researches in thrust reversing field, the types of thrust reversers can be traced
to three. The three approved types to exist are Bucket type, Clamshell type and Cold-
stream thrust reversers. The first two types obstruct the airflow coming out from the
engine, including the hot thrust. These two types were used for the designs of old low
bypass engines (for example, the engines installed in the Boeing 707, 737-200 and MD-
Chapter 5
11). However, the third type obstructs the cold thrust only. The third type is proven to be
more beneficial to both engine manufacturers and users. This type is beneficial because
obstructing the hot thrust required special materials to withstand the very high
temperatures coming from the exhaust section. On the contrary, obstructing the cold
thrust doesn’t require these special materials. In addition, with the high bypass engines,
the cold thrust represents 80% of the total thrust, thus, thrust reversing of cold thrust only
will be sufficient.
Generally, most of the current engines use the cold stream thrust reversers. The cold
stream thrust reversers' application differs from one manufacturer to the other. Some
manufacturers use an application called translating sleeves (ex. Engines installed in the
B738). In the translating sleeves application, a part of the cowling moves outwards and a
door blocks the cold stream and directs it forward using vanes called cascade vanes
(mostly fixed at an angle of 135°). Other manufacturers use an application called pivoting
doors (ex. Engines installed in the A330). In the pivoting doors application, doors are
deflected around a pivot to block the cold stream and direct it forward.
Figure 5.64 To the right the pivoting doors thrust reversers, and to the left the bucket thrust reverser
Chapter 5
Figure 5.65 Translating sleeves thrust reverser
JET ENGINE SYSTEMS

Main engine systems are:
 The lubrication system

 Fuel and fuel control system
 Ignition system
 Starter system
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
All engines need lubrication, as all the engine components are in continuous motion and
friction. In modern jet engines, an oil-supply tank is mounted on or near the engine, and
the oil is supplied to the bearings and gears in the engine under pressure from the main
pressure pump. The system includes pressure-relief valves to prevent excessive pressures
and a filter to remove impurities from the lubricant fluid. The oil is drained from the
engine using one or more sumps where it is picked up by scavenge pumps and returned to
the oil tank. On many engines, the oil is routed through coolers mounted in the fuel tanks
where the oil is cooled and the fuel is heated.
FUEL and FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS
The fuel system for a jet engine incorporates boost Pumps, engine-driven pumps, filters,
flow indicators, shutoff valves, fuel ice indicators, drain valves, fuel heater, main fuel-
control unit, and fuel nozzles.
The fuel flows to the fuel nozzles are controlled by a unit called fuel control unit (FCU),
which monitor the outside conditions and provide fuel sufficient for the combustion,
taking into account these conditions (this is similar to the mixture control used for the
reciprocating engines).
Chapter 5
IGNITION SYSTEM
Ignition systems for jet engines are not designed for continuous operation. The spark
produced from the spark igniters (spark plugs) is far more powerful than the spark plugs
used in reciprocating engines. This powerful spark is needed because the mixture of fuel
and air in a jet engine‘s combustor is moving at a high velocity and is not uniformly
distributed.
STARTING SYSTEM
Pneumatic-type starter is the most commonly used on jet engines in commercial aircraft.
Pneumatic (means air) starters may be supplied with air from a ground cart, or from an
auxiliary power unit (APU) mounted in the aircraft.
The starting air is directed to rotate the starter that is connected to the N2 rotor by a
gearbox.
Figure 5.66 Starter system
Chapter 5
JET ENGINE STATION DESIGNATIONS

Numerical station designations are used to facilitate specific references of the various
sections of a jet engine. As illustrated in the figure below, these numbers coincide with
the location of various components. The letters “am” designates the ambient or
surrounding air ahead of the engine. The entrance of the engine inlet air duct is
designated by number “1.” These reference stations are used when indicating the
characteristics of the aerodynamic or thermodynamic variables at a given point. When
designating pressures within the jet engine, a capital “P” is used, a capital “T” is used for
temperature. The lowercase letter “s” and “t” are designated for static and total,
respectively. For example, the designators Pt2 and Tt5 are explained as total pressure in
engine station two and total temperature in engine station five, respectively.
Figure 5.67 Engine station designators
Chapter 5
MEASUREMENT OF THRUST AND OTHER ENGINE INDICATIONS
ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO (EPR)
Some new jet engines use the ratio between the output and input pressures to measure
thrust. This ratio is called EPR. This ratio is calculated using the following equation;
OTHER ENGINE INDCATORS
N1 INDICATOR
The N1 indicator shows the low-pressure compressor revolutions related to its maximum
designed revolutions. N1 indication is used to measure engine thrust instead of EPR in
different engine designs.
N2 INDICATOR
This indicator is used to show the high-pressure compressor revolutions related to its
maximum designed revolutions.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE (EGT)
The exhaust gas temperature (EGT) indicates the temperature of the gases in the turbine
exhaust case. This probe is located in the turbine section to measure the exhaust
temperatures.
FUEL FLOW INDICATOR
The fuel flow indicators (FF) are used to indicate the fuel consumption rate in kilogram
per hour for each engine.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.68 Indicators located in most of modern jet airplanes
Chapter 5
FUTURE TRENDS
The development process is influenced by current technology. However, the objectives of
development have remained broadly the same:
 Improved specific fuel consumption

 Increased thrust to weight ratio
 Improved reliability
 Reduction of noise level
The first two items, in particular, have demanded higher component efficiencies (e.g.
compressor efficiency, higher compression ratios and turbine temperatures and increases
in by-pass ratios).
As far as reliability is concerned the properly designed engine should not present
handling difficulties whatever its form.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH JET

ENGINE OPERATIONS
Basically, the main environmental problems that are associated with the jet-engine
operations are:
 Air Pollution
 Noise Pollution
AIR POLLUTION
Technological progress is counter active. Airplanes are one of the most contributors to
environmental disasters. Airplanes dump hundreds of millions of tons of pollutants in the
air.
The major pollutants produced from combustions are:
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)

 Unburned Hydrocarbons (H/C)
 Nitrogen Oxide (NO)
Chapter 5
REDUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION
The overall objective was to design a smokeless engine and maintain the maximum
reduction of pollutants in the exhaust gases, with the following key points in mind:
 Low exhausts emissions of Nitrogen Oxide

 Unburned hydrocarbons have always been a key element in reduction of
pollutants and incomplete burning of fuel may result in emission of carbon
monoxide
 Clean-burning of fuel dramatically reduces its output of carbon dioxide, the
world’s most damaging greenhouse gas. Fuel burning leads directly to the
production of carbon dioxide in jet engines
As a result, manufacturers began the production of the current generation of high by-pass
engines.
The current generation of high by-pass engines was compared to the old generation low
by-pass engines, the results displayed evidence of a reduction in emission levels as
follows:
Approx. 44.4% less Carbon Monoxide CO
Approx. 76.6% less Hydrocarbons HC
Approx. 37.5% less Nitrogen Dioxide NO2
Research and development are always working together to employ new technologies that
are environmentally friendly to produce the future generations of engines.
NOISE POLLUTION
Sound may be defined as anything that can be heard. Sound can be heard because it
consists of a series of pressure waves in the air. A sound can consist of a combination of
many waves in a wide range of frequencies, or it can consist of a pure tone, which is a
single frequency wave that follows the sine-wave pattern.
Noise is unwanted and usually irritating sounds. The noise produced by a turbine engine
consists of all frequencies audible to the human ear with intensities reaching levels that
can be physically destructive.
The intensity of sound is measured in decibels (dB). One decibel is one-tenth of a bel, the
basic unit. A barely audible sound has an intensity of 1 bel. The intensity of the sound
Chapter 5
produced by a jet engine may attain a value of 155 dB (15.5 bels) near the engine at
takeoff power.
When a sound level in decibels is doubled, the intensity of the sound will be equal to the
square of the original sound. If the sound level in decibels is tripled, the intensity of the
sound will be equal to the cube of the original sound, and so on.
The maximum level of sound that can be evaluated by the human ear is approximately
120 dB. Above this level, the ear can feel increasing intensity, but cannot hear the
difference. Also, above this level, ear damage can occur.
Figure 5.69 Sound scale
Chapter 5
TURBOJET ENGINE NOISE
Noise from a turbojet engine is caused by a number of forces. Basically, there are two
sources of noise created by turbojet engines.
The most intense noise, especially at high-power engine settings, comes from the exhaust
nozzle. This sound is caused by the shear turbulence between the relatively slower or
calm air outside the engine and the high-velocity jet stream of hot gases coming out of
the nozzle. The noise caused by the jet exhaust is called broadband noise, because it
includes many frequencies.
Second, the compressor blades chopping the incoming air through the engine cause the
familiar "whining noise.” This noise has an identifiable frequency and can be recognized
in relation to other sounds.
REDUCTION OF NOISE
Because of excessive noise caused by jet engines and consequent danger of physical
injury from such noise, engine and aircraft manufacturers together with government
agencies have been actively engaged in experimenting with and modifying the engines in
an effort to reduce noise to acceptable levels.
The aviation industry used two approaches to reduce noise levels:
 Engine Development
 Noise Abatement Procedures
ENGINE DEVELOPMENT
As it was mentioned before, the basic reason for jet engine noise is the shear caused by
the difference in speed between the hot gases coming out of the exhaust nozzle and the
relatively slower or calm air outside the engine.
Accordingly, the higher the engine power, the higher the velocity of the jet exhaust gases,
the more the shear effect, the greater the noise.
The highest and most distressing noise comes from the exhaust at maximum thrust.
However, on the approach some engines radiate compressor or fan noise forward along
the flight path, and this noise can be just as distressing.
Chapter 5
In the effort to develop quieter engines, manufacturers were focusing on engine designs
with the following features:
 Engine with lower velocity exhaust airflow. Benefiting in reducing the shear and,
therefore, the noise
 Engine fitted with sound-absorbing liners inside the fan ducts and exhaust nozzle,
which mix the boundary layer at the outlet of the jet exhaust air stream, producing
less shear and, therefore, less noise
Figure 5.70 Example of noise absorbing lining in the Rolls-Royce (RB.211) engine
The result was the development of the turbofan engine, which has significantly lower
engine noise. In the turbofan engine, both the Primary airflow and the secondary airflow
are reduced in velocity compared to the turbojet. Energy is extracted from the primary
exhaust stream to drive the fan, resulting in lower velocity at the exhaust nozzle. The
secondary airflow from the fan section of the engine has a much lower velocity than the
primary jet exhaust. The shear is significantly reduced in the fan section, accordingly, the
noise.
Chapter 5
NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
The noise abatement procedures are procedures designed to reduce the noise level. Pilots
should adhere to these procedures during Takeoffs and Approaches.
These procedures are based on the following facts:
 The noise is proportional to the power of the engine

 The noise is inversely proportional to the distance between the noise source and
the receiver
 The higher the aircraft speed, the lower the difference between the jet exhaust
velocity and the speed of the air outside the engine, the lower the shear effect, the
lower the noise
TAKE OFF NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
These procedures' goal is to ensure expeditious climb to a predetermined height,

increasing the vertical distance between the noise source and the listener, then to reduce
engine thrust and increase aircraft speed.
LOW DRAG APPROACHES
These procedures' goal is to increase approach speeds, by delaying landing flaps and
landing gear extension and maintain a low drag configuration, until a prescribed height.
This low drag configuration insures lower engine power and higher speed, which results
in lower noise emission.
Chapter 5
FLIGHT CONTROLS
The development of the flight control systems was necessary to meet the evolution of jet
aircraft designs and to cope with the new operational envelope of weights, speeds and
altitudes.
THE BASIC CONCEPT

Flight control system is the system responsible for controlling the aircraft flight path
throughout the speed spectrum (Low and high speeds), during all phases of flight. Flight
path control can be achieved by altering the aircraft aerodynamic shape, using deflection
of flight control surfaces.
Basically, the flight controls of any aircraft, whether it is a Cessna or a Dreamliner, can
be categorized as follows:
1. Primary Flight Controls

2. Secondary Flight Controls
Figure 5.71 Flight Controls
Chapter 5
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

The basic primary flight controls, are the controls that move the aircraft about its three
axes; Lateral, Longitudinal, and vertical axes to control pitch, roll and yaw respectively.
Elevator, Aileron and Rudder are the basic Primary flight controls of any aircraft.
(Primary flight controls)
SLATS PLAIN
(Secondary flight controls)
Figure 5.72 Primary and secondary flight controls
SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

The secondary flight controls are used for aircraft configurations during different phases
of flight. The Flaps, Slats and trim tabs are the basic Secondary flight controls of any
aircraft. The main function of flaps and slats is to provide the lift required at low speeds
during takeoff, approach and landing.
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
As mentioned before, the development of transport aircrafts was derived by the ever-
increasing market demands of higher gross weight, speed and longer ranges' aircrafts.
Chapter 5
With the development of the aerodynamic designs and propulsion system, Flight controls
followed to cope with the new designs.
THE CLASSIC FLIGHT CONTROLS
Light and medium-weight piston engine aircrafts were generally slow, and their flight
control surfaces were small. The control column or stick was mechanically linked with
steel cables running from the cockpit to the wings and tail in order to move control
surfaces.
Figure 5.73 Cables used to link the control column to the surfaces
TABS
Considered secondary flight controls, tabs were used along with the flight controls to
release extra forces exerted by pilots on the control stick. Two types of tabs were used in
the early aircraft designs. These types are:
 Control Tabs
 Trim Tabs
Chapter 5
CONTROL TABS
In the mid-fifties, when the piston engine aircraft was bigger and faster, its weight
increased and its speed envelope reached the subsonic and transonic speed range. Pilots'
strength was not sufficient to overcome the aerodynamic forces acting on the relatively
larger control surfaces. The control tabs were introduced to assist pilots' inputs on the
control column deflecting control surfaces. Control tabs are designed to reflect directly
the pilot’s stick, but are reversed. In other words, if the pilot wants to pitch up, he/she
should pull the stick toward his/her body, the normal reaction of the elevator is to move
upwards. However, the control tab in this case moves downwards to deflect the elevator
upwards.
Figure 5.74 Control tabs
TRIM TABS
Trim tabs are small airfoils located on the primary control surfaces. This is similar to the
tabs that were hinged to the elevator in the Cessna. The purpose of these tabs is to relieve
excessive pilots' efforts and to trim out any unbalanced condition that may exist during
flight, without exerting any pressure on the primary controls. Each trim tab is hinged to
its parent primary flight control surface, but is operated by an independent control.
Chapter 5
HYDRAULIC POWERED CONTROLS
The weight of the current generation jet transports airplanes has been significantly higher
than its predecessors, and its speed range has also reached the upper limits of the
transonic speed envelope.
The forces required deflecting the very large control surfaces at speeds of approximately
450 Kts / 0.90 Mach are beyond the pilot capabilities even with the assistance of control
tabs. This was resolved by the introduction of the hydraulic powered flight controls.
Figure 5.75 Basic design of hydraulic powered flight controls
Hydraulic Powered flight controls system is equipped with many backups (referred to as
redundancies), in case of any failure. These redundancies include having more than one
hydraulic system, plus specific backups for certain controls, like:
 Single surfaces with two or three sources of hydraulic supply

 Single surfaces with two or three sources of hydraulic supply supported by
mechanical back-up control
 Split surfaces, each with its own hydraulic supply
There are many types of hydraulic powered flight control arrangement. For example,
some airplanes have power on all three surfaces, while others have powered elevators and
rudders, manual ailerons and powered spoilers.
Chapter 5
ARTIFICIAL FEEL
Every pilot knows the feeling of handling conventional flight controls, the higher the
speed; the more pilot force is required on the control wheel to deflect the control surface.
Hydraulic powered flight controls don’t allow for this normal feeling to be felt. Thus, the
pilot may over control the airplane, resulting in unwanted attitudes.
The artificial feel system artificially makes the pilot’s stick feeling almost the same as
conventional control. The system senses static and pitot pressures, and feeds this data into
the control system. The result is almost the same as the classic flight control
characteristics.
Like every other component or system design, a certain level of protection against total
failure is maintained. The total failure of the system is critical and usually the system is
duplicated. So a failure of one system will result in no reduction of feel forces, or reduce
the feel forces by half. The abnormal procedures in case of significant reduction of feel
system require great care in handling the affected flight control surface to reduce the
possibility of over controlling.
FLY BY WIRE
The huge advancement in computer science during the fifties and sixties opened new
horizons to aircraft designers to improve quality, accuracy and efficiency of their flying
machines. The first computer designs were called Analog computers followed by the
current digital computers. This development in the computer science benefited aviation
industry in many aspects; one of which is the flight controls designs.
ANALOGUE COMPUTERS
Computers are used in aviation since the sixties. A famous application of computers in
aviation, even analog ones, was autopilots. Using analog computer technology, the
Concord was the first fly by wire commercial jetliner.
DIGITAL COMPUTERS
Since the seventies, the military aviation industry has been using the digital computer
technology extensively. Followed by commercial jetliners in the early eighties, digital
computers were introduced to control surfaces such as, speed brakes, flaps and slats etc.
(A310, A300-600, B757, B767).
Chapter 5
In 1988, the Airbus 320 was the first commercial jet transport aircraft to be certified with
a completely digital fly-by-wire system. The new fly-by-wire system replaced the older
electromechanical system. In the older system, much of the control was through
mechanical devices.
The older systems were replaced by computer, which generated electrical signals that run
through thin wires, controlling the movements of the rudder, the elevators, and the
ailerons. This system significantly reduced the aircrafts' weight and ensured an extremely
precise, efficient and comfortable flight control.
Figure 5.76 Fly by wire application
Application of fly-by-wire design philosophy had great savings to aviation, like:
 The aircraft is both stable and maneuverable, well balanced on all axis regardless
of aircraft configuration and flight conditions
 These characteristics allow a very accurate and comfortable flight, leaving pilots
skills and mental capabilities for flight management and other tasks
 The system has numerous backup features
 In case of emergency situation, the pilot has full authority over the aircraft flight
control computers, to achieve its maximum available performance
 Significant gross weight reduction
 Significant simplification in the design of the flight control system, as compared
to the latest non fly-by- wire aircrafts. Simplified maintenance and improved
reliability
Chapter 5
JET TRANSPORT NEW FLIGHT CONTROL DESIGN FEATURES
Some of the new flight controls designs' features that helped in overcoming the
difficulties of the new speed and altitude spectrum are:
 New Design Features of Primary Flight Controls

 New Design Features of Secondary Flight Controls - Low Drag Devices
 High drag Devices
NEW DESIGN FEATURES OF PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

New design features were required to cope with the characteristics of the swept wing
design and the significant increase in weights and dimensions of jet transport aircrafts.
The main function of the new design features is to assist pilots in maneuvering the basic
primary flight controls of the huge and very heavy jet aircraft around its three axes. The
new primary flight control features are:
 Pitch Control  the introduction of Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS)

 Roll Control  the introduction of:
o Low Speed Ailerons
o Roll Spoilers
 Yaw Control  the introduction of Rudder Limiter
THS
The increasing requirements of higher seating capacity and longer range resulted in
building very heavy airplanes capable of carrying huge amounts of fuel and payload. As
the aircraft flies, its Center of Gravity shifts. The shift ranges are usually very large.
These large ranges are sometimes beyond the capabilities of the elevator trim. In
addition, the drag penalty, produced from the horizontal tail section not stream lined in
the long-range flights, is very high. The limited conventional elevator trim tab didn’t
cover the CG ranges. A substitute of the conventional elevator trim was the THS.
Note: Unlike the Cessna, jet aircraft’s Center of Pressure is located aft of the CG. This
means that in order to balance the aircraft forces, the horizontal stabilizer should be
inverted to allow for the stabilizing moment
Chapter 5
Lift
C.G C.P
Downward
balancing
Weight force
Lift = Weight +
- balancing force
Figure 5.77 Elevator is an inverted wing to act as balancing force
As fuel is consumed in flight, the CG moves forward, this gives a nose down tendency,
which has to be counteracted by moving the elevator up. The CG is normally located in
the middle at the beginning of the flight, but by the end of the flight it shifts to its utmost
forward position. To counter the CG shift, the elevator will be fully deflected and no
further control in the pitch axis would be available.
THS can be set in streamline with the elevator to take out any trim changes, reducing the
trim drag. THS also will maintain the elevator's full-range movement. In other words, at
any trimmed stabilizer position, the elevator will travel freely within its original range,
but with different preset angels (different zero deflection angle).
To summarize, the benefits of the THS are:
o The aircraft can be trimmed in the longitudinal axis throughout the full CG range
o The full range of elevator control is available at all speeds, and at all
configurations even in the extreme stabilizer trim positions
o The trim drag is reduced by eliminating the elevator deflection
Chapter 5
T rim Drag T rim Drag Reduced
* Full range of elevator control is available

(even in extreme STAB. Trim position)
Figure 5.78 Benefits of THS
ROLL CONTROL
Two significant features associated with the roll control of the high speed swept back
wing design:
o Low Speed Ailerons

o Roll Spoilers
The main function of the new design features is to assist the basic primary aileron
control, to move the fast heavy jet aircraft around its longitudinal axis throughout the
speed envelope.
LOW SPEED AILERONS
The low-speed aileron is a design feature of the large wingspan airplanes. The primary
roll control arrangement of such airplane consists of inboard and outboard ailerons. The
outboard ailerons (referred to as Low Speed ailerons), are used during the low-speed
portion of the flight, when the flaps are not fully retracted, while the inboard ailerons are
used at any speed.
Chapter 5
Low Speed Aileron
Inboard Aileron
Figure 5.79 Low speed aileron
To understand the function of the low speed ailerons, some characteristics of the new
aircraft’s wings should be addressed:
o At a fixed surface deflection and constant speed, the longer the wing span, the
higher the roll force moment, the higher the roll rates
o At extreme high speeds, way above VMO/MMO, a large aileron on a thin swept
jet transport wing would cause too much wing twist
o The yaw associated with a right turn as a result of aileron deflection, will
accelerate the left wing. However, instead of lift increase, the lift will be lost due
to shock wave formation over the left wing and the aircraft will roll to the
opposite direction
For the above reasons, the outboard or low speed ailerons are locked in the faired position
at high speeds (or when the flaps are up). Locking the low-speed ailerons protects the
aircraft from over control in the roll axis, during high speed maneuvering.
Note: Small jet transports like B737/ A320 has only one set of aileron control surface
(the outboard ailerons)
ROLL SPOILERS
Spoilers are a new feature of the high-speed wings' designs. Spoilers are panels located
on the upper surface of the wing and are arranged span wise. The spoilers' basic function
is spoiling the lift over the wing. Jet aircraft wings are normally equipped with a number
of spoiler panels. All the spoilers can be operated together symmetrically, or in
asymmetrical groups, to achieve different specific functions. Some of these panels assist
in rolling.
Chapter 5
Ailerons are not effective at very high Mach numbers, and very large ailerons cause a
large adverse yaw. A swept high-speed wing causes a strong roll during yaw.
Roll spoilers are used in association with ailerons as a primary roll control. With the
control wheel positioned for the left wing down, the left wing roll spoilers are raised
while the right spoilers' remains faired. This results in partial loss of lift over the left wing
causing the aircraft to enter a left turn (roll to the left), avoiding rudder's deflection needs
for countering the resulted adverse yaw.
Roll Spoilers
Inboard
Aileron
Low Speed
Aileron
Figure 5.80 Roll spoilers counter-act adverse yaw
YAW CONTROL
There are no significant designs' features added to the yaw control. However, rudder is
hydraulically controlled like all other flight control surfaces. Unlike the Cessna, there is
no need to use the rudder to coordinate a turn. The yaw required for turn coordination is a
by-product of the deflected roll spoilers and aileron. The upward deflection of the roll
spoilers compensates for the adverse yaw.
RUDDER LIMITER
The full range of rudder movement of jet aircrafts is normally 25 to 30 (Left and
Right). Full movement of rudder surface is required to control aircraft yaw in case of
engine failure during takeoff. However, the higher the speed during climbs or cruise, the
less rudder deflection needed to achieve same amount of yaw.
The rudder limiter system locks the rudder full range, and only limited range is available
above certain speeds.
Chapter 5
There are many different designs of this system; however, the basic idea remains the
same, the higher the speed, the less rudder surface deflection for the same rudder control
input. This illustration of the rudder limiter concept is from the A320/321 manuals.
Figure 5.81 Rudder limiter in A320/321
NEW DESIGN FEATURES OF SECONDARY FLIGHT

CONTROLS
As mentioned before, jet aircrafts' wings are slim low camber, designed to fly at high
speeds with a low drag characteristic to cater for the economic high-speed requirements.
However, these wings are also required to fly at low speeds to meet approach and landing
distance performance criteria.
To meet these criteria new features for the secondary flight controls are added, for
example:
o High lift devices:

o Slotted Flaps
o Leading Edge Flaps and Slats
o High drag devices:
o Speed Brakes
o Ground Spoilers
Chapter 5
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Plain flaps were adequate high-lift devices for a conventional low speed, low weight
aircraft with very low stalling speed. A typical high-speed jet transport wing will stall at
approximately 180 KIAS. The development of flaps' designs and the design of leading
edge flaps and slats targeted delaying stalls by improving lift, therefore, lower approach
and landing speeds.
Plain Flaps
CL
ed
end
Ext
s
ap
Fl

Angle Of Attack
 Stall
Figure 5.82 Flaps effects on CL . For the same angle of attack flaps provide more lift with flaps extended
SLOTTED FLAPS
The slotted flaps design significantly improves lift for the following reasons:
o The flaps are designed to extend chord wise, therefore, increasing wing area
o The slotted flaps have the similar effect of a highly cambered wing with its
associated high lift coefficient characteristics
o Slotted flaps are designed to keep the airflow attached smoothly to the wing
surface throughout the high body angles during takeoff and landing
Chapter 5
Slotted Flaps
Double Slotted Flaps
Figure 5.83 Slotted flaps can be single slotted or double slotted and in some cases triple slotted
LEADING EDGE FLAPS
To further increase lift, and to help balancing the effects of large trailing edge flaps, it
was deemed necessary to add flaps or similar devices to the leading edges of the wing.
Such devices can increase lift capability in the following manner:
o Increase camber and provide smoother flow to suppress flow-separation

tendencies
o Allow the wing to be rotated to a higher angles without encountering flow
separation
The leading edge flaps assist a smoother airflow over the leading edge, to avoid reaching
the stagnation point under the leading edge. Without such help, the streamlines going
over the leading edge loses much energy and tends to separate.
Chapter 5
Plain Aerofoil
Leading Edge Flaps
Figure 5.84 The leading edge flaps helps in keeping the airflow attached to the wing surface
SLATS
More lift improvement is possible by introducing energy into the air stream just behind
the leading edge where the separation tendency takes place. The slats are designed to
perform this function. The energy of the air is sustained by taking high pressure air from
under the wing leading edge through a slot to the upper surface.
Slats
d
de
CL ten
Ex
s
at
Sl

Angle Of Attack
New Stall
Figure 5.85 High energy air from underneath the wing (through a slot), energizes and speeds the airflow
above the wing
The structure in front of the wing, which forms a slot, is called “slat”. The slat may be
fixed, or movable to allow the slot to be closed with flaps up or at low angles of attack.
Chapter 5
The lift coefficient is increased and stalling speed decreases, because slats delay the
airflow separation and allow for a higher critical angle of attack.
HIGH DRAG DEVICES

Due to the excessive surplus power available from the current generation of engines and
the low-drag/high-speed wings of jet transport aircraft, new developments in high drag
devices were needed, because of the following:
o To produce roll in conjunction with ailerons

o To limit or reduce speed during certain phases of flight
o To increase descent rates
Spoilers are devices that spoil lift. The roll function of the spoiler was discussed earlier.
However, the other functions of the spoilers are:
o Speed braking
o Ground spoilers
SPEED BRAKING
Speed brakes are used to reduce speed rapidly in level flight or to increase the rate of
descent without increasing airspeed. A number of spoiler panels are raised symmetrically
to spoil lift on both wings. In some aircraft designs the inboard spoiler panels are half
extended with speed brakes operation to avoid tail buffet. The tail buffet happens when
the raised spoilers obstruct the stream airflow above the tail section.
Speed
Brakes
Extended
Figure 5.86 Spoilers can act as speed brakes
Chapter 5
Unlike the first generation of jets where a significant nose up pitch changes were
associated with the use of speed brakes, the speed brakes of modern jets are designed to
produce a small nose up pitch or no pitch change at all.
When using speed brakes; the following should be remembered:
o Speed breaks can cause buffet at high speeds. However, they produce very little
buffet at low speeds
o Spoilers operation slightly increases the stall speed
o Speed brakes are most efficient at high speeds
o Speed brakes should not be used with flaps because they produce significant
buffet
GROUND SPOILERS
To meet landing distance requirements, ground spoilers spoil the lift to force the total
aircraft weight to act as much as possible on its wheels, increasing its brakes
effectiveness. All the spoiler panels over the wing are symmetrically deployed either
manually (old designs) or automatically immediately after landing to spoil the lift
remaining. Spoilers also contribute (smaller contribution) in deceleration during the
landing roll.
Ground Spoiler
Extended
Figure 5.87 Ground spoilers help the aircraft in the landing roll
Chapter 5
Roll Spoilers Speed brakes

L. Win Only Extended
R&L. Wing
Ground Spoilers Extended

R&L. WING
Figure 5.88 Summary for spoilers functions
PROTECTION AND WARNING SYSTEMS

The protection and warning systems are also new features of jet transport high-speed
wing design. The protection and warning systems are designed to add an additional safety
dimensions to the operation of jet transports in their sophisticated flying environment.
These systems are categorized into:
o Low Speed Protection and Warning Systems

o Angle Of Attack Protection (Alpha (( )) Floor)
o Stick Shaker
o Stall Warning
o High Speed Protection And Warning Systems
o Yaw Damper
o Mach Trim
o Maximum Speed Warnings
Chapter 5
LOW SPEED PROTECTION AND WARNING SYSTEMS
ANGLE OF ATTACK PROTECTION (Alpha (( )) Floor)
At a predetermined angle of attack before stall, the auto throttle system will automatically
set engine thrust at Take Off / Go Around (TOGA), providing excess power to recover
from the stall.
CL

Angle Of Attack
 Stall
 Floor
 Approach Speed
Figure 5.89 Alpha floor logic presets
STICK SHAKER
Conventional flying used to give a natural aerodynamic warning of buffet just before
stalling. The aerodynamic qualities of high-speed wing don’t give the early warning of
the natural buffet. An artificial stick shaker was introduced to simulate a pre-stall buffet,
thus warning the crew of incoming stall. The system operates when the aircraft speed
approaches stall using different types of detectors.
Stick Shaker
Motor M
Figure 5.90 It shakes the control column through a motor
Chapter 5
STALL WARNING
Other than the stick shaker, adding some noise and visual warning is very helpful tool to
alert flight crews of the incoming stall. The stall is a critical situation that might affect the
safety of the flight and must be acknowledged as early as possible.
HIGH SPEED PROTECTION AND WARNING SYSTEMS
YAW DAMPER
The reason for the development of the yaw damper systems is to protect the aircraft from
Dutch roll oscillations. Yaw Dampers prevent roll oscillation of the swept back wing. It
detects aircraft yaw tendency and introduces an opposite rudder to stop the yaw. There
are basically two types of yaw damper systems, Parallel and Series yaw damper.
PARALLEL YAW DAMPER
The early generation of jet transports was equipped with a yaw damper system, which
applies the yaw damping rudder inputs parallel to the pilot rudder inputs and was
reflected in rudder pedals. To prevent increased rudder control loads during engine
failure and crosswind condition, the system was designed to deactivate for takeoff and
landing.
SERIES YAW DAMPER
The series yaw damper system provides the yaw damping rudder inputs directly to the
rudder surface. In other words, it gives the inputs through a completely different route
without imposing any rudder pedals' deflection.
MACH TRIM
Mach Trim is used in the high-speed jet airplanes to avoid Mach Tuck. The Mach trim
system is designed to provide the normal feel of longitudinally stable aircraft at very high
Mach numbers, up to MDF. The system is programmed to send a signal to the pitch
control surfaces (Elevator and THS) proportional to Mach number so that the stability
remains positive throughout the speed range.
Chapter 5
MAXIMUM SPEED WARNING
As mentioned before, excessive available power from the current propulsion

systems and the slim clean low drag wings of modern aircrafts can easily result in
exceeding maximum speed limits (VMO/MMO) at any altitude.
For this reason, the maximum speed oral warning, along with the speed limit
symbols, was designed to alert the crew not to exceed VMO/MMO.
Figure 5.91 Maximum speed marking at which the noise will start alerting crew of exceeding the
maximum speed
Chapter 5
CHAPTER 6
“AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS”
AIR SYSTEMS
Air plays a major role in the operation of many jet aircraft systems. The reason for this is
that it is reliable, easily available and a powerful source of energy. In jet aircrafts, air is
supplied by the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), the engines, and could also be supplied by
external ground sources called air carts. The air used from these sources is called Bleed
Air. Air Systems are composed of three main sub systems which are the pneumatic or
bleed air system, air conditioning system and the pressurization system.
I. PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
In simple terms, the main objective of the pneumatic system is the organization and
distribution of the engine and APU bleed air, as well as providing a method of engine
starting. Usually, the pneumatic system is split into two sides, with an isolation valve
separating the right and the left side.
Pneumatic System Components
 Bleed Air valves

 Bleed Trip sensors
 Pre-cooler
 Pneumatic Ducts
 Starter valve
 Isolation valve
Chapter 6
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 6-1
The following figure depicts the pneumatic system of a B737 outlining its different
components
Figure 6.1 Pneumatic System
BLEED AIR VALVES
Normally, there are two engine bleed air valves. One is a low stage, and the other is a
high stage (it depends on how far back in the compressor the air is coming from). Both
bleed air valves are direct sources for air being provided by the engine. The bleed air
valves provide air to many consumers such as the anti- ice system, the engine starter
(assuming one is already running), hydraulic reservoirs, air-conditioning packs and also
pressurization of the water tank. In addition, the engine bleed air valves are monitored by
a pressure sensor. If an overpressure condition is sensed, the associated valve closes
automatically.
Chapter 6
BLEED TRIP SENSORS
They close the respective engine bleed air valve automatically in most aircraft types in
response to any pressure or temperature increase (usually each specific type has its own
predetermined limit).
PRE-COOLER
A pre-cooler is simply a heat exchanger which pre-cools the engine bleed air using cold
fan air.
PNEUMATIC DUCTS
It is the manifold or the air pipe network (usually it is divided into 2 sides left and right)
joining all bleed sources with their consumers.
STARTER VALVE
It is an important valve which allows engine start using pneumatic pressure from any
source powering the engine pneumatic starter in most big jets. Usually, the APU bleed air
is used to start both engines. However, if the APU is inoperative, a ground air cart can be
used to start one engine, and then a cross-bleed procedure can be applied.
The cross bleed procedure uses bleed air from one engine to start the other engine.
ISOLATION VALVE
The isolation valve isolates the left and right sides of the pneumatic manifold during
normal operations in most modern jets.
The sources of bleed air include:
 Engine Bleed
 APU Bleed
 Ground Air source
Pneumatic system needs include:
 Air conditioning
 Pressurization
 Wing and engine thermal Anti-icing
 Engine starting
 Hydraulic & Water reservoirs pressurization
Chapter 6
Engine Bleed System

The extracted bleed air from the compressor intermediate or high stage passes through
the engine bleed valve. At this point, it is pressure regulated and is forwarded through a
pre cooler or a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger uses engine fan air for cooling the
engine bleed air. As the bleed is pressure and temperature regulated it passes to the
pneumatic manifold to feed system consumers.
The APU bleed is also connected to the pneumatic manifold through the APU bleed
valve. Usually, it is connected to the left side of the pneumatic manifold. The APU bleed
valve closes when the APU is shut down. Also, the engine pneumatic starter is connected
to the pneumatic manifold for engine start.
The pneumatic system is equipped with an isolation valve, which isolates the left and
right sides of the pneumatic manifold. The system is also equipped with pressure
transmitters left and right of the isolation valve which sends pressure information to the
pneumatic duct pressure indicator. Finally, the pneumatic system incorporates overheat
sensors fitted outside and along bleed air pipes which detects bleed air leakage.
APU Bleed System

The APU bleed system is similar to the engine bleed system. It is primarily used on
ground before engine start where APU bleed air is supplied to various systems until the
engines are started.
Ground Air Source

An alternate pneumatic source is provided via a pneumatic ground source if there is no
other source available. A ground air source can be used to start one engine in the event of
an APU malfunction. Normally, after that engine is started the other engine is started
using bleed air from the operating engine. This procedure is known as a Cross-Bleed
Start.
Chapter 6
II. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
The purpose of the air conditioning system is to regulate the temperature of the bleed air
that is supplied to the flight deck and the passenger cabin. In addition, it is also
responsible for air distribution and circulation.
Conditioned air for the cabin comes from either the aircraft`s air conditioning system or a
preconditioned ground source. The preconditioned ground source is usually an external
cart connected to the aircraft, or an air connection directly from the gate.
An aircraft air conditioning system processes engine or APU bleed air and cools it to a
very low temperature by passing it through a refrigeration unit called a “PACK”. A pack
is the primary component of this system. It is basically a series of heat exchangers, and
one air cycle machine. Heat exchangers serve to introduce cool air (usually from outside
the airplane) and mix it with the hot air entering the pack from the engines or APU. For
further cooling, the air is taken to an air-cycle machine (ACM), while still inside the
pack. The ACM is basically a compressor and a turbine. Much like an actual jet engine,
the turbine is rotated by the compressed air which rotates the compressor itself. Next, the
air is routed to a mixing chamber where it is mixed with hot air (which initially bypassed
the pack completely) to achieve the desired temperature requested by each zone of
aircraft cabin. This process is illustrated in the figure below.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.2 Air Conditioning System
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
PACK VALVE: controls the flow of bleed air to the air conditioning pack which
consequently controls pack operation.
HEAT EXCHANGERS: uses ram air for cooling (ram air comes from outside the
airplane; see below).
RAM AIR SYSTEM: it provides coolant air for the heat exchangers.
AIR CYCLE MACHINE: includes a compressor that uses compressed air and a turbine
which is used to expand air to reduce its temperature and extract work to power the
compressor.
WATER SEPERATOR: Used to remove moisture from the cold air.
TRIM AIR SYSTEM: This part of the air conditioning system design diverts some of
the hot air that has just entered the pack and takes it to 3 trim air valves as shown below.
Chapter 6
The air valves directly introduce this unconditioned hot air to modify the temperature of
the air that is entering the cabin to the exact temperature setting requested.
Figure 6.3 Air Conditioning Pack
Figure 6.4 Trim Air System
Typical Air Conditioning System

The air conditioning system usually includes two air conditioning packs, which are
independent and work in parallel. Each pack uses bleed air from either the engine or
APU. Bleed air flows through the pack valve which controls the amount of air that enters
the pack. The cooling cycle then starts by passing the air through a heat exchanger. The
heat exchanger uses ram air flow for cooling, which comes from outside the airplane. The
cool air from the heat exchanger then flows to the compressor of an air cycle machine
where it is compressed and its temperature is increased.
Chapter 6
The air then flows through a secondary heat exchanger which uses outside air as a
coolant. Pre-cooling through the first heat exchanger increases the efficiency of the ACM
because it lowers the temperature of the air entering the compressor so that less work is
required to compress a given air mass, since the energy required to compress a gas rises
as the temperature of the incoming gas rises.
At this point the temperature of the compressed cooled air is still greater than the ambient
temperature of the outside air. The compressed, cooled air then travels through the
expansion turbine which extracts work from the air as it expands, cooling it to below
ambient temperature. The work extracted is used to power the compressor of the ACM.
Cold air then flows through a water separator which usually uses centrifugal force for
moisture removal.
Next, the cold air is then delivered to the mixing chamber where it is mixed with hot air
coming directly after the pack (through the trim air system) valve to achieve the desired
temperature requested by the cockpit.
III. PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM

SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
Modern jet aircrafts fly at high altitudes where oxygen is not under sufficient pressure to
be breathed easily. Pressurization systems work to increase cabin pressure and to lower
the cabin altitude. By increasing air pressure in the cabin, crew and passengers can
breathe normally. The process of transferring blood from the lungs to the bloodstream
will be uninterrupted since the ambient pressure in the cabin is high enough to support
regular respiration.
As the amount of air entering the aircraft cabin through the air conditioning system is
constant, the cabin can be pressurized. Consequently, cabin altitude is lowered by
limiting the amount of air that exits aircraft cabin.
A valve is installed that controls the amount of air that exits the aircraft cabin which is
called the outflow valve. By modulating that valve between the open and closed position,
cabin altitude is controlled. Cabin altitude can be decreased by modulating the outflow
valve towards the closed position and it can be increased by modulating the outflow valve
towards the open position. Differential pressure is the pressure difference between cabin
pressure and ambient pressure usually explained in psi.
Chapter 6
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
PRESSURIZATION CONTROLLERS
They automatically or semi automatically control cabin altitude by automatic modulation

of the outflow valve according to the flight phase.
OUTFLOW VALVE
Executes positions required by pressurization controllers in automatic or semiautomatic

modes of operations or the position required manually by the manual mode
POSITIVE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
It prevents differential pressure (pressure difference between cabin and atmospheric

pressure) from exceeding a predetermined value by allowing air to exist the cabin to
maintain structural integrity.
NEGATIVE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
It prevents external atmospheric pressure from exceeding internal pressure by a

predetermined value to maintain structural integrity.
PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM OPERATION
Normally pressurization systems include three modes of operations which are the
automatic, semiautomatic (standby) and manual mode.
AUTOMATIC MODE
The auto mode is the normal mode of operation. In most aircraft types after engine start,
the auto controller pressurizes the cabin to about 200 feet below the take-off field altitude
which helps to make the transition to pressurized flight more gradual for passengers and
crew. In addition, this function provides the system with a better response to pressure
changes during takeoff. During flight, the auto controller senses aircraft altitude and
maintains a proportional pressure difference between aircraft altitude and cabin altitude
through out of the whole flight envelope.
In most aircraft types, before landing, the controller programs the cabin to land slightly
pressurized (about 200 feet below the landing field altitude). This system feature
minimizes the pressure changes experienced during a go- around (which result from large
altitude changes), and subsequently increases passenger comfort.
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SEMIAUTOMATIC MODE (ALTERNATE)
In the event of failure of the auto mode the standby mode takes over automatically.
Normally, the standby controller functions exactly the same as the AUTO controller.
Actually, it is a second automatic controller. In fact, these controllers alternate after
every flight. It is often called ALTN, or alternate depending on aircraft type.
MANUAL MODE
Pressurization could be maintained manually in the event of the failure of both automatic
controllers using the manual mode. The required cabin altitude is maintained by
modulating the outflow valve manually using the outflow valve switch. A placard is
provided on the cabin pressurization panel to inform the flight crew of the correct
differential pressure that should be maintained for the current flight level. Cabin climbs
and descents are manually controlled by positioning the outflow valve to the open or
closed position to obtain the desired cabin V/S.
FUEL SYSTEM
SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
In its simplest meaning, fuel is any material that is consumed to produce heat energy. An
aircraft uses fuel to power its engines for propulsion. In turn, the engines drive
generators, provide bleed air, and drive pumps for the hydraulic systems.
The core philosophy of this system is sorting, routing, and pressurizing the fuel to each
engine at the required flow and pressure. The fuel is then mixed with the compressed air
in the combustion chamber, and is then ignited. The expanding gases produce the
required thrust and run the engine. As a result, all of the aircraft systems that depend on
engine operation also run. Therefore, the fuel system is critical to the hydraulic system,
bleed air system, and electrical system.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.5 Fuel System
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A typical jet aircraft fuel system will mainly consist of the following:-
 Fuel tanks
 Fuel booster pumps
 Engine Fuel shut off valves
 Cross-feed valve
 Check valves
 Temperature sensor
 Fueling panel
 Fuel venting
Chapter 6
FUEL TANKS
Fuel tanks in all modern jet aircrafts are located within the wings. In addition, one large
tank is incorporated into the fuselage structure, and is called the center tank. The center
tank is always located between the wing roots within the aircraft fuselage area.
In some types, an additional tank is located within the horizontal stabilizer at the tail
section.
FUEL BOOST PUMPS
Two electrical fuel boost pumps supply fuel from each tank to its respective engine. The
fuel flows through a fuel shut off valve, and a spar fuel shutoff, located where the fuel
exits the tank and enters the engine. In addition, fuel can be supplied to the other
engine(s) via the fuel cross feed valve.
Fuel boost pumps (usually the left side) is responsible to supply fuel pressure to the APU
(although the APU is capable of suction feeding).
Fuel boost pumps are heavy AC power consumers. Therefore, they are cooled and
lubricated using fuel.
FUEL SHUTOFF VALVES
Fuel shut off valves are located on the fuel lines, just before reaching the engine at each
engine mounting wing station.
Fuel shut off valves are DC motor operated valves, electrically supplied from the hot
battery bus. It is designed this way to ensure position control on the fuel shut off valve in
any emergency situation, where main AC power is lost.
FUEL CROSSFEED VALVE
This valve is used to connect the engine fuel manifolds and is used to direct fuel to all
engines from any tank.
Chapter 6
CHECK VALVES
Check valves are located in the fuel system lines to ensure the correct fuel flow routing,
which are also installed to avoid fuel transfer from one tank to the other. This is different
from cross feeding, as fuel cross- feed flows directly from the opposite tank to the engine,
not from tank-to-tank
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A temperature sensor is located in one main tank of the aircraft allowing fuel system
temperature monitor to be indicated on the fuel temperature indicator.
FUELING PANEL
One fueling panel or more is located usually on the right leading edge wing area. This is
where all fueling, defueling and fuel transfer processes are accomplished.
FUEL VENTING
Fuel venting is installed to avoid damage to the wings due to the increased and excessive
positive or negative pressure buildup inside the fuel tanks. Also, it is installed to provide
ram air pressure within the fuel tanks.
Venting is achieved through surge tanks. Surge tanks vent the system through an opening
at each wing tip. This opening also provides means of excess fuel discharge in case of
any accidental tank overfilling.
Typical Aircraft Fuel System

Fuel is required to feed the engines and the APU. Each aircraft has its own specific
recommended jet fuel type and a list of suitable alternative types.
The fuel system can be sub-divided into 2 sub-systems as follows:
 Fuel feeding system

 Fueling and De-fueling system
Chapter 6
FUEL FEEDING
This is the process of transferring fuel from the tanks to the engines and APU. The
electrical fuel pumps are used to move fuel from the tank into the engine through the spar
fuel shutoff valves as well as to the APU manifold at the required pressure and fuel flow
rate.
Feeding is normally accomplished from a fuel tank into its respective engine. However,
through the cross feed valve, fuel can be fed from any tank to any engine as required (e.g.
in case of a fuel imbalance).
Also, many check valves are installed to allow fuel flow to be directed through the
required routes correctly.
In all jets, center tank fuel must be used before the wing tank fuel. For this reason, center
tank check valves open at a lower pressure than the wing tanks check valve even if all
boost pumps are operating.
FUELING/ DEFUELING SYSTEM
This sub-system is installed in the fuel system to allow rapid and fast fueling and de-
fueling processes.
The fueling panel has different modes of operation in many types as follows:
Auto mode, where the required fuel amount can be preset on a digital counter and when
the required amount of fuel is reached fueling valves automatically close.
Manual mode, where the fuel valves are manually opened and when the required fuel
amount is reached by reading the fuel quantity gauges on the fueling panel the valves are
also closed manually.
Third fueling method, is by using the over-wing fueling receptacles or filler caps for the
wing tanks only (Center tank cannot be accessed).
A De-fueling valve is usually located in the fuel system for on ground use only to defuel
any undesired amount of fuel off the aircraft or for fuel transfer from one tank to another
one.
Chapter 6
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
Hydraulic systems use pressure of a liquid to perform mechanical work. The liquid may
be oil or water, but oil is preferred because of its protective and lubricating action.
The core philosophy of this system is to generate hydraulic power from pressurized
hydraulic fluid supplied by hydraulic pumps which can be used by different users (e.g.
flight control surfaces, flaps, brakes, steering….etc) to compensate for the large and
heavy loads which cannot be moved by the normal muscular force exerted by the pilot
using conventional cable and pulley power.
The basic principle involved is Pascal`s law, which states that pressure exerted upon a
liquid is transmitted in all directions at the same magnitude.
Figure 6.6 Hydraulic System
Chapter 6
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A typical jet aircraft hydraulic system consists of the following:
 Hydraulic fluid
 Hydraulic Reservoir
 Hydraulic pumps
 Power transfer unit
 Valves
 Pressure lines
 Return lines
 Heat exchanger
 Actuators
HYDRAULIC FLUID
It is the kind of oil approved by the aircraft manufacturer to be used for the specific
aircraft type to act as the certified hydraulic fluid for the concerned type.
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR
It is the tank or container that holds the hydraulic fluid required for system operation. It is
placed at a location that makes it easy for servicing.
Usually there are 3 reservoirs for a typical twin engine aircraft, 2 for the main systems
and 1 for the standby system.
All 3 reservoirs are pressurized from the pneumatic manifold to ensure a positive fluid
flow to all hydraulic pumps.
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HYDRAULIC PUMPS
Two kinds of hydraulic pumps are needed to pressurize the hydraulic system, engine
driven pump and an electric pump.
Both pumps produce the same pressure output of approximately 3000 PSI, but at different
flow rates, The engine driven pump provides higher flow rate than the electrical pump,
and is considered the main pump, The electrical pump always serves as a backup for the
engine driven pump in case of a very high demand of hydraulic flow is required at the
same time, or in case the engine driven pump has failed.
POWER TRANSFER UNIT
The Power Transfer Unit or (PTU) acts as a backup unit which consists of a hydraulic
motor, and a pump. It is located in such a way that allows power transfer from an
operating system to another non- pressurized system due to pump failure without
interconnecting the two systems lines.
VALVES
Valves play an important role in hydraulic systems. They regulate the oil pressure or flow
and open or close the lines. A safety valve is provided in most hydraulic systems and
prevents the buildup of excessive pressure. Different valves serve to maintain constant oil
pressure in each part of the system, e.g. to release pressure, direct the oil flow, and to
prevent the liquid from flowing in the opposite direction.
PRESSURE LINES
They are the pipeline network lines that transfer pressurized hydraulic fluid to the
actuators joining the reservoir and pumps with the users.
RETURN LINES
These pipes act as collective lines which return un-pressurized hydraulic fluid back to the
reservoirs after being used. Before returning the fluid to the reservoir, it passes by the
heat exchangers to cool the heated fluid after being pressurized and used.
Chapter 6
HEAT EXCHANGER
This unit is the cooling agent of the hydraulic system and is located in the main fuel
tanks.
Using a specially designed heat exchanger the very low fuel temperature cools down the
heated hydraulic fluid by means of a trade between fuel and hydraulic fluid temperatures.
ACTUATORS
An actuator is formed of a cylinder and a piston. In an actuator, oil is forced against one
side of the piston depending on the direction required as fluid can be introduced from
either sides of the piston so that the piston rod can either push or pull the surface or the
unit needed to be moved in a certain direction.
TYPICAL AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
 Different needs for Hydraulic power

 Different sources of Hydraulic power
DIFFERENT NEEDS FOR HYDRAULIC POWER
Generally hydraulic power is used by many users in all big jets, these users include,
 Ailerons, elevators and rudder

 Thrust reversers
 Flight and ground spoilers
 Brakes
 Auto-pilots
 Landing gear extension and retraction
 Nose gear steering
 Flaps and slats extension and retraction
 Yaw damper
Chapter 6
DIFFERENT SOURCES OF HYDRAULIC POWER
As stated before most twin jet engine aircrafts produce hydraulic power using engine
driven and electrical pumps through:
- Main systems
- Standby system
MAIN SYSTEMS
Usually most basic twin engine jets consists of 2 main hydraulic systems and are mostly
designated by a number (e.g. HYD.SYS 1), an alphabet letter (e.g. HYD SYS A) or a
color (e.g. Blue HYD SYS).
Each system is independently designed and has its own reservoir, pressure lines, return
lines and its own engine driven & electrical pumps.
Each main system is responsible to supply certain users and in some cases is sharing with
the other main system the supply of some essential users such as (Ailerons, elevators and
rudder).
STANDBY SYSTEM
This system acts as a backup for the 2 main systems and is usually pressurized using an
electrical pump or on some types using a Ram Air Turbine pump (RAT) which is a small
fan that can be lowered from the airplanes fuselage by a manual control from the cockpit
to operate a hydraulic pump in case of complete hydraulic power loss.
The standby system usually powers the most essential users, for example:
- Rudder
- Thrust reversers
- Leading edge devices
Chapter 6
ELECTRICAL SYSYEM
SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
Electricity is one of the most crucial elements that are part of a modern aircraft’s design.
The core philosophy of this system is simple. By design, the most basic requirement of
this system is not only generating electrical power, but also transforming its type within
the system itself. This is due to the fact that not all components of the aircraft are able to
use AC power or DC power, therefore there are two types of electrical current that exist.
Figure 7 Electrical System
Chapter 6
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A typical jet aircraft electrical system will mainly consist of the following:-
 External power unit

 Engine & APU driven generators
 CSD or IDG
 Electrical busses
 Transformer rectifiers
 Static inverter
 Battery
 Battery charger
EXTERNAL GROUND POWER
It is a ground equipment unit which generates 115V - 400 Hz AC power, that is the same
in quality as the engine driven or APU generator.
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU)
The Auxiliary Power Unit is located in the tail section of the aircraft and its purpose is to
generate electricity and bleed air. These two elements are most crucial for the operation
of the many systems within the aircraft. Since bleed air and electrical power come from
the engines, the APU can be started prior to engine start. Once running, the aircraft has a
generator available to power its entire electrical system, and will also have a ready source
of bleed air to power the bleed air and air conditioning system.
In simple terms, the APU is a small jet engine used only to generate electrical power and
bleed air. It is not used as a propulsive element or thrust generation unit.
External ground power is usually connected to the aircraft during the preparation process
for a flight, while the aircraft is parked on its stand or gate.
ENGINE AND APU GENERATORS
Primary power is obtained from the engine-driven generators. Each engine is equipped
with a generator that is capable of carrying the entire load of the aircraft independently.
In addition, the APU also has a generator of its own, also capable of supporting the
electrical system entirely. Each generator is driven through a generator drive unit, which
maintains a constant frequency throughout the normal operating range of the engine.
Maintaining a constant frequency is important so that no electrical surges occur which
Chapter 6
will damage the electrical system if not regulated. The generator drive is coupled directly
to the engine and operates whenever the engine is running.
The APU generator may be used to supply primary power on the ground and will serve,
in-flight, as backup for any engine generator. The APU generator is identical to the
engine generators but has no generator drive since the APU itself is governed and will
maintain a constant generator speed.
CSD OR IDG
Each engine drives its generator through a constant speed drive (CSD) or integrated drive
generator (IDG). It is installed to provide a constant frequency power of 400 Hz (400
cycles per second) to the engine generators.
The complex design of the CSD makes it unnecessary to get into its design details. It is
important to note that a special oil system is the main element of the CSD. If the CSD
experiences a malfunction, the affected generator will be tripped.
By comparison, the APU generator is not equipped with constant speed drive. This is
due to the fact that it operates only at a steady governed RPM, while the engines operate
at a large range of RPM’s.
ELECTRICAL BUSSES
An electrical buss is a storage and distribution point for generated electrical current from
any source supplying it. The transfer bus then supplies either a sub-bus or directly
supplies a consumer.
Chapter 6
TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER UNITS (T/R)
The TR units convert 115-volt AC to 28-volt DC. TR voltage range is 24-30V.
The T/R receives AC power from the AC bus and then transforms this power into 28V
DC power to supply DC bus.
As mentioned before, this is one of the most important features of the electrical system
because of its ability to transform this type of current to accommodate the various
components.
STATIC INVERTER
The static inverter converts 28 volt DC power from the battery to single-phase 115 volt,
400 Hz AC power to supply the AC standby bus or essential bus during the loss of
normal AC electrical power.
BATTERY
A 28 volt nickel-cadmium battery is located in the electronics compartment. The battery

is considered the main storage of DC power, which can serve as a backup, and power the
AC & DC standby system in the event of the absence of normal AC & DC power supply.
Battery charging is automatically controlled. A fully charged battery has sufficient

capacity to provide power for a minimum of 30 minutes. Battery voltage range is 22-30V.
BATTERY CHARGER
The purpose of the battery charger is to restore and maintain the battery at full electrical
power. The normal source of power for the battery charger is the AC ground service bus,
which is a sub-bus originating from the AC generator bus, with provisions for automatic
switching to the other AC generator bus as an alternative.
The battery charger will maintain the charge in the battery at all times with AC power on
the airplane. Many jet aircraft designers use the limited pulse type battery charger which
converts 115V AC to 28V DC
EMERGENCY GENERATOR
The Ram Air Turbine (RAT) uses ram air to rotate a connected generator for power
generation. This option is not available on all aircraft types.
Chapter 6
TYPICAL AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
 Different needs for Electrical power

 Different Types of Electrical power
 Different Sources of Electrical power
DIFFERENT NEEDS FOR ELECTRICAL POWER
Generally, electrical power is consumed by hundreds of various consumers in all modern

aircraft. These consumers range from passenger convenience items to the very
sophisticated flight instruments required for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Examples of Electrical Power users
 Different kinds of lights and illumination

 Galleys which consist of many ovens and heaters
 Avionics (Flight instruments, computers…. etc.)
 Different types of electrical pumps (Fuel, Hydraulic…. etc.)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical power in all aircraft types is divided into 2 types:
- AC (Alternating current)
- DC (Direct current)
AC (ALTERNATING CURRENT)
This type of electrical power is considered the main electrical power for all big jets and
its voltages 115 with a frequency of 400 Hz.
AC powers mostly power all heavy loads which DC power cannot supply.
DC (DIRECT CURRENT)
DC power is the second electrical power type which supplies lighter electrical loads. It is
also used by avionics and many other flight instruments and indicators.
Chapter 6
DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL POWER
AC Sources
 AC external power unit (on ground only)

 Engine driven generators
 APU Generator
 Battery via the static inverter (standby power)
 Emergency generator
DC SOURCES
 DC external power units (On ground only for some aircraft types)
 AC busses via the transformer rectifiers (T/R) & battery charger.
 Battery (Standby power)
Based on the previous study, we can divide a jet aircraft’s electrical system into 3
networks as follows:
 AC Normal electrical system

 DC Normal electrical system
 AC & DC Standby electrical system
AC NORMAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The engines, APU, or the AC external power unit provide 115 V AC power. The
generated 115v AC power is then transferred to the generator busses. These transfer
busses then distribute the electrical power (AC) to sub-busses or other users directly.
DC NORMAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Transformer rectifier (T/R) units or external DC power units (some types), are the
primary source of normal 28 volt DC power.
Transformer rectifiers convert 115 V AC into 28 V DC.
Chapter 6
AC & DC STANDBY ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
AC & DC standby electrical busses are always powered. They serve as a very basic and
somewhat independent electrical system if the airplane loses all normal A/C power. Its
purpose is to power only the basic equipment on the airplane, and enable the crew to
continue the flight to the nearest possible airport in case of an emergency
 Normally, AC standby bus is supplied by one of the main AC busses

 Normally, DC Standby bus is supplied from one of the DC busses
In case of complete AC power loss, AC & DC Standby busses are supplied by the 28V
DC battery, which directly supplies the essential part of the DC system, and through a
static inverter supplies the essential part of the AC system.
Chapter 6
WARNING SYSTEMS
Modern jet systems incorporate many types of warning systems. Two main systems will
be discussed in this sub-section and there are:
 Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
 Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS): GPWS is a system designed to alert

pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle
History
In the late 1960s, a series of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents took the lives
of hundreds of people. (A CFIT accident is one where a properly functioning airplane
under the control of a fully qualified and certificated crew is flown into terrain (or water
or obstacles) with no apparent awareness on the part of the crew.
Beginning in the early 1970s, a number of studies looked at the occurrence of CFIT
accidents. Findings from these studies indicated that many such accidents could have
been avoided if a warning device called a ground proximity warning system (GPWS) had
been used.
As a result of these studies and recommendations from the U.S. National Transportation
Safety Board (NTSB), in 1974 the FAA required all large turbine and turbojet airplanes
to install approved GPWS equipment.
After 1974, there were still some CFIT accidents which GPWS was unable to help
prevent, due to the blind spot of those early GPWS systems. More advanced systems
were developed.
System Philosophy
The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by a radio altimeter.
A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the
captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying
configurations ("modes").
The modes are:
Chapter 6
1. Excessive descent rate ("SINK RATE" "PULL UP")
2. Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")
3. Altitude loss after takeoff or with a high power setting ("DON'T SINK")
4. Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW – TERRAIN" "TOO LOW – GEAR"

"TOO LOW – FLAPS")
5. Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
6. Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
7. Wind shear protection ("WINDSHEAR")
Traditional GPWS does have a blind spot. Since it can only gather data from directly
below the aircraft, it must predict future terrain features. If there is a dramatic change in
terrain, such as a steep slope, GPWS will not detect the aircraft closure rate until it is too
late for evasive action.
In the late 1990s improvements were made and the system was renamed "Enhanced
Ground Proximity Warning System" (EGPWS/TAWS). The system was now combined
with a worldwide digital terrain database and relies on Global Positioning System (GPS)
technology. On-board computers compared its current location with a database of the
Earth's terrain. The Terrain Display now gave pilots a visual orientation to high and low
points nearby the aircraft.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.8 GPWS Operation
EGPWS software improvements were focused on solving two common problems; no

warning at all, and late or improper response.
NO WARNING
The primary cause of CFIT occurrences with no GPWS warning is landing short. When
the landing gear is down and landing flaps are deployed, the GPWS expects the airplane
to land and therefore, issues no warning. EGPWS introduces the Terrain Clearance Floor
(TCF) function, which provides GPWS protection even in the landing configuration.
LATE WARNING OR IMPROPER RESPONSE
The occurrence of a GPWS alert typically happens at a time of high workload and nearly
always surprises the flight crew. Almost certainly, the aircraft is not where the pilot
thinks it should be, and the response to a GPWS warning can be late in these
circumstances. Warning time can also be short if the aircraft is flying into steep terrain
since the downward looking radio altimeter is the primary sensor used for the warning
calculation. The EGPWS improves terrain awareness and warning times by introducing
the Terrain Display and the Terrain Data Base Look Ahead protection.
Chapter 6
TRAFFIC COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

A traffic collision avoidance system or traffic alert and collision avoidance system (both
abbreviated as TCAS) is an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce the
incidence of mid-air collisions between aircraft. It monitors the airspace around an
aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding active transponder, independent
of air traffic control, and warns pilots of the presence of other transponder-equipped
aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision (MAC). It is a type of airborne
collision avoidance system mandated by the International Civil Aviation Organization to
be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of over 5,700 kg (13,000
lb) or authorized to carry more than 19 passengers.
ACAS / TCAS is based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder signals, and
operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on
potential conflicting aircraft.
In modern glass cockpit aircraft, the TCAS display may be integrated in the Navigation
Display (ND) or Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI); in older glass cockpit
aircraft and those with mechanical instrumentation, such an integrated TCAS display may
replace the mechanical Vertical Speed Indicator (which indicates the rate with which the
aircraft is descending or climbing).
Figure 6.9 Stand-Alone TCAS
Chapter 6
Figure 6.10 Integrated TCAS with ND
SYSTEM PHILOSOPHY
TCAS involves communication between all aircraft equipped with an appropriate

transponder (provided the transponder is enabled and set up properly). Each TCAS-
equipped aircraft interrogates all other aircraft in a determined range about their position
(via the 1,030 MHz radio frequency), and all other aircraft reply to other interrogations
(via 1,090 MHz). This interrogation-and-response cycle may occur several times per
second.
The TCAS system builds a three dimensional map of aircraft in the airspace,
incorporating their range (garnered from the interrogation and response round trip time),
altitude (as reported by the interrogated aircraft), and bearing (by the directional antenna
from the response). Then, by extrapolating current range and altitude difference to
anticipated future values, it determines if a potential collision threat exists.
TCAS and its variants are only able to interact with aircraft that have a correctly
operating mode C or mode S transponder. A unique 24-bit identifier is assigned to each
aircraft that has a mode S transponder.
The next step beyond identifying potential collisions is automatically negotiating a

mutual avoidance maneuver (currently, maneuvers are restricted to changes in altitude
and modification of climb/sink rates) between the two (or more) conflicting aircraft.
These avoidance maneuvers are communicated to the flight crew by a cockpit display and
by synthesized voice instructions.
Chapter 6
A protected volume of airspace surrounds each TCAS equipped aircraft. The size of the
protected volume depends on the altitude, speed, and heading of the aircraft involved in
the encounter. The illustration below gives an example of a typical TCAS protection
volume.
Figure 6.11 TCAS Operation
Chapter 6
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A TCAS installation consists of the following components:
TCAS COMPUTER UNIT
Performs airspace surveillance, intruder tracking, its own aircraft altitude tracking, threat
detection, RA maneuver determination and selection, and generation of advisories. The
TCAS Processor uses pressure altitude, radar altitude, and discrete aircraft status inputs
from its own aircraft to control the collision avoidance logic parameters that determine
the protection volume around the TCAS aircraft.
ANTENNAS
The antennas used by TCAS II include a directional antenna that is mounted on the top of
the aircraft and either an Omni directional or a directional antenna mounted on the
bottom of the aircraft. Most installations use the optional directional antenna on the
bottom of the aircraft. In addition to the two TCAS antennas, two antennas are also
required for the Mode S transponder. One antenna is mounted on the top of the aircraft
while the other is mounted on the bottom. These antennas enable the Mode S transponder
to receive interrogations at 1030 MHz and reply to the received interrogations at 1090
MHz
COCKPIT PRESENTATION
The TCAS interface with the pilots is provided by two displays: the traffic display and
the RA display. These two displays can be implemented in a number of ways, including
displays that incorporate both displays into a single, physical unit. Regardless of the
implementation, the information displayed is identical.
Chapter 6
TCAS Operation
The following section describes the TCAS operation based on TCAS II, since this is the
version that has been adopted as an international standard (ACAS II) by ICAO and
aviation authorities worldwide.
TCAS Operation Modes
TCAS II can be currently operated in the following modes:
STAND-BY
Power is applied to the TCAS Processor and the mode S transponder, but TCAS does not
issue any interrogations and the transponder will reply to only discrete interrogations.
Chapter 6
TRANSPONDER
The mode S transponder is fully operational and will reply to all appropriate ground and
TCAS interrogations. TCAS remains in stand-by.
TRAFFIC ADVISORIES ONLY
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the
appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions. However, TCAS will only
issue traffic advisories (TA), and the resolution advisories (RA) will be inhibited.
AUTOMATIC (TRAFFIC/RESOLUTION ADVISORIES)
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the
appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions. TCAS will issue traffic
advisories (TA) and resolution advisories (RA), when appropriate.
TCAS works in a coordinated manner, so when an RA is issued to conflicting aircraft, a

required action (i.e., Climb. Climb.) has to be immediately performed by one of the
aircrafts, while the other one receives a similar RA in the opposite direction (i.e.,
Descend. Descend.).
TCAS Alerts
TCAS II issues the following types of aural annunciations:
 Traffic advisory (TA)

 Resolution advisory (RA)
 Clear of conflict
When a TA is issued, pilots are instructed to initiate a visual search for the traffic causing
the TA. If the traffic is visually acquired, pilots are instructed to maintain visual
separation from the traffic. The pilot training programs also indicate that no horizontal
maneuvers are to be made based solely on information shown on the traffic display.
Slight adjustments in vertical speed while climbing or descending, or slight adjustments
in airspeed while still complying with the ATC clearance are acceptable.
When an RA is issued, pilots are expected to respond immediately to the RA unless doing
so would jeopardize the safe operation of the flight. This means that aircraft will at times
have to maneuver contrary to ATC instructions or disregard ATC instructions. In these
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cases, the controller is no longer responsible for separation of the aircraft involved in the
RA until the conflict is terminated.
On the other hand, ATC can potentially interfere with the pilot’s response to RAs. If a
conflicting ATC instruction coincides with an RA, the pilot may assume that ATC is
fully aware of the situation and is providing the better resolution. But in reality ATC is
not aware of the RA until the RA is reported by the pilot. Once the RA is reported by the
pilot, ATC is required not to attempt to modify the flight path of the aircraft involved in
the encounter. Hence, the pilot is expected to “follow the RA”
Type Text Meaning Required action
TA Traffic; traffic. Intruder nears both Attempt visual contact, and

horizontally and vertically. be prepared to maneuver if
an RA occurs.
RA Climb; climb. Intruder will pass below Begin climbing at 1500–2000

ft/min
RA Descend. Intruder will pass above. Begin descending at 1500–

Descend. 2000 ft/min
RA Increase climb. Intruder will pass just below Climb at 2500 – 3000 ft/min.
RA Increase descent. Intruder will pass just above. Descend at 2500 – 3000
ft/min.
RA Reduce climb. Intruder is probably well Climb at a slower rate.

below.
RA Reduce descent. Intruder is probably well Descend at a slower rate.

above.
RA Climb; climb Intruder that was passing Change from a descent to a

now. above will now pass below. climb.
RA Descend; Intruder that was passing Change from a climb to a

descend now. below will now pass above. descent.
RA Maintain vertical Intruder will be avoided if Maintain current vertical rate.
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speed; maintain. vertical rate is maintained.
RA Adjust vertical Intruder considerably away or Begin to level off.

speed; adjust. weakening of initial RA.
RA Monitor vertical Intruder ahead in level flight, Remain in level flight.

speed. above or below.
RA Crossing. Passing through the intruder's Proceed according to the

level. Usually added to any associated RA.
other RA.
CC Clear of conflict. Intruder is no longer a threat. Return promptly to previous

ATC clearance.
Table 6.1 Types of Traffic and Resolution Advisories
SAFETY ASPECTS OF TCAS

Safety studies on TCAS estimate that the system improves safety in the airspace by a
factor of between 3 and 5.
However, it is well understood that part of the remaining risk is that TCAS may induce
midair collisions: In particular, it is dependent on the accuracy of the threat aircraft’s
reported altitude and on the expectation that the threat aircraft will not make an abrupt
maneuver that defeats the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA). The safety study also shows
that TCAS II will induce some critical near midair collisions.
One potential problem with TCAS II is the possibility that a recommended avoidance
maneuver might direct the flight crew to descend toward terrain below a safe altitude.
Recent requirements for incorporation of ground proximity mitigate this risk. Ground
proximity warning alerts have priority in the cockpit over TCAS alerts.
Some pilots have been unsure how to act when their aircraft was requested to climb
whilst flying at their maximum altitude. The accepted procedure is to follow the climb
RA as best as possible, temporarily trading speed for height. The climb RA should
quickly finish. In the event of a stall warning, the stall warning would take priority.
Chapter 6
Both cases have been already addressed by Version 7.0 of TCAS II and are currently
handled by a corrective RA together with a visual indication of a green arc in the IVSI
display to indicate the safe range for the climb or descent rate. However, it has been
found that in some cases these indications could lead to a dangerous situation for the
involved aircraft. For example, if a TCAS event occurs when two aircraft are descending
one over the other for landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude will first receive a
"Descend, descend" RA, and when reaching an extreme low altitude, this will change to a
"Adjust Vertical Speed, Adjust" RA, together with a green arc indication directing the
pilot to level off the aircraft. This could place the aircraft dangerously into the path of the
intruder above, who is descending to land. A change proposal has been issued to correct
this problem.
Chapter 6
CHAPTER 7
“AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS”
MAINTENANCE DOCUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Regulatory authorities, all over the world, pass certain rules and regulations to maintain
the maintenance quality of aircrafts in general, and airliners in specific. The ECARs
enforce maintenance documentation system for all airline carriers in Egypt. These
documentations are provided by the manufacturers to cohere with the regulations.
However, it always needs continuous updates and follow up for the daily operation.
Airline pilots are exposed to these maintenance documents every day.
MAINTENANCE CONTROL MANUAL

Maintenance control manual contains maintenance policies, procedures and information
needed for any paperwork concerning maintenance. EgyptAir provides (Egyptian Civil
Aviation Authority) ECAA with a copy of its maintenance control manual, together with
all amendments and/or revisions. This maintenance control manual includes the
following:
 A comprehensive description of the maintenance scope

 Structure and functionality of the management system for maintenance operation
 Description of departments, posts, authorizations, duties, responsibilities and
interrelation of functions and activities within the process
DOCUMENTATION SYSTEM
EgyptAir has assigned the contracted maintenance organization (AMO) to obtain and
assess all continuation airworthiness information. This documentation system keeps a list
for valid documentations that enable the users to identify the revision status of any of the
documents.
Chapter 7
AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS 7-1
DOCUMENTS ON BOARD
There are certain documents that should be present on board in any flight. These
documents are:
 Certificate of Registration  issued by ECAA  the original certificate

 Certificate of Airworthiness  the original certificate
 Noise certificate  original certificate or a certified copy
 Air Operator Certificate (AOC)  issued by ECAA
 Airplane radio license  issued by Egyptian Telecommunication Authority 
original license
 Insurance Certificate  issued by an appropriate insurance company (Misr
Insurance company)  certified copy of the certificate
 Permission to fly or land in Egyptian territories  issued by ECAA  original
copy
 Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM)  original copy
 Aircraft Operation Manual or Flight Crew Operation Manual (FCOM) of the
specific type
 Minimum Equipment List & Configuration Deviation List  a copy
 Weight and Balance Manual including the last approved weighting report
 Operation Specification (OPSPECS)  a copy
Additional documents and forms that should be located onboard are:
 Aircraft Technical Log

 Deferred Defect Log
 Deferred Defects Guide (DDG)
 Cabin Log and Deferred Cabin Log
 Flight Crew Licenses with appropriate ratings
 ETOPS manual
Chapter 7
MAINTENANCE RECORD SYSTEM
The personnel approving the release to service of an aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine,
appliance, or component part after inspection performed in accordance with the approved
maintenance program, shall make an entry in the maintenance record containing the
following:
 Type of inspection and a brief description of the inspection

 The date of the inspection and aircraft total time in service
 Signature, stamp, and type of license held by the person approving the release to
service
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE CHECKS
There are many maintenance checks that are required to be done on any flying aircraft.
Each check has different criteria and items that need to be checked. These checks are:
 Transient / PDC / ALC

 Daily check  24hrs to 36hrs
 Weekly check  8 days
 A check  each 750hrs or 2 months
 C check  8A or 18 months
 D check  8C / Overhaul check
EGYPTAIR AIRLINES AIRPLANE TECHNICAL LOG

There is a technical logbook onboard each and every airplane in service. This log is for
recording defects and malfunctions discovered during the operation and details of all
maintenance carried out on the particular airplane between scheduled visits to the base
maintenance facility.
In addition, this log is used for recording operating information relevant to flight safety
and should contain maintenance data that the operating crew needs to know, and which
shall be written with undeletable ink and cannot be erased, up to date and legible.
This technical log also has the history of the checks listed above. This is considered
documentation that the required checks are performed on the aircraft and it is released to
service. Thus, flight crews are required to insure that all the required checks are
performed on the aircraft.
Chapter 7
The technical logbook pages are made of a master white copy and additional three copies:
 Master Copy  shall remain on board the relevant aircraft until the next letter
check (for example, Check A or Check B) where it kept at the main records
 Second Copy  shall be left at the departure point. Handling companies in
abroad stations shall keep these copies for 30 days, then send it to Cairo base to
be kept in maintenance document record department
 Third Copy  shall be retained in the main records section in the main base after
the end of the flight until being replaced by the master white copy
 Fourth Copy  for engineering purposes
The Deferred Defect Log consists of a master white copy and additional two copies of
different colors. The master copy is kept onboard at least until rectification of deferrals
after which it is transferred to the main records. The first copy is sent by the AMO line
maintenance for records and planning purposes. The second copy is maintained in the
main records until replaced by the master copy.
The technical log contains the following:
 Details of the registered name and address of EGYPTAIR AIRLINES, the

airplane type, and its complete international registration mark.
 Details of when the next scheduled maintenance due
Note: The flight crew does not need to receive such details if the next scheduled
maintenance is controlled by other means acceptable to the Authority
 Details of all information considered necessary to ensure continued flight safety.

Such details are:
o The airplane type and registration mark,
o The date and place of take-off and landing,
o The take-off and landing times,
o The total of flying hours, such that the hours to the next scheduled
maintenance can be determined,
o Details known to the commander of any defect, including emergency
systems, affecting airworthiness or safe operation of the airplane. The
commander must sign and date the log entry for each flight including, as
appropriate, a “Nil Defect” entry. There is provision for a Certificate of
Release to Service following rectification of a defect or maintenance
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o The quantity of fuel and oil uplifted and the quantity of fuel available in
each tank, or combination of tanks, at the beginning and end of each flight.
The units for the amount of fuel planned to be uplifted and the amount of
fuel actually uplifted must be the same
In addition to the above it may be necessary (on request of the technical department) to
record the following supplementary information:
 The time spent in particular engine power ranges where use of such engine power
affects the life of engine or engine module (e.g., maximum or inter contingency
power),
 Details of all deferred defects that affect or may affect the safe operation of the
airplane and should therefore be known to the airplane commander. Each page of
this section will be printed with EGYPTAIR AIRLINES name and page serial
number and makes provision for recording the following:
o A cross reference for each deferred defect such that the original defect can
be identified in the particular Section 3 Sector Record Page,
o The original date of occurrence of the defect deferred,
o Brief details of the defect,
o Details of the eventual rectification carried out and its Certificate of
Release to Service or a clear cross reference back to the document that
contains details of the eventual rectification
AIRCRAFT FUELING OPERATION

The contracted maintenance organization is responsible for aircraft fueling operation, and
shall insure the following:
 No fueling is to be done while an aircraft engine is running

 Fuel delivered and loaded is:
o Free from contaminations
o Correct grade and specifications
 Fuel overflow vents will be kept under constant observation
 Radar equipment and high power emitting radio transmitters shall not be operated
in the vicinity of the fueling operation
 Before the actual fueling started, the aircraft shall be chocked according to the
standard operating procedures
 Both the aircraft and the fueling vehicles shall be statically bonded and grounded
as described in the aircraft maintenance manual
Chapter 7
AIRCRAFT RELEASE TO SERVICE

A certificate of release to service is required before flight after:
 Completion of maintenance check

 Completion of any defect rectification, while the aircraft operates flight services
between scheduled maintenance
These maintenance checks are recorded in the airplane technical logbook. Flight crews
must insure that the aircraft is released to service before starting their preparation.
DEFERRED MAINTENANCE
A copy of the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) for the specific aircraft shall
continuously be kept on board the aircraft. Inoperative system or equipment shall be
recorded in the concerned aircraft deferred defect logbook and made accessible to flight
crew at all times. Where appropriate deferred items shall be placarded, marking it as
"Inoperative" or "deactivated".
Maintenance action for inoperative item shall be made according to maintenance

reference and completed within the required time constraints and recorded in the aircraft
technical log. Cross-reference shall be made between aircraft technical log page in which
the defect is recorded and deferred log page in which the deferral of the same defect is
made.
Serviceability of inoperative system or equipment shall be restored within a specified

Interval. The Interval shall be pre-specified in the MEL. Dispatching an aircraft with an
inoperative system or equipment beyond such Interval is not allowed unless it is
authorized to do so by Chief Inspector. The time intervals required for maintenance are:
 Category “A”  as required

 Category “B”  3 days or 72hrs
 Category “C”  10 days or 240hrs
 Category “D” 120 days or 2880hrs
NOTE: MEL can be referred to during taxi until take-off power is set
Chapter 7
CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LIST (CDL)
An aircraft may be operated with secondary airframe and engine part deficiencies if so
allowed in the approved CDL. Other than in the MEL, CDL items very often do not have
a time limit or a limit on the number of landings. However, the CDL will specify changes
to the approved AFM-procedures or its performance.
DEFERRED DEVIATION LIST (DDL)
DDL is a book incorporated in the aircraft library. This book incorporates any
information needed by any pilot to operate an aircraft with defects. MEL defects contain
maintenance procedures (suffixed by “M”) and/or operation procedures (suffixed by
“O”). At any time a deferred item contains “O”, the flight crew should check the DDL for
operational procedures with this defect.
*In certain aircraft types the CDL and DDL is incorporated in one book referred to as
Deferred Deviation Guide (DDG)
EXTENDED TWIN ENGINE OPERATIONS (ETOPS)

An ETOPS routine line maintenance check shall be performed to verify that the status of
the airplane critical items (for extended operations) is acceptable. This check shall be
accomplished and signed off immediately prior to an ETOPS flight and shall ensure
proper MEL procedures, items deferral and that system certification procedures have
been properly performed.
REDUCED VERTICAL SEPERATION MINIMUM

In case of any aircraft is not capable of RVSM:
 Any defect rendering the aircraft, as NON-RVSM CAPABLE must be transferred

to the Deferred Defect Log provided that the said defect is allowable within the
terms of the Minimum Equipment List (MEL). This Deferred Defect must clearly
state that the aircraft is NON-RVSM CAPABLE. This should be also reflected in
the aircraft Technical Log as a NON-RVSM CAPABLE
 Only authorized personnel are allowed to downgrade an aircraft to non-RVSM
capable
 The Maintenance Control Center should notify the Integrated Operations Control
Center (IOCC) immediately
Chapter 7
ACCIDENT & INCIDENT AND OCCURRENCE REPORTING

In case of any accident or incident observed, the maintenance provider shall inform
promptly the Chief Inspector by fax or any other mean. Material involved in the accident
shall not be moved, repaired, modified, overhauled, scrapped or handled to a third party
unless the action is approved by aviation authority of the country or the ECAA (if in
Cairo) through the Chief Inspector.
Occurrence Reporting shall be for defects or un-airworthy conditions. The report shall
contain all mechanical failures, malfunctions or defects that is hazardous to flight safety
CAT II OPERATION
In case of downgrading any aircraft to be non-CAT II approved:
 Any defect rendering the aircraft, as NON-CATII CAPABLE must be transferred

to the Deferred Defect Log provided that the said defect is allowable within the
terms of the Minimum Equipment List (MEL). This Deferred Defect must clearly
state that the aircraft is NON-CAT II CAPABLE
 Only authorized personnel are allowed to downgrade an aircraft to non-CAT II
capable
 The Maintenance Control Center should notify the IOCC immediately
Upgrading of aircraft as CAT II CAPABLE:
 The defect causing the downgrade must be positively identified and rectified
 The Technical Log should reflect that the aircraft is CAT II CAPABLE
 Only authorized personnel are allowed to upgrade an aircraft to non-CAT II
capable
 The Maintenance Control Center should notify the IOCC immediately
Chapter 7
OPERATION SPECIFICATIONS (OP-SPECS)

The operations specifications are regulatory document that is carried onboard in the flight
deck library. It is issued by the country’s civil aviation authority and states the following:
 Air operator’s name,

 Air Operator Certificate number,
 Type of commercial operation,
 Area of operations,
 Aircraft type, and
 Approvals granted
Examples of such approvals are:
 Dangerous good
 Low Visibility Operation (LVP) and CAT II
 RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Minima)
 ETOPS (Twin Engine Operation Cross Atlantic)
 Navigation Specifications and Equipments
 Maintenance – Related Provisions
Upon request, it shall be presented to ramp inspectors. The OPS-SPECS also includes
provisions for:
 Parts Pool Arrangement

 Short Term Escalation
 Special Flight Permit (Ferry Flights)
 MEL (Minimum Equipment List)
The Appendix section includes examples of the aircraft documents on the aircrafts.
Chapter 7
CHAPTER 8
“WEIGHT AND BALANCE”
INTRODUCTION
Good knowledge of weight and balance is of vital importance to pilots. Pilots are taught
weight and balance since their early flying days flying small aircrafts. They learn the
significant differences in aircraft handling and performance between a heavy and a light
aircraft. Learning the weight of balance of large jets is more challenging due to the heavy
loads and additional terminologies associated with it.
If an airplane is improperly loaded, it can have many negative effects on aircraft

performance. These effects may include slower cruising speeds, poor landing
characteristics, and possible hazardous situations at low landing and takeoff speeds. A
properly loaded airplane enhances safety and provides for more efficient and economical
operations.
It is imperative that a pilot be familiar with the principles of weight and balance.
Although pilots may not be directly responsible for the actual loading of an airplane, they
are the sole person responsible for the safety of the flight. Familiarity of the following
terms is necessary in order to understand the basic principles of weight and balance.
This chapter illustrates the different terms that are vital for the comprehension of basic
weight and balance principles. Next, it will present the manual and computerized load
and balance sheets.
Chapter 8
WEIGHT AND BALANCE 8-1
Figure 8.1 Weight Definitions
WEIGHT AND BALANCE DEFINITIONS

BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT
This weight includes the weight of the:
 Structure
 Power plant
 Furnishings
 Unusable fuel
 Engine and constant-speed drive system oil
 Chemical toilet fluid
 Basic emergency equipment
 Fire extinguishers
 Oxygen system
 Galleys
 Electronic equipment required by operator
 Fluids which are contained in a closed system
Chapter 8
UNUSABLE FUEL
Unusable fuel is the fuel remaining after a fuel run-out test has been completed in
accordance with applicable government regulations, and is considered to be in two
portions, drainable and trapped. The drainable, unusable fuel can only be drawn off from
the sump drains.
DRY OPERATING WEIGHT
It is the basic empty weight plus the following operational items:
 Flight and cabin crew and their baggage.

 Manuals and navigation equipment.
 Engine tank oil.
 Food and beverage and related service equipment.
 Washing and drinking water.
 Life rafts and vests.
 Cargo handling system.
MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
It is the maximum airplane weight less usable fuel, engine injection fluid, and other
consumable propulsion agents. It may include usable fuel in specified tanks when carried
in lieu of payload. The addition of usable and consumable items to the maximum zero
fuel weight must be in accordance with the applicable government regulations so that the
airplane structure and airworthiness requirements are not compromised.
ACTUAL ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
It is the dry operating weight plus the payload and must never exceed the maximum zero
fuel weight as shown in figure 8.2
MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT
It is the maximum weight authorized at touchdown by applicable government regulations

or by the manufacturer. This is a structural limitation. Landing weight mustn’t normally
exceed this weight.
Chapter 8
MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
It is the maximum weight authorized at takeoff brake release by applicable government

regulations or by the manufacturer. It excludes taxi and run-up fuel. This weight is a
structural limitation of the airplane. Take-off weight mustn’t exceed this weight.
MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT
It is also known as maximum ramp weight; it is the maximum weight authorized for
ground maneuvers by the applicable structural limitations and includes taxi and run-up
fuel.
GROSS WEIGHT
It is the weight of an airplane after all items have been added.
PAYLOAD
It consists of the total weight of revenue including passengers, passenger baggage, and/or
cargo.
USEFUL LOAD
It consists of the payload, usable fuel, and engine injection fluid.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.2 Weight Limitations
Chapter 8
DATUM LINE
It is an imaginary reference line from which all calculations or measurements are taken
for weight and balance calculations. The aircraft in the figure 8.3 has the datum line on
the airplane`s nose. On some jet aircrafts, the datum line may be forward of the airplane`s
nose.
BODY STATION NUMBERS
These are the numbers which represent the number of inches that a particular item is aft
or forward of the datum line depending on where the datum line is located. For example,
the main gear on the aircraft in the figure below is 1,200 inches aft of the datum line and
is considered to be at a body station number of 1200.
Figure 8.3 Body Station Numbers
CENTER OF GRAVITY
It is the point in an aircraft around which all the weight is evenly distributed or balanced.
MOMENT ARM
It is the horizontal distance from the center of gravity of an object to the datum line.
Chapter 8
MOMENT
It is the tendency, or the measurement of the tendency, to produce rotation about a point
or axis. Moment can be determined by multiplying the weight of a mass by its horizontal
distance from the datum line.
EMPTY WEIGHT CENTER OF GRAVITY
It is the center of gravity of the airplane in an empty weight condition.
CENTER OF GRAVITY AND BALANCE

Every object of every conceivable size, shape, or form has a center of gravity (CG). The
CG is merely the point about which all moments are equal in all directions. An object
possesses only one CG and its position does not change unless the physical properties or
load distribution of the object change.
The CG of an airplane is very important to the pilot since the CG must remain within
specified limits to ensure the aerodynamic stability of the airplane.
In order to understand the basic principles of balance as they apply to air transportation,
consider the bar and the arrangement of weights illustrated in figure 8.4. Assume that the
bar in the figure is weightless. Notice that the bar is balanced on a fulcrum which is not
equidistant from both ends of the bar. A 10-pound weight is suspended on the left side of
the bar and a 20-pound weight is suspended on the right side of the bar. The bar, in this
case, is balanced because the 10-pound weight is acting through a moment arm (lever)
which is twice as long as the moment arm associated with the 20-pound weight.
The rotating or twisting force exerted by each of the two weights in figure 8.4 can be
referred to as a "moment." Moment, in this particular situation, is expressed in pound-
inches because moment is equal to the weight of an object multiplied by the length of its
moment arm. Thus, the moment of the 10-pound weight in is equal to 10 pounds x 20
inches which equals 200 pound-inches. The moment of the 20-pound weight is equal to
20 pounds x 10 inches which equals 200 pound-inches. Since the moment on either side
Chapter 8
of the fulcrum is 200 pound-inches, the weights are balanced and the point on the bar
directly over the fulcrum must be the CG.
Figure 8.4 Bar Balance
AIRPLANE WEIGHT AND BALANCE

Airplane weight and balance works on the same physical principles as previously
outlined. However, because the CG of an airplane changes with each loading
situation, it cannot be used as a reference point. In order that a constant reference
point may always be available for use in computations, a "datum line" is
established. A datum line is an arbitrarily chosen line which all moments are
computed from. For the purpose of standardization in all weight and balance
computations, the nose of the airplane is considered to point to the left.
Chapter 8
In most modern transport airplanes, the datum line is located at or ahead of the nose in
order to avoid computation with negative values. As seen in figure 8.5 all of the moments
are positive when the datum line is located at or forward of the nose. Remember, it does
not matter where the datum line is located; however, once the datum line is established, it
must be the basis from which all measurements are calculated.
Figure 8.5 Datum Line Illustration
DETERMINING CENTER OF GRAVITY

It is a simple matter to determine the CG of a bar by the use of an arbitrarily chosen
datum line. Suppose, for example, that a weightless bar is 50 inches long with a 5-pound
weight 10 inches from the left, a 10-pound weight 15 inches from the left, and a 15-
pound weight 40 inches from the left, as illustrated in figure 8.6.
To avoid using negative moments, the datum line in this illustration is positioned at the
most distant position to the left. The datum line could be placed a distance beyond the
left, which would ensure positive moments for all computations even though weights
were placed to the left of the bar.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.6 CG Determination
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

Mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC, is the chord of a section of an imaginary aerofoil on
the wing which would have force vectors throughout the flight range identical to those of
the actual wing.
MAC is a value used in engineering and weight and balance calculations for convenience.
The MAC may be determined by calculation as shown below. It is used as a reference for
locating the relative positions of the wing’s center of lift and the airplane’s center of
gravity. Ultimately the load distribution determines the static balance and stability of the
airplane.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.7 Mean Aerodynamic Chord
LEADING EDGE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (LEMAC)
It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the leading edge of the mean
aerodynamic chord as shown in figure 8.7
TRAILING EDGE MEAN AERODUNAMIC CHORD (TEMAC)
It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the trailing edge of the mean
aerodynamic chord as shown in figure 8.7
Chapter 8
Figure 8.8 MAC Example
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD LENGTH
The difference between the LEMAC and TEMAC positions is the total length of
the mean aerodynamic chord (100% MAC)
Example
Distance of LEMAC from datum line = 860.2 inches
Distance of TEMAC from datum line =1040.9 inches
MAC length (100%MAC) = 180.7 inches
Example:
The mean aerodynamic chord has the forward and aft CG limit, so there is always
a distance which is from the LEMAC, which is the forward CG limit and there is
also a distance which is the aft CG limit as shown in the figure below. The forward
CG limit is 25.3 inch from the LEMAC and it can be seen that the mean
aerodynamic chord, as calculated from the previous example, is 180.7 inches so by
Chapter 8
simple mathematics, the CG forward limit is 14% from the mean aerodynamic
chord.
180.7 = 100%
25.3 = 14%
If the CG forward limit is 45 inches from the LEMAC, then by the same equation
the forward CG limit will be 25%.
180.7 = 100% , 45 = 25%
Each aircraft has got an envelope for the CG. These calculations make sure that the
CG is within the prescribed envelope for each flight.
Figure 8.9 MAC Example
Chapter 8
LOAD SHEET DEFINITIONS

LOAD INDEX
For every load there is a C.G. position which equals to a load index figure. The
load index figure LI is used for calculations of manual and computerized load and
trim sheet.
DRY OPERATING INDEX (DOI)
It is the index figure, which corresponds to the center of gravity of the dry
operating weight. This figure is unique for each aircraft tail number and cabin
seating configuration as shown in Table 8.1.
The performance-engineering department of the airline calculates this figure.
LOAD INDEX ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (LIZFW)
Starting with basic Dry Operating Index the passenger and cargo load are
distributed along the lines in the directions of the arrows in each cabin and cargo
compartment section.
The result is the load index zero fuel weight LIZFW.
LOAD INDEX TAKEOFF WEIGHT (LITOW)
Adding the fuel weight index correction to the load index TOW will result in the
determination of the LITOW.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Dry Operating Weight Illustration
Chapter 8
MANUAL AND COMPUTERIZED LOAD SHEET EXAMPLES

MANUAL LOAD SHEET
Figure 8.9 Manual Load Sheet
Chapter 8
COMPUTERIZED LOAD SHEET
Figure 8.10 Computerized Load Sheet
Chapter 8
CHAPTER 9
“JET PERFORMANCE”
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is an introduction to the performance basics of new heavy, high-speed,
high-altitude jet airplanes. The objective of this chapter is to provide flight crews,
with basic knowledge, required to understand the essential performance fundamentals,
and their effects on practical applications in the daily operation.
It is also, considered a helpful generic performance basics, that can be used in

conjunction with the respective information from the Airplane Operations Manual
(AOM).
The information contained in this chapter is based on the theoretical and practical
experience gained over the years from EgyptAir’s daily operations.
This chapter is divided into the following subchapters:
- Basic Parameters and Takeoff Speeds

- Takeoff Performance
- Climb Performance
- Cruise Performance
- Descent Performance
- Approach Climb (Go Around) and Landing Performance
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-1
BASIC PARAMETERS
The most basic parameters in performance calculations are:
 Temperatures
 Speeds
 Altitudes
TEMPERATURES
For the temperature analysis, the following terms will be used frequently during this
course and during daily operations:
- Ram Rise
- TAT  Total Air Temperature
- RAT  Ram Air Temperature
- OAT  Outside Air Temperature
- SAT  Static Air Temperature
RAM RISE
Ram Rise is an increase in air temperature, due to compressibility. Compressibility

causes friction to the adjacent probes, where the airstream strikes. This phenomenon
causes an increase in temperature, called Ram Rise.
Note that ram rise may be considered negligible until speeds above 0.3 Mach are
reached.
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT)
This is the temperature measured by the airplane's probes. These probes are adjacent
to the skin of the airplane (shown in the next diagram), and measure the sensed
temperature without taking into account the Ram Rise. Therefore, the TAT is outside
air temperature (OAT) plus 100% Ram Rise.
In flight, the TAT or RAT is used to determine the maximum limits of N1 or EPR
(Engine power setting). The TAT is always higher than the SAT due to the formation
of ram air stagnation (referred to as Ram Rise) on the temperature probes. In flight the
higher the Mach number, the higher the Ram Rise, the higher the error.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-2
Figure 9.1 Total Air Temperature Probe
RAM AIR TEMPERATURE (RAT)
RAT is the outside air temperature, plus a certain percentage of the ram rise. If the
total ram rise is used, the RAT will be equal to the TAT. In modern airplanes, RAT is
not displayed any more. Instead, the air data computer (ADC) computes for all the
compressibility effects & displays only the TAT and the Outside Air Temperature for
the crew to use in performance calculations.
Note that
If the airplane is stationary, TAT = RAT = SAT
OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE (OAT) or STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE (SAT)
SAT is the free air temperature. SAT is obtained either from ground meteorological
sources or from in-flight TAT, corrected for instrument error and compressibility. In
the aircraft early designs, manufacturers measured the OAT, using enhanced
procedures, and then performed iterations to correct for instrument and
compressibility errors at different altitudes and speeds. These iterations are reflected
in tables and programs installed in the aircraft equipment, enabling the aircraft to
calculate the actual OAT continuously.
SPEEDS
Discussed earlier in the aerodynamics section of the Jet Characteristics chapter.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-3
ALTITUDES
Altitude means an elevation with respect to an assumed reference level. The

barometric altitude measurement measures the reduction in air pressure with an
increase in altitude.
The air pressure is measured by static ports, located at the outer skin of the fuselage.
However, due to airflow effects, this air pressure is different from the actual static
pressure. This error, which depends on the direction and the velocity of the airflow, is
called position error. Correction charts for the position error are included in the flight
manuals, unless this error is negligible. In modern airplanes, this error is resolved by
the data computer.
Different terms identify specific references from which altitudes are measured.
INDICATED ALTITUDE
The indicated altitude is the altitude as indicated on the altimeter, when the altimeter
sub-scale is set to QNH (local altimeter setting, ex. 1015 hPa or 30.00 inHg). This
reading indicates the aircraft height above mean sea level, in the current conditions.
Altitudes assigned to aircraft in controlled airspace under Instrument Flight Rules
(IFR) are indicated altitudes, except for flights operating in the high-altitude route
structure (above the transition altitude).
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
The pressure altitude is the aircraft height above the Standard Datum Plane (QNE).
The Standard Datum Plane is a theoretical level, where the weight of the atmosphere
is 29.92 inHg or 1013.25 hPa. The altimeter will measure the pressure altitude when
the altimeter setting is either 29.92 inHg or 1013 Hpa.
DENSITY ALTITUDE
The density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. Each
level of air in the atmosphere has a specific density, and in ISA conditions, pressure
altitude is equal to density altitude.
Performance calculations are based on actual air density the aircraft is operating at.
However, the altimeter indication is based on ISA conditions, thus at higher or lower
air pressures than standard, these levels cannot be determined directly from the
altimeter, and further corrections will be required.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-4
For example:
Assuming the following:
At ISA conditions
Field Pressure Altitude = Density Altitude = 400 feet
If the temperature is 34° C (thus 20 degrees above standard, or ISA + 20, the
expansion of air results in an increase in the density level. Using temperature
correction data from the below tables or graphs, it is noted that:
Density Altitude is above 2,800 feet.
These tables correct pressure altitude for temperature, or more precisely it corrects for
the temperature deviation from standard. This deviation affects the air characteristics
the aircraft is operating at, consequently; the aircraft performance is affected.
Figure 9.2 Density Altitude Chart
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-5
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
The absolute altitude is the height above the surface. This height is measured by a
radio/radar altimeter, which measures the time interval of a vertical signal bounced
from the aircraft to the ground, and its return to the receiver.
Figure 9.3 Radio Altimeter
TRUE ALTITUDE
The true altitude is the actual height above sea level. This altitude is not indicated by
any instruments, but in ISA indication, it will be equal to the indicated altitude.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-6
Figure 9.4 Effect of Temperature on Altitude
In extreme cold-weather conditions, the aircraft true altitude is lower than the
indicated altitude (as shown in the above figure). Aircraft manufacturers provide
correction tables for flight crew operating in such conditions. The following table is
an abstract from the AFM, which indicates the correction increment that must be
added to the altimeter reading.
Table 9.1 Altitude Correction Chart
The following operational example will further explain the effect of temperature on
the deviation between the true (actual) and indicated.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-7
Example:
Assuming that the temperature in mid-summer is 35C (warm day), the altimeter will
indicate approximately 100 feet lower than the crossing height over the 5.2 miles fix
of CAI ILS RWY 05R.
Figure 9.5 True Altitude Illustration
TAKEOFF SPEEDS
VS & VS1G
VS or VStall,  is the speed at which airflow separation start, but not full wing stall.
This is the highest point in the CL and α curve.
VS1G  is the actual speed where the airflow separates completely and the wing fully
stalls.
VMCG
VMCG is the minimum speed on ground at which the aircraft is controllable utilizing
aerodynamic controls only (Maximum rudder deflection only); when an engine
suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engines are operating at takeoff
thrust.
VMCA
VMCA is the minimum inflight speed at which the airplane is controllable utilizing
aerodynamic controls only (Maximum rudder deflection only), when one engine
suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engines are operating at takeoff
thrust.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-8
FACTORS AFFECTING VMCG
Table 9.2 Minimum VMCG
WHY DOES VMCG DECREASE WITH HIGH TEMPERATURE AND HIGH

ALTITUDE?
All turbofan engines have a maximum rated power at which the engine will produce
the maximum rated takeoff thrust at sea level below a certain temperature (Rated
temperature). When the ambient temperature increases above the rated temperature,
the air density decreases, consequently; the air entering the engine will have low
density, decreasing the thrust output.
In general, a turbojet engine produces more thrust on a cold day than in a hot day. In a
relatively hot day, air density decreases with high temperature, thus the air entering
the engine will be of low density, providing relatively lower thrust. The same also
applies at high-field elevations.
From the definition of VMCG and the flat rate:
1. At high temperature or high altitude, the thrust output will be lower than the rated
thrust of the engine.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-9
Figure 9.6 Effect of Altitude on Thrust
Figure 9.7 Effect of EPR on Thrust
2. The yaw moment resulting from an engine failure at high-temperature or altitude,

is lower than the yaw moment resulting from an engine failure at sea level and
low temperature. This is due to the engine thrust on the operating engine being
higher.
Chapter 9
JET PERFORMANCE 9-10
3. Therefore, with maximum rudder deflection, the aircraft shall be aerodynamically

controllable at a lower speed (in case of higher temperature or higher altitudes),
i.e. lower VMCG.
Figure 9.8 Effects of Temperature and Altitude on Yaw
MINIMUM UNSTICK SPEED (VMU)
VMU is the lowest calibrated airspeed at and above which; the airplane can safely lift
off the ground, and continue the takeoff (without encountering tail strike). The value
of the minimum unstick speed is not published in the flight manuals anymore.
LIFTOFF SPEED (VLOF)
VLOF is the speed at which the airplane lifts off. VLOF depends on the angle of attack,
the flap setting, and the gross weight of the airplane.
Note  The Maximum Tire Speed is the upper limit of the VLOF. The airplane must lift
off before its tires reach that speed, or else the tire will be shattered.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.9 Regulatory Takeoff Speeds Definitions
MAXIMUM TIRE SPEED
This speed is determined by the strength of the tires, since the tires are exposed to
high centrifugal forces at high speeds. Special attention to the tire speed limitation
should be considered during operation at high-elevation airports, because at this
elevation, TAS is higher than normal. This higher TAS may exceed the maximum tire
speed limit.
MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY SPEED (VMBE)
When braking, dynamic energy is absorbed and transferred to heat energy. The brakes
must be able to absorb this heat energy. As the airplane’s ground speed increases, the
higher the energy absorption required to stop it.
If more heat energy is generated, the brakes will overheat. Therefore, there is a
maximum speed for full braking to a complete stop. This speed is called the
maximum brake energy speed (VMBE). VMBE depends on the takeoff weight, the
ambient temperature, the ambient pressure, the runway slope, and the wind
component along the runway.
Special attention is also required to the VMBE limitation and should be considered
during operation at high-elevation airports. For example, Addis Ababa is
approximately 7,600 feet above sea level; this means that the TAS will be far higher
than normal airports, thus ground speed will be high, so a higher concern should be
given to maximum tire speed limit and VMBE.
Chapter 9
ENGINE FAILURE SPEED (VEF)
VEF is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. This speed is assumed
to be 1 second before the action speed (either rejecting or continuing takeoff), but
then revised to be 2 seconds, to allow for the pilots to react to the engine failure.
Note  for the illustrations discussed, VEF may not be less than VMCG, because VMCG
is always lower than the action speed. This means that if a pilot experiences engine
failure before his action speed, rejecting the takeoff will be the only option
Figure 9.10 V1 Illustration
V1
V1 is the speed, which is used as a reference, whether to reject or continue the takeoff.
At this speed, the first braking action should be applied (in case of rejecting the
takeoff). V1 speeds are selected based on the following:
a. If an engine failure is recognized before V1, the takeoff must be rejected. A

stop can be made within the available accelerate-stop distance without the aid
of reverse thrust, provided rejecting actions are initiated at or before V1
b. If an engine failure is recognized at or above V1, the takeoff must be
continued. A height of 35ft (Screen height)* will be reached above the takeoff
surface
c. When the required takeoff distance is equal to the required accelerate-stop
distance, the takeoff is called a "balanced takeoff," and the selected V1 speed
is called "balanced V1"
d. V1 must not be less than VMCG plus the speed gained between the instant at
which the engine is failed and pilot recognizing and reacting to the engine
failure, and not greater than VR and VMBE (VMCG ≤ V1 ≤ VR & VMBE)
Chapter 9
*Screen Height is the height at which V2 speed must be reached above the takeoff
surface after an engine failure at V1, the value of this height is 35ft for dry runway
and 15ft for wet or contaminated runways
Figure 9.5 V1
Figure 9.6 Screen Height Illustration
IMPORTANT: V1 is not a decision speed; V1 is the speed at which the first braking
action must be applied, and therefore, the decision to reject the takeoff must be taken
before V1. A pilot is expected and is required to continue the takeoff if a failure
happens at or after V1. On the other hand, pilots are expected to reject a takeoff, if a
failure occurs before V1 and apply the first braking action at V1.
Chapter 9
ROTATION SPEED (VR)
The rotation speed is the speed at which the airplane is rotated for liftoff. The main
determinant of this speed is for the aircraft to reach takeoff safety climb speed at the
screen height. VR may not be less than:
a. V1
b. 1.05 VMCA
TAKEOFF CLIMB SPEED (V2)
This speed (also called Takeoff Safety Speed) has to be reached at the screen height,
and must be maintained for the entire climb, with takeoff flaps, in the event of an
engine failure at or after V1.
In an all-engine-takeoff, the takeoff climb is made with a higher speed (10 to 15 kts
above V2, depending on the airplane type).
The lower limits of V2 are:
a. 1.2 VS (or 1.13 VS1G)

b. 1.1 VMCA
Figure 9.7 V2 Limits Illustration
Chapter 9
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
The maximum weight of the airplanes during takeoff is the main purpose of the
takeoff performance calculations. All efforts are exercised to increase the maximum
allowable takeoff weight, to increase the payload, thus increasing the company’s
revenue. However, the aircraft safety is not subject to compromise. Safety is always
the objective of the regulatory bodies in the aviation business, and company's
objective is to increase the allowable takeoff weight given the daily conditions.
DEFINITIONS
REGULATORY DISTANCES:
TAKEOFF DISTANCE REQUIRED (TODR): the TODR is the longest of the

following*:
 The horizontal distance from the start of ground roll to the screen
height above the takeoff surface, with a failure of the critical engine
recognized at V1
 115% of the horizontal distance, starting from ground roll to the screen
height, with all engines operating
Figure 9.8 Take-off Distance Required
IMPORTANT: The critical engine is an engine of a multi-engine aircraft, which will

result in the most adverse effects on the aircraft's handling and performance, in case
of its failure.
Chapter 9
ACCELERATE-STOP-DISTANCE REQUIRED (ASDR): with the assumption that

an engine failure happens and the pilots realize and react by rejecting the Take-Off at
V1 ASDR is the sum of the distances required to:
 Accelerate with all engines operating to V1, then

 Decelerate to a full stop from V1
Note: The transition phase takes into account the time needed to reach final braking
configuration (full brakes, full spoilers)
Figure 9.15 Accelerate Stop Distance
TAKEOFF RUN REQUIRED (TORR): this is the longest of the following*:
 The horizontal distance from the start of ground roll to a point equidistant
between the point at which VLOF is reached and the screen height above the
takeoff surface with the failure of the critical engine recognized at V1
 115% of the horizontal distance starting from the ground roll to a point
equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached and the screen height
above the takeoff surface with all engines operating
*: These distances should not exceed the runway distance
Chapter 9
Figure 9.16 Take-off run required
AVAILABLE DISTANCES:
The available distances are the actual distances in real life in different airports. These
distances are:
 Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)

 Accelerate-Stop-Distance Available (ASDA)
TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA)
The takeoff distance available is the runway length available for takeoff plus any
adjoining clearway.
Chapter 9
CLEARWAY
The clearway is an area beyond the runway, not less than 500ft wide, centrally located
about the extended centerline of the runway, and under the control of the airport
authorities. The clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from
the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%, above which no
object or any terrain protrudes.
Figure 9.17 Clearway
Always Remember: Clearway might not be a rigid surface that can withstand the
airplane weight; rather it is a surface that doesn’t object its path. The aircraft is
allowed to reach its screen height (35ft for dry runways) over this surface. The part of
the clearway that is usable for Take-Off is equidistant to the distance from the point
VLOF is reached to the end of the runway.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.18 Clearway Illustration
ACCELERATE-STOP-DISTANCE (ASDA):
The accelerate-stop-distance available is the runway length available plus any

available stop way. This distance considers accelerating to V1 with all engines
operating, plus subsequent deceleration to complete stop with one engine only.
STOP WAY
Stop way is a defined area beyond the takeoff runway, at least as wide as the runway
and centered upon the extended centerline of the runway, able to support the airplane
weight during an aborted takeoff, without causing any structural damage. The stop
way is designated by the airport authorities to be used in deceleration during an
aborted takeoff only.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.19 Stopway
TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA):
TORA is the distance declared by the airport authorities to be the takeoff surface that
is free of obstacles and consisting of a surface capable of carrying the aircraft under
all normal operating conditions. TORA is equal to the runway length available for the
Take-Off.
MINIMUM AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATION

REQUIREMENTS
Every airplane taking off from any airport, the available distances (TODA, ASDA &
TORA) must be higher than the required distances (TODR, ASDR & TORR). In other
words, the takeoff weight of any airplane must accommodate for the regulatory
necessities and does not exceed the available distances.
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) allow an aircraft to takeoff with an actual

weight, which meets the following (in lieu of the specifications of the Airplane Flight
Manual):
 The ASDR must not exceed the ASDA

 The TODR must not exceed the TODA
 The TORR must not exceed the TORA (vary only in case of clearway)
Note: The FAR requirements are very similar to all the regulatory authorities all over
the world.
Chapter 9
Meeting the above requirements, performance engineers categorized Field Lengths,

into:
Balanced Field Length

Unbalanced Field Length
BALANCED FIELD LENGTH
The balanced field length means; the takeoff distance is equal to the accelerate-stop
distance. This distance must not exceed the length of the runway. This is achieved
when the airport doesn’t have either Clearway or Stop way, or they were not used.
Figure 9.20 Balanced Field Length
UNBALANCED FIELD LENGTH
The unbalanced field length means, the takeoff distance and accelerate stop distance
are not equal and not necessarily equal to the takeoff run. This is achieved when the
airport has either Clearway or Stop way and it is utilized.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.21 Unbalanced Field Length
TAKEOFF PATH
In order to discuss the factors affecting the takeoff weight, the takeoff path of an
aircraft with an engine failure at or after V1 should be discussed. The takeoff path is
the actual flight path of an aircraft from a point 35ft above the takeoff surface to
1,500ft above the takeoff surface, or up to the point at which the transition to the
climb configuration is completed; whichever is higher, assuming the failure of the
critical engine.
The aircraft takeoff path is divided into the following four segments:
FIRST SEGMENT
The first segment extends from the end of the takeoff distance (35ft point), to the
point where the landing gear is fully retracted, using takeoff thrust and takeoff flaps at
a constant V2 speed.
SECOND SEGMENT
The second segment extends from the gear up point to a gross height of at least 400ft
(minimum acceleration height), using takeoff thrust and takeoff flaps at a constant V2
speed.
THIRD SEGMENT
The third segment is the horizontal distance required to accelerate, using takeoff
thrust, to the final climb speed while retracting flaps and slats in accordance with the
recommended speed schedule.
Chapter 9
Third Segment begins at:
 Minimum 400ft
 Maximum is any altitude dictated by the airport surrounding obstacles.
However, it shall not exceed 10 minutes (with the takeoff thrust set on the
remaining engine) with an engine failure from brake release to the end of the
takeoff phase
Different companies may use different values for the minimum (400ft). However, the
400ft is the minimum altitude for acceleration. For example, Egypt Air uses 800ft as a
minimum engine out acceleration height.
FOURTH SEGMENT
The fourth segment extends from the end of the third segment to a gross height of at
least 1500ft (or more if required by obstacle clearance), with flaps up, maximum
continuous thrust and at final “Climb speed.”
The above segments are dictated by regulations, based on the following assumptions:
 Critical engine failure at V1 is to be assumed

 With the exception of gear retraction, the takeoff configuration must be
maintained up to a height of at least 400ft
 The cruise configuration must be reached by the end of the fourth segment
(gear up, flaps up, final climb speed)
In case of an engine failure occurs at or above V1, a prescribed procedure must be

strictly adhered to, whereby the speed must be maintained, even if a higher than V2
speed was reached prior to engine failure.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.22 Take-Off Path
CLIMB GRADIENT
The climb gradient is expressed in terms of percent is the net flight path achieved.
This percentage expresses the height obtained, in relation to the ground distance
covered.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.23 Climb Gradient
FACTORS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE & GROSS

AND NET GRADIENTS
Many factors influence the takeoff performance of a jet airplane. Some of these
factors are beyond the pilot's control, and others are controllable.
UNCONTROLLABLE ITEMS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
 Runway length, and the availability of a clearway or stop way

 Runway conditions (wet, dry, slushy, snowy, smooth, or rough)
 Runway slope
 Runway temperature (OAT) and surface pressure altitude (PA)
 Runway wind component
 Obstacles in the takeoff path
CONTROLLABLE ITEMS AFFECING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
 Airplane configuration (position of trim devices, flaps, slats, spoilers, and

landing gear)
 Wheel brake configuration, i.e. whether or not the wheel brake antiskid
systems is operative or inoperative
 Engine thrust
 The gross weight
Chapter 9
RUNWAY SLOPE EFFECT ON TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
The speed of the airplane relatively increases, when the runway slope decreases (i.e.
downhill). The higher acceleration, due to the slope, will increase the overall speed of
the airplane, compared to a runway with the same length with no slope. Thus, the
aircraft will accelerate faster and decelerate slower, and vise-versa for uphill runway.
The slope of the runway affects the takeoff distances. At negative slopes, the ASD
increases and the TOD decrease. First at negative slopes, the airplane will take more
distance to decelerate in, due to its inertia. Second at negative slopes, the higher
speeds reached in shorter distance will favor the TOD.
Note: The maximum and minimum slope limits for most of the airplanes for takeoff is
± 2%.
WIND EFFECT ON TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
Headwind shortens the acceleration distance because it helps lift build up on the wing.
Consequently, the airplane can lift off at a ground speed that is lower than the lift off
speed (VLOF), by the amount of the HWC (Headwind Component).
On the other hand, tailwind component forces the airplane to accelerate to a higher
ground speed, to accommodate for the TWC (Tailwind Component), thus increasing
the acceleration distance.
ASD is influenced with wind components. Headwind enhance the braking capability
of the airplane, thus reduces its ASD and vice-versa for tailwind.
The influence of the head or tailwind is taken into account in the flight manual when
determining takeoff and landing distances. Regulations dictate the usage of maximum
50% of the measured headwind and at least 150% of the measured tailwind, to
enhance safety measures.
Note: In some manuals, these regulations are incorporated into the charts, so that the
actual measured and reported winds can be used without any increases or reductions.
The wind is ignored in the computations of the flight profile. The obstacle clearance
verification is maintained by using climb gradients in feet per Nautical Miles (NM).
The obstacles clearance required rate of climb is then calculated using each aircraft
ground speed given the current conditions (will be discussed later).
Chapter 9
WET AND CONTAMINATED RUNWAY PERFORMANCE
Takeoff performance calculations take into consideration the runway surface

conditions. Dry runway surface is the normal operation. However, sometimes the
airplane must take off from a runway that isn’t dry. Wet and contaminated runway
surfaces are taken into considerations in separate tables. New modern jet aircrafts are
complemented with anti-skid and higher braking measures to prevent skidding over
the runway. High regard is given in case of slippery runways, as it may result in
overrunning the runway (bearing in mind aircraft's inertia). It is insured, in case of
normal conditions and rejected takeoff that airplane gears are able to maintain its path
without skidding or overrunning the runway. V1 speeds are reduced in wet and
contaminated runways to give more distance to the airplane to decelerate to a
complete stop in slippery conditions. Although the reduction in V1 enhances the ASD,
it results in a higher TOD. The aircraft will accelerate from the lower V1 to VR with
one engine only and on a slippery runway, thus it will require more distance to reach
the screen height.
Regulations dictate a screen height of only 15ft in case of wet runways favoring the
TOD. This actually results, in some cases, in higher weights in wet runway than dry
runway. However, using of higher weights resulting from the decrease in the screen
height is prohibited by regulations.
The following is an example of wet runway calculations:
Wet runway takeoff weight  68,000kg, due to the reduction of the screen height to
be 15ft rather than 35ft
Dry runway takeoff weight for the same conditions  67,000ft, due to the inability to
reach a screen height of 35ft
Regulations dictate operator to use the more limiting in this case (the 67tons), thus
maximum takeoff weight for these conditions will be 67tons.
Chapter 9
WET AND CONTAMINATED RUNWAY PERFORMANCE
One
Start Eng.
All Engines
Out
35’
All Engines One Engine Out Less Screen
than height
35’
V1 Wet V1 Dry VR Dry V R Wet
Figure 9.24 Wet and Contaminated Runway Performance
All performance data in the Airplane Flight Manual is based on a dry, smooth, hard
surface runway according to the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part 25 or its
equivalent in different regulation (for example, ECARs or JAR).
Note: The following are based on dry runways only. Corrections for wet runway data
are included as necessary.
REGULATED TAKEOFF WEIGHT (RTOW)
The maximum takeoff weight for the current takeoff conditions is available in tailored
charts referred to as RTOW for daily operations. RTOW are available on airplanes
and are unique for engines make and model. RTOW are also unique for a specific
runway. There are separate RTOWs for different runways. The RTOW expresses the
highest takeoff weight for the current conditions; this weight is limited by any of the
following*:
 A/C Structure limit

 Runway limit
 Tire speed limit
 Brake energy limit
 Climb limit
 Obstacle limit
*: Although some aircrafts might have more limitations, these are the basic
limitations found in most aircraft types
A/C STRUCTURE LIMIT
The maximum takeoff weight an A/C structure can sustain. This weight is certified by
local civil aviation authorities and approved by the manufacturer.
Chapter 9
RUNWAY LIMIT
The maximum weight that can allow for:
 All engines operating, the distance required by the airplane to reach the screen
height multiplied by 115%, or
 All engines operating till V1 and the pilots weren’t able to reject the takeoff
and continuing their takeoff until reaching the screen height, or
 All engines operating till V1 and the pilots successfully were able to reject
takeoff and decelerate to complete stop
Note: The runway limit is based on the more limiting, thus the longest of the above
shall not exceed the runway surface available.
Figure 9.25 Runway Limit Takeoff Weight Illustration
Chapter 9
TIRE SPEED
Tire speed limitation is the maximum allowable takeoff weight limited by the
maximum tire speeds of the installed tires, specified in the Approved Flight Manual
(AFM).
BRAKE ENERGY
The brake energy is the maximum allowable takeoff weight based on AFM maximum
braking speed. This speed is the maximum speed at which full braking can be applied
given the ambient conditions, in case of rejected takeoff before V1.
CLIMB
The climb gradient limitation is the maximum allowable takeoff weight that fulfills
minimum climb gradient requirements in the second segment. These requirements are
based on the assumption of an engine failure at or after V1.
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
Obstacle clearance limitation is the maximum allowable takeoff weight to clear any
obstacle using the below gradients paths:
GROSS GRADIENT
The gross gradient is the actual flight path as demonstrated by the manufacturer. This
flight path should meet the minimum gross gradient requirement by regulations
(2.4%, depending on the number of engines installed).
NET GRADIENT (Net Flight Path)
Net flight path or net gradient are used to calculate maximum allowable takeoff
weight, which satisfy minimum obstacles clearance required by regulations. Net flight
path refers to the flight path that is used daily. The net gradient flight path is lower
than the gross gradient. However, this flight path is limited to 35ft minimum obstacles
clearance. The maximum reduction from the gross gradient is 0.8% (2.4 – 0.8 = 1.6%)
depending on the type of aircraft.
Different engine installation in an airplane dictates the maximum gradient reductions

for the net gradient. The following is an example of the different limitations:
 Airplanes with 2 engines: Maximum subtraction of 0.8% from the required

gross gradient
Chapter 9
 Airplanes with 3 engines: Maximum subtraction of 0.9% from required gross

gradient
 Airplanes with 4 engines: Maximum subtraction of 1.0% from required gross
gradient
Remember that net flight path must clear all obstacles located in the departure sector
by at least 35 ft.
Figure 9.26 Net and Gross Flight Paths
Example (1):
The second segment gradients and the net gradients are:
Number of A/C Second segment GROSS

Second Segment Net Gradient
Engines Gradient
2 Engines 2.4% (-0.8%) = 1.6%
3 Engines 2.7% (-0.9%) = 1.8%
4 Engines 3.0% (-1.0%) = 2.0%
Table 9.3 Net gradients for different engine installation aircrafts
Assuming that the aircraft has 2 engines, what will be the minimum rate of climb the
airplane is required to maintain (in foot per minute) given the following:
V2 = 180 KIAS Gross gradient = 2.4% (2 engines aircraft)
Chapter 9
Then:
Note: 1 N.M. = 6080 feet
BUFFER AREAS
The gross and net gradients are limiting on specific areas. In other words, the
obstacles, which are taken into consideration in the gradients’ calculations, are the
obstacles, which are in certain proximity of the takeoff path.
The departure sector begins at the end of the runway with a width of 300ft to both
sides of the runway centerline, continuing with a divergence angle of 7.1° on both
sides (which means the sector increases by 12.5% of the distance) up to a maximum
width of:
 1,000ft (2,000ft for heading changes greater than 15°, thus 15° bank angle)
for visual meteorological conditions (VMC) during the daytime
 2,000ft (3,000ft for heading changes greater than 15°, thus 15° bank angle)
during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) and VMC at night to both
sides of the planned departure route
Figure 9.27 Buffer Areas
Example 2:
In this example an Airbus 320 is taking off, and an initial bank of 15° is required with
obstacles placed in the takeoff path, as follows:
Obstacle height above 35ft point: 1,000ft
Chapter 9
Obstacle distance from 35ft point: 26,000ft
Required net gradient without bank:
(1,000 ⁄ 26,000) x 100 = 3.84%
Distance covered in the banked section: 14,000ft
Gradient reduction for the bank (for example 15°) is 0.5% (from figure of the Airbus
obstacles degradation graph), thus
0.5% of 14,000ft equals 70ft
Required net gradient with bank:
(1,070 ⁄ 26,000) x 100 = 4.11%
The next illustration shows the buffer areas along the takeoff path:
Figure 9.28 Takeoff Path and Buffer Areas
Chapter 9
Figure 9.29 A320 T/O Performance during a turn
FACTORS AFFECTING GROSS AND NET GRADIENTS

Although gradients of the second segment can reduce the maximum allowable takeoff
weights, there are some controllable factors pilots can change in order to avoid
reducing takeoff weights. These adjustable items are:
Configuration  Flaps setting

V1  action speed (minimum limits is VMCG)
V2
Chapter 9
FLAPS SETTING AND ITS EFFECTS ON CLIMB GRADIENTS
In general, the flap setting principles are:
The larger the flaps setting the higher the gross weight the airplane can lift off
from the available runway. However, this higher flaps setting may restrict the
climb out phase (climb limited). In other words, although the weight increase
because of the extra lift provided by the flaps, due to the extra drag, the climb
phase out may be restricted
The smaller the flap settings, the lower gross weight the airplane can lift off
from the available runway (Runway Limited). However, this low flap setting
enhances the climb gradient during the climb out phase.
The second segment climb gradients are based on takeoff flaps. Thus, it is impossible
to compromise the benefits of higher flaps setting until liftoff, and then retract it to
avoid its drag penalties.
The flap setting for the takeoff must be optimized to provide the highest weights
bearing in mind these three limitations:
 Runway limits,
 Climb limits, and
 Obstacle limits
Always remember that the most limited weight is the maximum takeoff weight.
V1
Adjustments in the action speed have no effects on the climb gradient. However, it
affects TOD and ASD. Increasing V1 provide the airplane higher speed to accelerate
to (using two engines operating), thus with an engine failure at V1 the aircraft will
need only to accelerate few knots to reach VR, decreasing TOD. However, with higher
V1, the ASD increases for the same reason stated above.
V2
Increasing V2 increases the climb gradient, but also increases TOD, because VR will
be higher, and accelerating to a higher VR with one engine will require longer TOD.
The ASD isn’t affected by the increase in V2.
Chapter 9
The factors stated above are adjustable whenever needed to increase the maximum
allowable takeoff. A compromise between different limitations (TOD, ASD and climb
gradients) is done to achieve the maximum weights. These compromises are always
needed, because each of the above items is counter active, meaning that increasing the
allowable weight by any limitation will probably be reduced by the other.
The following figure summarizes the takeoff performance requirements:
Figure 9.30 Takeoff Performance Requirements
Chapter 9
ENGINE RATINGS
Modern aircraft engines are the most expensive component in any airplane. Engines
are vulnerable to tearing, especially when its maximum power is used for a long
period of time. To obtain a reasonable life expectancy of the engines, it is preferable
to be operated at its lower power setting, whenever the current conditions allow. The
most stressed component in any engine is the high-pressure turbine; because it is the
first component to meet the very high-temperature high-speed air coming from the
combustion chamber.
Figure 9.31 Max takeoff power imposes the highest tress on any engine and reduces its life
FLAT RATED POWER
Manufacturers exposed the engines to numerous stress tests to examine its

vulnerability and limit temperatures. Engines have their own specific limit thrust,
dictated by the maximum stress its components can take. The power of HPT reflects
its ability to withstand very high temperatures and pressures. Thus engine
manufacturers related the envelope of temperatures the engine could be operated
within to the HPT maximum temperature withstand ability, without being damaged
(through melting or cracking). Tests were performed to identify the maximum thrust
output that can be provided by the engine based on the ambient temperatures. As
temperature of air intake increases, the engine output decreases and vice versa. This
Chapter 9
relation change when temperature increases above a certain temperature. Tests

showed that increasing ambient temperatures above this identified temperature
decreases thrust. This temperature is referred to as “TREF.” When temperatures
increase beyond the TREF, the maximum rated power decreases. Below this
temperature, the engine can produce the full rated power. The highest ambient
temperature the engine can operate within is called TMAX. Above this temperature, the
engine will not be able to provide thrust at all, and the engine will fail (as the Turbine
Inlet Temperature or TIT reaches its limit).
Figure 9.32 Flat Rated Power
Figure 9.33 Flat Rating Concept
Chapter 9
FACTORS AFFECTING ENGINE THRUST
Engine thrust is affected by different factors and other self-generating conditions.

These factors are the following:
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Airspeed
PRESSURE EFFECTS
When the air pressure increases, more air is compressed into a given volume. This
increases the density of the air, thus a higher mass to accelerate, which in turn
increases the force (thrust) generated by the engine. On the other hand, as the altitude
increases the pressure decreases, thus lower engine thrust is expected at higher
altitudes.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
As the air temperature decreases, the density of the air increases and vice versa. With
the decreasing density, the engine output is lower, because in low density conditions,
the mass accelerated in the engine decreases, thus decreasing the overall output of the
engine.
To summarize, thrust is always lower in hot days.
Remember also the maximum temperature that the engine can operate within (TMAX).
HUMIDITY EFFECTS
The humidity is the capability of air to hold moisture. This ability to hold moisture
varies directly with the air temperature. As the temperature of air increases, its
capacity to hold water increases. Since water vapor is less dense than air, an extra
room is preserved for water vapor rather than air (that holds oxygen). When the
oxygen molecules decrease (which helps in combustion), the combustion becomes
less efficient. However, this reduction in combustion due to water vapor is negligible,
due to the excessive mass of air used in this stage.
To summarize, high humidity reduces the weight of air per unit volume, resulting in
less dense air being accelerated, decreasing the thrust.
Chapter 9
AIRSPEED EFFECTS
As the airspeed of an airplane increase, the ram air effects cause an increase in air
pressure (referred to as dynamic pressure), thus increasing the density of the air. This
results in an increase in the overall airflow mass, increasing thrust.
REDUCED TAKEOFF THRUST
In the daily operations, the airplanes are not always taking off with their maximum
weights, thus the full rated power is not usually essential. Using the full takeoff power
reduces the useful life of the engine, as the turbine will be exposed to higher than
needed temperatures. Although manufacturers guarantee the engine at maximum
certified takeoff power, operators always elect to preserve their engines whenever
they can. The life expectancy of the engine is prolonged with increasing margin from
the TIT limit. The full rated thrust is relatively close to the TIT limit, but only for a
short time.
Manufacturers enabled options to preserve their engines by limiting their thrust

outputs based on their need for each takeoff (with different daily conditions). This is
achieved by different methods.
METHODS OF THRUST REDUCTION
Regulations allow the use of reduced thrust, but the thrust reduction shall not exceed
25%. In other words, the reduced thrust used should not be lower than 75% of the full
rated takeoff thrust. There are two methods for reduced thrust:
 Assumed Temperature Method (ATM) for Boeing or Flex Temperature (Flex)

for Airbus
 De-rate for Boeing
ATM or FLEX
ATM or Flex are the same concept, each feed the engine controls (for example, EEC
in B738) with dictated temperature. This dictated temperature limits the actual takeoff
thrust, thus limit the stress on the turbine, and increase the engine life.
Chapter 9
Figure 9,34 Thrust Reduction Illustrations
Benefits of reduced thrust using Assumed Temperature Method (ATM)
 ATM reduces cost

 All limitations are considered
 Operation is always conservative
 ATM is easy to calculate
ENGINE DE-RATE
The engine de-rate technique is replacing the full rated engine by another less thrust
engine. Some engine manufacturers let the pilots to metaphorically replace the engine
through the FMC.
For example, the engine full rating of the B738 (CFM56-7B) is 26,000 pounds of
thrust; pilots can replace this output to 24,000 pounds of thrust using the FMC.
Giving a less thrust will result in less temperature exposure to the Turbine, thus
enhance the engine life.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.35 De-rated Engines
It is very important to know that the de-rated engine is an entirely different engine. A
different engine means a different VMCG, with less power given by the engine the
turning moment decreases. Thus, the speed to control this lower moment relatively
(compared to the full rate) results in lower VMCG. This is not the case when using the
ATM or flex as the VMCG is calculated based on the full rated thrust.
IMPROVED CLIMB PERFORMANCE

Basically, there is a relation between takeoff speeds and climb gradient; the higher the
speed the better is the climb gradient. In so many cases, during hot days, the takeoff
gross weight is limited by the climb gradients of the second segment. The climb
performance limits the maximum allowable takeoff weight. This weight can be further
increased using "improved climb" technique.
The improved climb technique is obtained by utilizing excess runway available to

accelerate to higher takeoff speeds, thereby achieving higher gradient capability,
resulting in higher takeoff weights.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.36 Improved Climb
THRUST RATINGS
Thrust varies with different phases of flight. The following is the different engine
thrust ratings:
TAKEOFF THRUST
The takeoff thrust setting can be applied for a period of 5 minutes (as required by the
FAA). Some airplane’s engines receive special authorization for 10 minutes at takeoff
thrust, from the relevant national aviation authority. According to the flight manual 10
minutes takeoff power is permissible in case of engine failure. Thus, 10 minutes
takeoff power is only approved on one engine. Both pilots are required to monitor
these specific limits, thus a stopwatch is started when applying takeoff thrust.
GO AROUND THRUST
The go-around thrust setting is the same as the maximum takeoff thrust, with the
higher speeds during go-around taken into consideration. It is limited to the same time
duration as the takeoff thrust.
Chapter 9
MAXIMUM CONTINOUS THRUST (MCT)
The maximum continuous is the highest thrust level, which can be used continuously.
The MCT is applied only in case of emergency (engine failure in one engine).
Takeoff, go around, and maximum continuous thrust settings are certified ratings, i.e.
they have to be authorized by the aviation authorities.
MAXIMUM CLIMB THRUST
The maximum climb thrust is usually below the maximum continuous thrust level,
and should be used only for the en-route climb, the step climb, and for the
acceleration to cruise speed.
In the B738, the maximum climb thrust is equal to the MCT above a certain level
(approximately 15,000ft).
MAXIMUM CRUISE THRUST
The maximum cruise thrust is maximum thrust usable during the cruise.
DETERMINIMG MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TAKEOFF

WEIGHTS FOR DAY-TO-DAY OPERATION
In the beginning of every flight, pilots should calculate and verify their maximum
allowable takeoff weights, thrust ratings and takeoff speeds given the ambient
conditions. EgyptAir operation's center insures that the airplanes can take off with the
estimated payload (especially in hot days). Based on this weight, pilots decide the
thrust ratings and speeds. It is the pilot responsibility to use the least power needed for
the current takeoff weight and conditions, without compromising safety. This reduces
the maintenance cost of the engine and enhances its useful life.
In the next section, the QRH and RTOW tables of the Airbus will be discussed.
QUICK REFERENCE HANDBOOK (QRH)
The QRH includes takeoff performance tables and charts. It is accessible to pilots
anytime they want. It can be used for any airport and any runway, in contrast to the
RTOW, which is issued only for specific airports and specific runways. This is useful
when pilots land at airports they don’t have RTOW for. These tables are limited to
runways with headwind components and pressure altitude of less than 2,000ft.
Besides, it doesn’t cover obstacles in the takeoff path.
Chapter 9
The obstacles clearance adjustment can be identified using different tables

supplemented in the QRH. QRH tables consist of the following:
 First table gives correction to be applied to the runway length and runway
slope
 Nine other tables for three different pressure altitudes (0, 1,000ft, 2,000ft
pressure altitudes), with three different configurations (for example,
Configuration 1 + F). The maximum takeoff weight and its limitation codes
and associated speeds is determined based on the ambient temperature and
corrected runway length
 Graph for weight adjustments for obstacles
RUNWAY LENGTH CORRECTIONS
Table 9.4 Runway Length Corrections
For example:
Wind is headwind 10 knots

Runway Length is 2,800 meters
Runway slope is upslope of 1%
As the table doesn’t have a specific column for 2800 meters, thus an interpolation is
needed. 2,800 meters lies between 2,750 and 3,000 meters, and their corrections are
10 and 11 meters respectively. This means that for the 250 meters (3,000 – 2,750) the
extra corrections would be 1 (11 – 10). Thus for every 50 meters increment the
correction increment is + 0.2 meters (250 ÷ 50 = 5 & 1 ÷ 5 = 0.2). 2,800 meters is
above the lower column by 1 thus “50” increment. So the correction increment for
Chapter 9
2,800 meters runway is adding 10.2 meters per 1 knot (10 meters if 2,750 meters plus
the interpolation increment of 0.2 meters).
For 10 knots head wind the runway length will increase by 102 meters, thus the new
adjusted runway length is 2,902 meters.
The same interpolation technique applies for the slope adjustments, but the increment
will be subtracted. After doing the slope corrections, the new runway length after
adjustments is 2,456 meters.
CROSS REFERENCE TABLE OF PRESSURE ALTITUDE AND

CONFIGURATION
Pilots should choose the table that reflects the pressure altitude of the runway and the
configuration that will be used. If the pressure altitude of the airport lies between two
tables (for example 1,500ft), interpolation can be done using the same technique
explained above. However, for more conservative figure, use the table for the pressure
altitude just above the actual pressure altitude (for example, if 800ft pressure altitude,
use the 1,000ft table).
Figure 9.37 Computing Maximum Takeoff Weight
Chapter 9
The pressure altitude of the airport is assumed to be 1,000ft and the configuration
used will be “1 + F,” as shown in the header of the table. First enter the table by the
corrected runway length (in this example 3,000 meters). Match the outside air
temperature to the far left column (in this example it is assumed to be 40°C). The
corresponding box to the 40°C shows the maximum regulated takeoff weight. In this
example, it is 71,300 kg and the V1, VR and V2 are 152, 154 and 155, respectively.
In order to get the maximum flex, the actual weight shall be located and then find its
corresponding temperature, for the actual takeoff weight. In this example, the actual
takeoff weight is 64,000 kg, thus the maximum flex will be 54 °C with speeds of 150,
151 and 155.
The above box is an example of the items in any box. The top right corner describes
the limitation for this weight (the limits that were discussed above).
Airbus identifies its limitation as follows:
1. First Segment
2. Second Segment
3. Runway Length
4. Obstacles
5. Tire Speed
6. Brake energy
7. Maximum Computation Weight
8. Final Takeoff
9. VMU
In this case, the limitations are 2 and 3 (“2-3” as shown in the top right corner), this
means that the second segment and the runway length are the reasons behind limiting
the maximum regulated takeoff weight to 64,800 kg.
OBSTACLES ADJUSTMENTS
The weight modifications for obstacles in the takeoff path can be identified using the
obstacles curve supplemented in the QRH. This graph allows pilots to reduce the
maximum regulated takeoff weight as necessary to avoid obstacles and ensure its
Chapter 9
clearance. The previous table doesn’t account for obstacles, which has a limitation
code of "4."
Figure 9.38 Obstacle Corrections
For example, the airport has an obstacle spaced 20,000 meters (100,000ft) from the
end of the runway, with a height of 1,200 above the end of runway. Given the
displacement of the obstacle and its height, the required gradient is 2.8% and the
weight decrement is 3,500 kg. This means that the allowable takeoff weight from this
airport is 61,300 kg (64,800 – 3,500 = 61,300 kg). Thus, the pilots will favor the
payload and reduce the flex temperature to accommodate for these adjustments. In
other words, the flex of 54 °C should be reduced to a lower temperature.
RTOW
AIRBUS RTOW
The main difference between the QRH and RTOW is that the RTOWs are tailored for
specific airports and runways, and take into considerations all the obstacles. Another
difference is that Airbus RTOW is available in two forms of entry, which are
“Temperature Entry” and “Weight Entry.” Either can be used to identify the
maximum allowable takeoff weights and maximum flex.
Chapter 9
TEMPERATURE ENTRY
In these tables, the temperatures are located in the left column. The weights are
located in the upper left corner of the corresponding box. The following is an example
of temperature entry table:
Figure 9.39 Temperature Entry
From the above, the following assumptions shall be verified:
 The charts calculated for a specific aircraft version and for a particular runway
specified at the top of the chart
 The top of the chart also gives some information about the runway and lists
the calculation assumptions
Chapter 9
 This allows the crew to select the configuration that gives either:
o The highest permissible takeoff weight, or
o For a given weight, the highest flexible temperature
To identify the maximum allowable takeoff, pilots should identify the table which
corresponds to their preferred configuration and actual wind component. Then look up
for the ambient temperature in the left column and identify the corresponding box, to
identify the maximum allowable takeoff (top left corner). The speeds are given in the
bottom line of the box in the following order V1, VR and V2.
The legend is included at the bottom of the RTOW table. The following is an
illustration of the legend section:
Figure 9.40 Legend
If the table doesn’t correspond to the actual conditions, some adjustment supplements
are provided in the bottom of the charts. The far left section of the legend section is
the legend for different conditions adjustment. The “D” means difference and “TVMC”
means the maximum temperature limited by VMCG (high temperature decreases the
density of air, thus decreasing the efficiency of the rudder to control the aircraft).
Conditions that are supplemented for corrections are QNH and wet runway provision.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.40A Adjustments
From the above (for example the far left boxes) and the legend of adjustments, the
following can be determined:
If the runway is wet, nothing will be changed (because of the reduced screen height as
discussed earlier).
If the QNH of the airport is less by 10 HPA, the maximum allowable takeoff weight
shall be reduced by 800 kg, the flex shall be reduced by 2°C, V1 remains unchanged,
and both VR and V2 should be reduced by 1 knot.
Remember it is allowed to interpolate between two temperatures rows to get the exact
weights. However, to be more conservative the more limiting shall be used always,
which is the higher temperature or the lower weights.
*Note: If different configurations give equivalent performance, the crew should select
the configuration associated with the lowest take-off speeds.
*Note: According to Airbus manuals, any corrections for the QNH shouldn’t be
applied on the speeds
Chapter 9
WEIGHT ENTRY
Another set of tables is provided with the maximum allowable takeoff weights in the
left column. The temperatures are shown in the top left corner of the corresponding
box. The following is an example of the weight entry RTOW:
Figure 9.41 A321 RTOW
As shown, both set of tables have the same structure. The only difference is that the
weight is in the left column, and the temperature is in the top left of the box
corresponding to the weight. To use this table, the same procedures used in the
temperature entry should be used. The only difference between the two tables is in the
extrapolation. Sometimes the actual temperature is beyond the table least temperature.
Airbus provides means of extrapolation beyond the table to avoid penalties. However,
this extrapolation has different gradients for set of temperatures below and above
TREF. This means that there is different relation between temperature and weight
change for temperatures below and above TREF. The two gradients are called Grad 1
(for temperatures change below TREF) and Grad 2 (for temperatures change above
TREF). Grad 2 has a steeper (higher) gradient than Grad 1, which means that a
percentage change in temperature above TREF causes a higher weight change for the
same temperature change below TREF. The following is the depiction of Grad 1 and
Grad 2 in Airbus manuals:
Chapter 9
Figure 9.42 Weight versus Temperature above and below TREF
For extrapolation and interpolation, the weight entry includes the value of the Grad 1
and Grad 2. The following is an abstract of a weight entry table shows the values of
Grad 1 and Grad 2:
As shown above, different “GRAD1/GRAD2” values are given for different

conditions. The way of using this for interpolation or extrapolation is as follows:
GRAD1/GRAD2  50/540
TREF  29°C
Chapter 9
Sc. 1  Lowest air temperature in the table and OAT are below TREF
Lowest air temperature  26°C
OAT  24°C
Weight corresponds to lowest air temperature  64,000 kg
The extrapolation will be as follows:
Weight increment = difference between OAT and the Lowest temperature × Grad 1
Then,
The maximum allowable takeoff = weight corresponding to the lowest temperature +
weight increment
Weight increment = (26 – 24) × 50
= 2 × 50 = 100 KG
The maximum allowable takeoff = 64,000 + 100 = 64,100 kg
Chapter 9
Sc. 2  Lowest air temperature in the table is above TREF and OAT is below TREF
Lowest air temperature  31°C
OAT  26°C
Weight corresponds to lowest air temperature  64,000 kg
The extrapolation will be in two steps as follows:
Step one
Weight increment 1 = difference between the Lowest temperature and TREF × Grad 2
Weight increment 1 = (31 – 29) × 540
= 2 × 540 = 1,080 KG
Step two
Weight increment 2 = difference between OAT and TREF × Grad 2
Weight increment 2 = (29 – 26) × 50
= 3 × 50 = 150 KG
The maximum allowable takeoff = weight corresponding to the lowest temperature +
weight increment 1 + weight increment 2
The maximum allowable takeoff = 64,000 + 1,080 + 150 = 65,230 kg
Chapter 9
V2 / VS & V1 / VR
Airbus optimizes its value for the takeoff weights using two ratios, first ratio is
between V2 and VS, and the second ratio is between V1 and VR. Airbus iterated
performance graphs to find the optimum ratios. The V2 / VS ratio optimizes takeoff
weights for the second segment and the runway limitations, and V1 / VR ratio
optimizes takeoff weights for TOD and ASD. These concepts are used by Airbus to
calculate speeds that will produce the maximum takeoff weight taking into
consideration different limitations.
Below is an abstract from Airbus manual of the two graphs explaining the relation
between V2 / VS with the second segment and runway limits, and V1 / VR with TOD
and ASD.
Figure 9.43 V2/VS and V1/VR versus weight
Chapter 9
CLIMB
The climb portion of the flight starts at the end of the final takeoff segment and the
start of the en-route climb.
The climb performance of an airplane can be expressed by the two terms:
 Angle of Climb
 Rate of Climb
CLIMB ANGLE AND RATE OF CLIMB
The climb angle, usually expressed as a climb gradient (gaining of altitude per unit of
horizontal distance, i.e. angle). The rate of climb on the other hand, expresses the
altitude gain over a period of time.
Rate of climb and climb angle are directly related to each other, and are expressed in
the form of schedule called climb speed schedule, which will results in the best angle
of climb or the best rate of climb.
BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB
When flying at "Best Angle of Climb" speed, the airplane reaches a specific altitude
over the shortest distance.
This speed schedule is always used to meet ATC clearance constraints related to
distance, for example:
“ATC clears MS 748 to climb to FL 310, to cross 25 NM from CVO VOR at or above
FL 100”
BEST RATE OF CLIMB
The "Best Rate of Climb" speed is the climbing speed at which the cruise altitude can
be reached in the least amount of time. This speed schedule is normally used when the
time is the constraint for ATC (for example, traffic separation).
There is a speed for which an airplane attains the maximum rate of climb and another
for the maximum climb over horizontal distance.
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Figure 9.44 Best Angle and Rate of Climb Speeds
IAS is selected to continue the climb to the cleared cruise altitude. However, at a
certain altitude during the climb the crew must convert to a constant Mach
(approximately, 26,000 and modern equipment converts it automatically from IAS to
Mach number), until reaching cruise altitude. The best en-route climb procedure is
dominated by economic considerations of each case, shorter flight times, low costs,
and low fuel consumption is the basic motives for any flight.
CLIMB SPEED SCHEDULE AND DETERMINATION

Other than being restricted by ATC to fly best angle or best rate, a speed schedule is
provided by FMC or by the QRH for economic consideration and in cases of
abnormality or emergency during the climb phase. The speed schedules are
combinations of speeds during a defined portion of the flight, for example, from the
initial climb to top of climb (TOC):
1. 250 KIAS below 10,000ft referred to as constrained speed (KIAS  knots of

indicated airspeed)
2. 300 KIAS/ 0.78 Mach  maintaining 300 knots until switching to Mach
number usage
3. 0.78 Mach / 300 KIAS  for descent
4. 250 KIAS below 10,000ft
Chapter 9
Figure 9.45 Different Climb Speed Schedules
CLIMB PERFORMANCE DATA
Climb performance data is presented for different climb speed schedule and for ISA
deviations. The data basically provides time, distance and fuel consumption from
brake release to top of climb, for different cruise altitudes.
This information can be obtained from QRH for different types.
Chapter 9
CRUISE
The cruise phase of any flight lasts from TOC (reaching the final level with no step
climbs en-route) to the TOD. The main task for pilots in this phase is to save fuel as
much as they can (without compromising safety). Cruise phase represents
approximately 90% of any flight. Understanding cruise performance eases fuel
savings.
The cruise levels modern aircraft cruise at is usually high. High cruising levels has
aerodynamics effects on the airplane, due to the very low density air surrounding the
wings in this phase, and its ability to produce lift and support the wing to maintain its
cruising level. If the air has very low density to a certain limit, the airplane’s wings
may not be able to support bank angles. The ability of the air surrounding the wings to
support the aircraft’s weight at high altitudes is called Maneuver Margin (or
Capability). Maneuver Margin symbols the safety zone for pilots during the cruise.
However, fuel efficiency and saving is an important aspect that will be discussed after
the Maneuver Margin discussion.
MANEUVER MARGIN AND LOAD FACTOR
To maneuver in cruise, cruising speed should provide an adequate margin above low-
speed buffet (stalling speed) and another adequate margin below high-speed buffet
(shock wave formation). The maneuver margin capability is determined based on the
Load Factor of the wings.
LOAD FACTOR “G”
Load Factor is the ratio between the total air loads imposed on the wing in-flight and
the gross weight of the airplane. In other words, load factor is the lift produced by the
wing relative to the gross weight of the airplane. If the lift is equal to the supported
weight, the aircraft is neither descending nor climbing, thus the load factor on the
wing is equal to 1G (the “G” refers to the gravitational force of the Earth). Load factor
is sometimes referred to as “G” factor, as it represents the quantity of lift produced by
the wing to overcome the Earth’s gravitational force (weight). For instance, if the
airplane enters a bank of 25, the lift will decrease (if not corrected by an increase in
speed or pitch angle), thus the airplane will start descending as the weight of the
aircraft is now higher than the lift. In order to correct for this, pilots will have to either
increase the airplane’s speed or pitch angle to compensate for the lift shifted
horizontally to turn the airplane. The lift will increase as a result and will be higher
than the weight, thus the load factor of the airplane will be, for example, 1.1G. This
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means that the airplane is supporting an increased weight of 10%, or the airplane felt
that its weight increased by 10% and trying to compensate for this weight increase.
Actually, the weight is the same, but the lift decreased by the 10%. However, this
decrease in lift feels like a 10% increase in weight, which is felt by everyone onboard.
This means that 80 kg pilot will feel his/her weight has increased to reach 88 kg.
To summarize, whenever lift increases to compensate for a reduction in its vertical

component (losing some for horizontal component for turns), the total air loads
increase, thus the load factor increase. The ratio of this increase is related to the
weight the wings have to support to maintain level flight. Therefore, the load factors
are directly related to bank angles. Load factors give pilots an indication of the bank
angle that can be performed without losing altitude. That’s why it is called maneuver
margin. The following is some information concerning load factor:
 Load factor increases with bank angle, for example, a 25 degrees level bank
angle increases load factor by 0.1 g. In other words, a 25 degrees level bank
angle increases apparent aircraft weight by 10%. The relation between load
factor and bank angle usually is the same for all aircraft's
Figure 9.46 Effect of Load Factor on Bank Angle
 Gust load “vertical acceleration” or pilot roughness on the controls can easily
add 0.1 g or more
 Increased load factor will cause the stalling speed of the aircraft to increase.
For example, in a 60 constant altitude bank, the stalling speed increases by
40%, that means, the aircraft will stall at higher speed
Chapter 9
Figure 9.47 Percent Increase in Stall Speed versus Bank Angle
 The amount of the excess load that can be imposed on an airplane’s wing
varies directly with the airplane’s speed and the excess lift available
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT
During normal cruise, lift equals weight. This is not exactly true because lift equals
apparent weight or equivalent 1g gross weight.
The apparent gross weight consists of:
1. Actual weight
2. The lift force of the horizontal stabilizer necessary for aircraft trim (usually
downward)
3. Inertial forces of vertical accelerations
4. Centrifugal forces (TURNS)
The apparent weight or the equivalent 1g weight of an aircraft equals actual aircraft
weight multiplied by the load factor.
Equivalent 1G gross weight = Actual weight  Load factor
Chapter 9
Figure 9.48 Forces Acting on an Airplane
Example:
As mentioned above, a 25 bank will increase the load factor about 0.1 G, if aircraft
weight is 50 tons and the pilot started a 25 turn, the apparent weight equals:
Equivalent 1 G gross weight = 50 tons X 1.1 load factor = 55 tons.
BUFFEC BOUNDARIES
The buffet caused by flow separation when approaching stall is called Low Speed
Buffet. However, there is a similar buffet that is caused by shockwaves formation
called, High Speed Buffet.
At any given altitude and weight, the speeds for low and high speed for the initial
buffet is called Buffet Boundaries, and the margin between those speeds is called the
speed margin. For each speed along this scale, there is a Maneuver Margin expressed
in Load Factor and Bank Angle.
LOW SPEED BUFFET
With decreasing airspeed, the angle of attack of the wing has to be increased to
maintain the lift, until a point where a partial flow separation starts to take place ahead
of the trailing edge as shown in figure 9.49.
The unstable separation point fluctuates rapidly back and forth in a certain range; this
changes the pressure distribution constantly. Bearing in mind the position of the
horizontal stabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer will be affected by the turbulent
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separation wake, which will result in the previously mentioned low speed buffet.
Further increase of angle of attack will result in total flow separation, and the wing
stalls.
HIGH SPEED BUFFET
High-speed buffet develops in the same way as the low-speed buffet. As soon as
sufficiently high pressure changes are generated by the shockwaves above the critical
Mach number, separation will form behind the shockwave on the upper wing surface.
Also a shockwave may be formed on the lower surface of the wing at higher Mach
numbers as shown in Fig. 9.50.
Figure 9.49 Low Speed Buffet
Figure 9.50 High Speed Buffet
Since the location of the shockwaves is unstable, the oscillating lift changes result in
the same type of buffet as encountered in the low speed case.
Chapter 9
While speed reduction at a low speed buffet (buffet at high CL) results in a total loss
of lift (stall), no such thing occurs when increasing speed above that for the initial
high-speed buffet (buffet at low CL). Thus, there is no high-speed stall. The shock
waves drift aft, and the separation effects become stronger.
For any given altitude and assumed weight, the speeds for low and high speed, as well
as, the maximum altitude for the initial buffet(s) can be obtained.
If for a given altitude and Mach number the "equivalent 1 g gross weight" is found,
then the ratio of this weight to the actual weight is the allowable Load Factor,
expressed as either a g-load or a bank angle.
Figure 9.51 Effect of Mach number and Bank Angle on Buffet Margin
The peak of each curve is called the "aerodynamic ceiling", which is theoretically
assuming that the aircraft is flying at an altitude where the actual aircraft weight
equals the equivalent 1g gross weight. At this attitude, there is no margin between low
and high speed buffet boundaries, and the load factor is 1.0 g as shown in figure 9.51.
An actual maneuver capability curve for Airbus A320 is shown in Fig. 9.52.
 Aircraft in low speed buffet.
Aircraft near low speed buffet.
 1.3 or 40 bank to low speed buffet.
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1.3 or 40 bank to high speed buffet.
Figure 9.52 Maneuver Capability Curve
Chapter 9
Each airplane has a set of speeds, which provide a sufficient margin (given normal
conditions) to the buffet boundaries and structural limits of the airframe during
normal operation and turbulence penetration.
The general rule is:
The bigger the load factor the better the Maneuver Margin.
At any given weight and speed (Mach No.), the higher the altitude the lower the load
factor and the narrower Maneuver Margin.
RELATION BETWEEN OPTIMUM ALTITUDE, SPEED AND LOAD

FACTOR
Load factor and maneuver margin is better at lower altitudes. However, the main
purpose is to get higher cruise range.
At any given weight, the best compromise is, to fly the speed and altitude, which will
achieve Maximum Range and adequate Load Factor and Maneuver Margin.
The long-range speed (LRC) schedule at Optimum Altitude, will give 99% of the
maximum range. Also optimum altitude provides a 1.5g (48 of bank) or more load
factor, for most of the commercial jets at LRC speed.
Some pilots elect to fly much higher than optimum altitude basically to fly above
weather, and in some other cases, they think that they can save fuel; this technique
might have an adverse effect on the safety of the flight for the following reasons:
1. There will be significant reductions in load factor; therefore, the ability to

maneuver. Higher maneuver margin is needed when maneuvering around
weather conditions
2. This situation can be further aggravated in case of turbulence (vertical
acceleration)
3. In most cases, the tops of the thunderstorms exceed the maximum ceiling of
the current generation of commercial jets
4. The anvils of the adjacent thunderstorms are normally embedded at high
altitudes, which make penetration very difficult. However, penetration through
the gaps between adjacent thunderstorms is much easier at low altitudes. At
low altitudes it is much safer, taking into account the considerable increase in
load factor and maneuver capability
5. Large deviation above or below optimum altitude has a significant reduction
on fuel mileage
Chapter 9
RELATION BETWEEN CRUISE SPEED/MACH AND

MANEUVER CAPABILITIES
At any given altitude and weight, the speeds for the low and high buffet can be
obtained, and the margin between those speeds is called the speed margin.
During daily cruise operation, ATC may request to reduce speed to the minimum, for
traffic separation or for any other reason. Now, the following questions have to be
answered:
 How can we calculate our minimum speed?

 Are there any guidelines for these calculations?
 What will be the maneuver margin (Load factor and bank angle)?
The minimum accepted load factor and Bank angle should be identified under
different circumstances. Optimum speed can be obtained from the maneuver
capability curve based on identifying the minimum load factor (Bank angle).
ENDURANCE AND FUEL MILEAGE OR RANGE

ENDURANCE
The maximum time the aircraft’s engine will remain operating on a given quantity of
fuel. For every altitude and weight, there is a corresponding IAS that results in the
lowest drag. Fig. 9.53 shows the relation between total drag and IAS. The best
endurance speed is the speed that provides the least drag, i.e. the speed providing
minimum fuel consumption expressed by fuel flow or kg/hour.
Figure 9.53 Best Endurance Speed
Chapter 9
RANGE
In airline business, aircrafts are needed to fly as far as possible on a given quantity of
fuel and therefore, maximum air miles per unit of fuel. Fig. 9.54 shows the same basic
graph of drag against IAS, but now a tangent from the point of origin of the curve is
drawn. This gives, at the point where the tangent touches the curve, the highest IAS
for the least drag, or the least fuel consumption and thus the greatest air miles per
gallon, i.e. maximum Nautical Air Mile per unit of fuel (NAM/1000kg), which is
called the Specific Range.
Figure 9.54 Best Range Speed
Notice that: This speed is higher than the best endurance speed.
SPECIFIC RANGE
Specific range is the distance traveled per unit of fuel.
Specific Range (SR) = Cruise Nautical Air miles (NAM) ÷ Cruise Fuel consumption
The above formula is valid for CRUISE portion of the flight.
The time to cover the distance from point (A) to point (B) will be longer, if head wind
was encountered and vice versa in case of tailwind.
To take into consideration the wind Nautical Air Miles (NAM) is calculated, NAM is
calculated from the Nautical Ground Miles (NGM). NGM is the distance from point
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(A) to point (B) on the navigation chart. NAM is NGM after adding the effect wind,
as follows:
TAS
NAM = NGM X
GS
Example (1):
Assuming: The cruise portion of the flight is 1000 NM
NGM = 1000 NM
TAS = 450 kts
Head Wind Component = -50 kts
i.e. GS = 450kts - 50kts = 400kts
450
NAM = 1000 X = 1125 NM
400
Number of nautical air miles (NAM) the aircraft can fly per 1,000 kg of fuel can be
calculated using the following equation:
TAS
Specific Range (SR) =
Total Fuel Flow
NAM/hour (TAS) is the distance traveled in one hour, and Total Fuel Flow/hour is the
amount of fuel consumed in one hour also.
SR can be calculated at any time as its inputs are always indicated in the cockpit (TAS
indicator, and Fuel Flow indicators).
Example (2):
Assuming:
TAS= 450 kts
Total Fuel Flow= 2400 kg/hour
Chapter 9
Specific Range (SR) = 0.1875 NAM/kg
= 187.5 NAM/1000 kg
From example (1) in order to travel 1,000 NGM, 1,125NAM is covered in 50kts head
wind conditions.
From example (2) the SR is 187.5 NAM/1000 kg or / ton of fuel.
The amount of fuel (in kilograms or tons) needed to cover the cruise portion of this
flight can be calculated.
1125
Fuel required 187 .5 is = 6 tons
FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIFIC RANGE

There are many factors affecting the number of miles the aircraft can cover on a given
quantity of fuel. The following will be discussed:
 Altitude
 Weight
 Speed
EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE ON SPECIFIC RANGE
At a constant altitude, there is a direct relation between IAS and drag; therefore, the
thrust required increases with the increase in airspeed. Thus fuel consumption
increases.
Fuel consumption remains more or less constant with height because the drag and
thrust are constant. However, in practice, fuel consumption in terms of fuel flow
(kg/hour) decreases more slightly at high altitudes, because of the higher propulsive
efficiency, due to the higher TAS. The increased TAS at high altitude is the major
factor affecting fuel consumption, or the fuel mileage to be more accurate.
The following practical example is an extract from the constant IAS low altitude
cruise performance tables of the B737-500. The actual figures of the example will aid
in visualizing and understanding the effect of true air speed (TAS).
Chapter 9
Example:
Assuming:
Gross weight 50 ton
Standard TAT
Remember that even the 5.2% improvement in the fuel flow is also a direct result of
the higher propulsive efficiency, due to the higher TAS.
The above figures can be translated to an overall improvement on the fuel mileage or
the specific range which is the most important factor, if the specific range formula is
applied:
TAS
Specific Range (SR) =
Total Fuel Flow
The result is:
At FL 100 127.6 NAM/1000 kg. of fuel.
At FL 240 165.8 NAM/1000 kg. of fuel.
This improvement in fuel mileage is approximately 30%. The short range cruise is
based on constant IAS.
The following example will further explain the effect of True Air Speed (TAS) on
improvement of fuel mileage:
The following figures are extracted from the Long Range Cruise (LRC) performance
tables of B737-500.
Chapter 9
TAS is slightly decreasing with high altitude (above tropopause). However, the
difference between IAS and TAS, at the two levels (187-161=26), has increased
significantly (26 Kts), which is a significant factor of range improvements.
Conclusion:
The larger the difference between IAS and TAS the more miles per unit of fuel can be
achieved.
The effect of altitude on SR is very significant. For example, a typical jet aircraft will
go about 65% further at 40,000 ft. than it will at sea level on the same amount of fuel.
So the general rule for best range is:
However, this rule is not always correct, because at heavy weights flying higher has
an adverse effect on Range and also on the aerodynamic stability or Maneuver
capability of the aircraft. Just how high the aircraft can fly will depend on many other
factors, and the altitude to be flown shall be based on the optimum range that can be
achieved.
So the general rule for the best range can be amended as follows:
The higher the better, provided flying at correct weights.
OPTIMUM ALTITUDE
The optimum range altitude is the altitude at which the best fuel mileage occurs, and
varies little with the cruise speed schedule. The effect of increasing altitude,
generally, is to increase the specific range. However, at heavy weights, the thrust
requirement is higher resulting in lower value of specific range at the higher altitudes.
In other words, for every weight, there is an altitude for the maximum range, which is
called Optimum Altitude. The optimum altitude increases with decreasing weights.
STEP CLIMB
In order to fly at the maximum range, an airplane must operate continuously at the
optimum altitude. However, due to air-traffic control constraints, a climb during the
cruise to fly continuously at the optimum altitude is not possible, so that step climbs
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should be performed around the optimum altitude, within the 1% range loss lines if
possible (2000 above and below optimum altitude) as seen in Fig. 9.55.
In general, large overshoots of the optimum altitude should be avoided since the
specific range drops off rapidly above and below optimum altitude. Every effort
should be made in flight planning and during flight to attain this altitude. The range
penalty for operating far than the optimum range altitude is shown in Table 9.4
The following is a practical example:
A flight from CAI to JFK, initiating the flight at maximum T/O weight, the selected
altitude should be above the optimum by 2000 feet - point (a). While the flight is in
progress the weight decreases to point (b) at which the altitude becomes 2000 feet
below optimum. At point (b), step climb has to be initiated to an altitude 2000 feet
above optimum - point (c), in other words, the aircraft is actually flying along the -1%
range loss line see Table 9.4.
Figure 9.55 Specific Range versus Pressure Altitude
Table 9.5 Range Penalty
Chapter 9
EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON SPECIFIC RANGE
It is well known that weight has an effect on fuel mileage, due to thrust requirements.
The general rule is as the weight decreases the specific range increases. However, the
in-flight weight reduction has a significant effect on improving fuel mileage at high
altitude, for example:
A weight reduction of a typical jet aircraft from 140 tons to 100 tons improves the
specific range by:
14% at 25000 feet
and by:
38% at 39000 feet (optimum altitude)
EFFECT OF SPEED ON SPECIFIC RANGE
MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE (MRC)
For every weight and altitude, there is a speed that achieves the maximum range. This
speed is called the Maximum Range Cruise (MRC) speed. MRC is the speed at which
the maximum fuel mileage or maximum range is achieved.
Maximum range cruise speed increases with higher altitudes, for a constant weight,
and decreases with lower weights, at a constant altitude.
LONG RANGE CRUISE (LRC)
For practical flight operations reasons, basically time cost, a Long Range Cruise speed
schedule (LRC) is defined. This speed gains a significant increase in speed compared
to MRC with only a 1% loss in specific range. Like the MRC speed, the LRC speed
also increases with higher altitudes, for a constant weight, and decreases with lower
weights, at a constant altitude.
Chapter 9
Specific
Range MRC (Max Fuel Mileage)
LRC (99% Max Fuel Mileage)
10 to 25 Kts speed increase
(Long Range Cruise)
Mach No.
0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86
Figure 9.56 LRC and MRC
WIND ALTITUDE TRADE
It is true that flying higher, at or near optimum altitude, increases fuel mileage.
However, wind effect is not taken into account. For example, a favorable wind
component below optimum altitude may have an effect on ground speed, which will
compensate for the loss in fuel mileage at the lower altitude.
The wind and altitude trade, is the wind required to maintain present fuel mileage or
range (NAM/Ton) at new altitude, in other words, break even wind (Table 9.6).
Example:
 Flying westbound over the gulf area FL 310.

 Aircraft weight 48 T.
 Wind at present altitude -50 kts.
 Wind at new altitude (FL 350) -90 kts.
Solution:
1. Read the wind factor at the new and present altitude from table 9.5
2. Determine the difference (New altitude minus present altitude wind factor).
This difference may be negative or positive
3. Break even wind at new altitude is the present altitude actual wind plus the
difference from step 2
Chapter 9
Table 9.6 Wind Altitude Trade
For example:
- New altitude wind factor is (4), and present altitude wind factor is (35).
- The difference between the two factors is: 4 - 35 = -31.
- Break even wind = (-50) + (-31) = -81.
In the above example, if the pilots climb to FL 350, they will lose range. For them to
achieve better fuel mileage, the wind must be less than (-81) at FL 350 (TWC).
DIFFERENT CRUISE SPEED SCHEDULE
There are different cruise speed schedules to accommodate different operational

requirements.
MAXIMUM SPEED CRUISE (MSC)
MSC is the cruise speed at the engine manufacturer's published maximum cruise
thrust, or at VMO, if limiting. This schedule is used when the value of the flight time is
the overriding cost factor. The MSC schedule is normally flown at medium altitudes
up to 25,000 feet where the resultant TAS is greatest.
CONSTANT MACH CRUISE
Constant Mach cruise schedules, represents convenient speed schedules, between

LRC and MSC to satisfy intermediate requirements of the relationship between fuel
and flight time costs (time-cost tradeoff is referred to as cost index).
Chapter 9
DRIFT DOWN
In the event of an engine failure or other radical loss of thrust in cruise, a descent to a
lower altitude and an adjustment of speed is necessary. The drift down procedure is
designed to minimize loss of range.
The drift down procedure requires; in all cases, the application of Maximum
Continues Thrust (MCT) to the operating engine(s). The next step is to choose the
descent speed strategy that will ensure:
 Safe clearance of obstacles
Drift down speed (min. drag)
 Sufficient range
Turbulence Penetration Speed
Regulations require among other things, that the "En-route net flight path" after an
engine failure, clears obstacles by at least 600m (2,000ft) within 8 km to each side of
the planned route. A deceleration and a descent at minimum drag speed (Drift Down
Speed) will normally provide the greatest tradeoff between altitude and range, due to
the very shallow descent gradient. When terrain or obstacle is not a factor, most
aircraft manufactures recommends drifting down at specific speed or Turbulence
Penetration Speed.
ENGINE INOPERATIVE CRUISE
When one or more engines are inoperative, the maximum range at the engine out
optimum altitude will always be lower than the all engines operating range. The
reason for this is the additional drag of the dead engine, coupled with the loss of its
thrust. However, at low altitudes thrust required per engine is lower. The result is
improvement of specific range at low altitudes with one or two engines inoperative.
Chapter 9
Table 9.7 Drift Down Data
Chapter 9
DESCENT
The point at the end of the cruise phase of the flight at which descent is normally
initiated is called top of descent (TOD). Descent phase is the portion of the flight from
top of descent (TOD) to the initial approach point.
DESCENT PLANNING
Jet airplanes are designed to fly at high altitudes. Flying at high altitudes enhances its
fuel consumption. Therefore, it is desirable to remain at cruise altitude until it is
definitely determined that landing can be made shortly after descent.
New-generation aircraft's FMC plans a descent profile for least fuel consumption.
However, this descent profile is based mainly on the descent distance not based on
direct distance. For example, it takes into consideration STAR and approach
procedures that will be followed rather than DME distance to the runway. Pilots must
add to this the expected distance required for radar vectoring if the STAR terminates
with radar vectoring to the approach.
BASIC DESCENT CALCULATIONS
There are many factors affecting the distance required to descend from a specific
altitude. However, the basic methods are:
FIRST METHOD:
Required descent distance equals the altitude passing multiplied by 3, then adding 10
* Approximately 10 NM required for deceleration from the descent speed to initial

approach speed
For example, if at FL330, therefore the required descent distance should be:
(33 × 3) + 10 = 99 + 10 = 109 NM
SECOND METHOD:
Pilots can calculate the altitude they should be crossing in relation to the distance
from the runway. This can be done by multiplying the distance by 3 and subtract
3,000ft for deceleration.
For example, if the remaining distance to touchdown is 60 NM, then the aircraft
should be crossing:
60 × 3 = 180 - 30 (FL 150)
Chapter 9
FACTORS AFFECTING DESCENT TRACK DISTANCE
There are some factors that are not considered in the above calculations like:
1. Wind component
2. Aircraft weight
3. Aircraft speed
WIND COMPONENT
Wind components have a significant effect on descent path calculations. To consider

wind effects the following adjustment can be done:
For each 10 knots of tailwind  addition of approximately 3 NM is needed
For each 10 knots of headwind  subtraction of approximately 3 NM is needed
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT
The rate of descent is higher for lighter airplanes compared to heavier airplanes. This
is a function of the lift/drag ratio. For any given angle of attack, the heavier airplane
would have to fly at a greater speed in order to generate more lift to maintain level
flight. The gradient of descent, or the horizontal distance gained per foot of altitude
lost depends on the ratio of lift-to-drag, and is greatest (gives the maximum range for
a given loss of altitude) at high lift-to-drag ratios. This condition (maximum lift-to-
drag ratio) occurs at a particular angle of attack, for a given type of wing/airframe,
and does not depend on the weight of the aircraft.
Figure 9.57 Effect of Weight on Descent Gradient
Chapter 9
However, the airspeed at which this given angle of attack occurs does vary with the
weight of the aircraft, as stated above the heavier the weight, the higher required lift,
and this lift can be generated by flying at a higher airspeed. Consequently, the
maximum "glide" range for the heavy airplane will be the same as for the light
airplane, provided that the heavy airplane is flown at a higher airspeed to give the
same angle of attack, which gives the maximum lift-to-drag ratio. The heavy airplane,
flying at its minimum drag speed (which still is relatively higher), will come down
faster than the light airplane, but both airplanes will travel the same ground distance
for a given altitude loss.
Figure 9.58 Effect of Aircraft Weight on Descent Planning
Assume that the heavy airplane has a minimum drag speed of about 240 knots, and
the light one, about 210 knots. If ATC issues a clearance for both airplanes to descend
at 200 knots, the light airplane will follow the green gradient line (above), and the
heavy airplane will follow the red gradient line. The heavy airplane will not cover as
much ground distance for a given altitude drop as the light airplane, and it will come
down much quicker than the light airplane.
On the other hand, if ATC issues a descent clearance at 250 knots (which is more
often), the heavy airplane will follow the green gradient line, and the light airplane
will follow the red gradient line. This time, not only the heavier airplane will cover
Chapter 9
more distance for a given altitude drop (or drop less altitude for a given ground
distance) than the light airplane, it will also take longer to come down.
It can be concluded that, for airplanes with similar glide characteristics, but different
weights, the airplanes whose minimum drag speed closely matches the descent
clearance airspeed will have a shallower descent gradient (green gradient line) and
will take longer to come down and vice-versa. Besides, for similar airplanes at a
constant speed, the lighter aircraft descends steeper than the heavier.
AIRCRAFT SPEED
There is a relation between descent speed and rate of descent. At higher descent
speeds, the rate of descent is higher. Maximum rate of descent will be obtained at the
highest possible airspeed.
DESCENT SPEED SCHEDULES
Aircraft manufacturers provide data for different speed schedules to accommodate for
different operational needs during descents. The descent from high altitudes always
starts at a constant Mach number, to avoid exceeding critical Mach number.
Figure 9.59 Descent Speed Schedules
Chapter 9
CABIN PRESSURIZATION CONSIDERATIONS

Normal cruise altitude of the current generation of jet transport is between FL’s
410/390/370/330 etc., with normal cabin altitudes of 8,000 to 5000 ft. Therefore, a
cabin descent or climb with reasonable rate for passenger comfort should be
considered. The cabin descent plans to achieve altitude equivalent to airport elevation
before landing.
Chapter 9
APPROACH AND LANDING

Approach and landing are two different phases of the flight distinguished by the
configuration of the airplane.
Approach and Landing limitations are presented in a fashion similar to those for
takeoff. The landing limitations are:
 Climb limited
 Field-length limited
CLIMB LIMITED APPROACH AND LANDING PERFORMANCE

Approach and landing performance assumes the need to abandon the approach or a
rejected landing and climb away. For example, a missed approach should be
performed, due to below-minima visibility or any other reason. Distinctions must be
made between a go-around:
 In Approach Configuration
 In Landing Configuration
CLIMB LIMITED LANDING WEIGHT
The regulations require a gross weight that will permit the airplane to meet the
approach and landing climb gradients in case of go around. The minimum gradients
are as follows:
Table 9.8 Climb Gradient Requirements
Chapter 9
AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION
Table 9.9 Aircraft Configuration
FIELD LENGTH LANDING WEIGHT REQUIREMENTS

Regulations require that the weight of the airplane will enable the airplane to be
stopped within specified percentages of the effective length of the runway, depending
whether the airport is the destination or the alternate, and whether the runway is wet,
slippery, or dry.
DEFINITIONS
1. Demonstrated or Required Landing Distance
Demonstrated landing distance is the distance required to land and decelerates to a

complete stop, from a point 50 feet above the intersection of the obstruction clearance
plane and the runway (threshold crossing altitude). This distance was determined for
various weights, airport elevations, and wind components under the following
conditions:
 Dry runway
 ISA-temperature
 Reference speed = 1.3 VS down to a height of 50 ft above the runway
2. Effective Runway Length
The effective runway length is the length of each runway from a point 50 feet above
the intersection of the obstruction clearance plane and the remaining runway.
Chapter 9
3. Landing Distance Available
The landing distance available is the field surface designated by the airport authorities
to be used for landing and rolling in a certain direction, free of obstacles, and able to
withstand the aircraft weight.
4. Landing Reference Speed (VREF) or Threshold Speed (VTH)
VREF or VTH is the target speed in landing configuration at a height of 50ft above the
runway for a normal landing.
VREF = VTH = 1.3*VS
VS = Stall speed in landing configuration
REGULATION REQUIREMENTS (FOR DISPATCH)

1. Destination Airport
For the destination airport, regulations require that the demonstrated landing distance
(without reverse thrust) based on the landing weight estimated from normal fuel
consumption, may not exceed:
a. Dry runway  60% of the effective runway length. In other words, the
required landing distance must be at least 1.67 times the demonstrated landing
distance
b. Wet or Slippery runway  At least 115% of the landing distance required for
a dry runway
2. Alternate Airport
For the alternate airport, regulations require that, the demonstrated landing distance
(without reverse thrust) based on the landing weight estimated from normal fuel
consumption, may not exceed 60% of the effective length of the runway, whether that
runway is dry, wet, or slippery.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.60 Required Landing Distance at Destination
Figure 9.61 Effective Runway Length Illustration
Chapter 9
CHAPTER 10
“INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION”
INTRODUCTION
Airline transport pilots are always operating under IFR flight plans, as they cruise at
high altitudes, were using VFR isn’t allowed. In this chapter, the newly hired pilots
will get quick review on their past experience on conventional navigation, including
the radio aids they used to use. The conventional navigation will be supplemented
with modern jet aircrafts navigation and its new state of the art equipment.
OBJECTIVE
Pilots are required to know basically how to navigate their airplane anytime and under
any conditions, whether headwinds or tailwinds, or using modern aids or the
conventional basic aids. This chapter will be a general overview on what are the
navigation procedures expected from pilots whatever their type or the country they are
flying in.
KEY LEARNING POINTS

 Navigation
 Types of Navigation
 The conventional ground navigation aids
 Modern navigation and Area Navigation
 HSI
 RMI
 Climb Gradients Calculations
 Descent Calculations
o Holding Patterns
o DME arc
 SFD, LDA and MLS Approaches
 Path Indicators
Chapter 10
INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION 10-1
NAVIGATION IN GENERAL
In basic definition, navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the
movement of an object from one point to another. In aviation, pilots have a track to
follow to reach their point of destination from their origin. In the early aviation era,
navigation was very limiting and required specific certifications for a person to be a
navigator. This navigator uses all the traditional maps and plotting through the way
using ground landmarks. Today the pilots are their own navigators.
TYPES OF NAVIGATION
There are basically three types of navigation pilots’ use: Pilotage or Piloting, Dead
Reckoning, or Radio Navigation.
PILOTAGE OR PILOTING
Pilotage is a type of navigation, which solely depends on pilots. Pilots fly from a point
to other using landmarks identifiable from the cockpit. These landmarks are used in
lieu of maps to navigate to the intended destination. This method of navigation
requires continuous VMC conditions where the landmarks are visible and identifiable.
The only difficulty a pilot may face is the wind correction angles. Wind effects may
result in drifting the airplane away from its intended course. Although aircrafts now
have very accurate modern equipment, the final responsibility is on the pilot to
navigate the airplane. This doesn’t mean flying under VFR, rather it means that it is
his/her final decision to keep the aircraft safe and on the intended course at all times.
DEAD RECKONING
Deductive Reckoning (also referred to as “Ded”) is another basic type of navigation

used in low speed, low altitude aircrafts. It is majorly based on mathematic
calculations using aircraft speed, track, distance, and elapsed time. Dead Reckoning is
the navigation method used by Charles Lindberg, the first man to do a successful
cross-Atlantic travel from New York, USA to Paris, France.
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Figure 10.1 Distance Speed Time Triangle
In Dead Reckoning pilots are required to calculate the estimated time of arrival at any
landmark (Way point) along their intended route. For example, if an aircraft is flying
from point A at 12:45 UTC to point B, what is the estimated time of arrival to point B,
given the following?
 The cruising speed is 190 knots

 The distance between A and B is 200NM
The givens are two triangles from the above figure, thus to identify the estimated time
for point B:
Since, D = Speed × Time, then Time elapsed = Distance ÷ Speed
Then  Time elapsed in hrs = 200 ÷ 190 = 1.05 approx
The time elapsed is in hrs, so the 1.05 doesn’t mean 1 hour and 5 minutes, it should
rather be multiplied by 60 to convert it to minutes,
Time elapsed in minutes = 1.05 × 60 = 63 minutes
This means that it will take 63 minutes to reach point B from point A. The expected
time of arrival at point B is 13:48 UTC; given the time of departing point A is 12:45.
The above example is a brief illustration on Dead Reckoning navigation technique;

this can be used any time, with corrections. For example, the speed may be reduced
by the headwind component. If corrections for headwind components are done, an
Chapter 10
accurate estimate of the ETA to the next point can be calculated taking into
consideration the wind effects.
Although flying jet aircraft’s modern equipment will do all this work, pilots should be
aware and prepared for a manual take over anytime.
RADIO AIDS
An advanced type of navigation is navigation using radio aids. This type of navigation
is based on ground equipment sending signals to the aircraft’s embedded receivers.
VOR  VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE
The VOR is a radio navigation aid operating in the 108-118 MHz band. A VOR
ground station transmits a two-phase directional signal. The aircraft's VOR receiver
enables the pilots to identify the radial or bearing From/To the ground station.
Figure 10.2 VOR Facility Figure 10.3 VOR Concept
VOR is a ground-based facility that provides 360 radials; each radial is represented in
degrees, and the 0° radial (360°) is aligned with the magnetic north. Airplanes can
track any of the radials inbound or outbound to reach the station or to divert from the
station, on a certain track. When radial is used alone it always refers to the ray going
outbound from the station. If an airplane is reporting to track radial 360 from VOR,
this means that the airplane is going from the VOR station outbound on a magnetic
north track. Pilots should always distinctively differentiate between radial and courses
inbound.
VOR stations rely on “line of sight” concept, because they operate in the VHF band.
The line of sight concept means the straight line between transmitter and its intended
receiver. The ray between the VOR and the aircraft should not be obscured to enable
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the aircraft to receive a useful signal. This is considered a limitation for the VOR
usage and is supplemented by a limitation depicted on the en-route chart referred to as
Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA). The MRA identifies the minimum altitude at
which a waypoint can be identified using two VOR.
Figure 10.4 Line of Sight Concept
THE USAGE OF VOR
In their professional life, pilots will have to fly VOR navigation sometimes, most
likely during the departure, descent and landing phases.
VOR send useful radials to be identified by an airplane. These radials are either radial
(i.e. outbound from the VOR stations) or course to (radials inbound i.e. going to the
stations).
Example:
ATC  EgyptAir 123 cleared to intercept radial 347 CVO VOR
This clearance means that pilots are cleared to track radial 347° going away from
CVO VOR.
But if the clearance was as follows:
ATC  Egypt Air 123 cleared to intercept 225 radial inbound CVO VOR
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This means that pilots are expected to track the course to the VOR of 45° (225 − 180
= 45).
Other than the basic clearance for VOR navigation, to track any radial the pilots are
always expected to follow the needle of the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI). In the
OBS equipped VOR indicators, if the radial to track is adjusted in the 12 o’clock
position (related to the indicator and the heading of the airplane), the pilot will track
directly the CDI (if the needle goes right, the correcting action is to fly right towards
the needle until it comes to a non deviation indication, i.e. centered). This is the same
if the indicator is equipped with a “TO/FROM” indicator (in case of “TO” indication).
If the opposite is taking place, pilots’ reaction is reversed (known as “Reversed
Sensing.”)
The figures below shows position of airplane compared to the VOR indications:
 Position 1  the aircraft is on the radial, with a heading same as the radial
with no wind conditions
 Position 2  the aircraft drifted to the left, thus the needle showed a
deflection to the right and the pilot has to turn to the needle to be on the radial
again
 Position 3  the wind is blowing from the right side, and the pilot should
maintain a crab angle to the right with the radial tracked, but the radial is not
the same as the aircraft heading due to the crab angle
 Position 4  the pilot had excessive crab angle, so he/she is drifted far to the
right of the radial. The corrective action, as shown by the VOR, is to make a
left turn to fly toward the CDI needle that is drifted to the left
 Position 5  the pilot now has the correct crab angle for the cross wind
component and maintaining the radial tracked
 Position 6  the airplane passed the VOR station and the “TO/FROM”
indications shows “FROM” rather than “TO”, which was shown earlier before
passing overhead the station
 Position 7  the correct crab angle for the wind component is maintained, but
with "From" indication as the pilot now tracks the radial
 Position 8  the pilot elects to make a right turn to track another radial
Chapter 10
Figure 10.5 Tracking a radial in a cross wind
Chapter 10
NDB  NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON & ADF  AUTOMATIC

DIRECTION FINDER
NDB is a ground low frequency radio transmitter. The NDB is still widely used all
over the world. Not as spread as the modern reliable substitutes, still some countries
use NDB because of its cheap prices and its very low maintenance costs. Other than
being an economic device, it has an edge over the VOR in regard with its capabilities,
especially in highly mountainous areas. Because it depends on low frequency signals,
it doesn’t need the receiver to be in a straight line of sight with the station to receive
its signal. This means that the signal propagates around any obstacle to reach its
receivers. However, the NDB has many underperformances due to some
environmental effects. These effects include Night effect, Terrain effect, Electrical
effect, Shoreline effect and Bank effect. These effects reduce the NDB signal
accuracy, but it is very hard to be compensated for. Other than its use in normal
navigation, NDB supplements ILS approaches and other approaches (Marker
Beacons). The signal from the NDB is received by equipment called ADF onboard
airplanes. The ADF is simply an arrow that points to where the signal is coming from.
Figure 10.6 NDB Facility
Chapter 10
THE USE OF NDB
NDB is used in navigation in a very similar way to the VOR. The signal from an NDB
is not called a radial (not a ray coming from the station). Instead, the pilots fly a
magnetic bearing to the station (corresponds to radial inbound and sometimes referred
to as Homing), or fly magnetic bearing from the station.
The illustration below shows airplane position in regard to the ground NDB and the
indication on the ADF:
Figure 10.7 NDB Illustration
The main observation from the above is that the ADF arrow is pointing toward the
location of the station (the inner indicators). When the airplane moves forward on the
same heading, the ADF needle moves backward, away from the heading, and the tail
of the needle moves forward towards the heading. The ADF has no OBS and CDI like
the VOR. The next figure is an illustration of “Homing” or flying a magnetic bearing
to the station:
Figure 10.8 Homing
Chapter 10
Although the above track is not the desired track, still the aircraft will reach the
station. The next illustration shows the crab angle needed to compensate for the cross
wind to maintain the desired track:
Figure 10.9 Homing in a Crosswind
In this illustration, the pilot did the wind crab angle that compensates for the cross
wind and resulted in flying the intended track and ended reaching the station.
In both cases, pilots did reach the station, but doing the crab angle needed to
compensate for wind made the second airplane to maintain its desired track.
DME DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

Distance Measuring Equipment is one of the most useful equipment for flight crews.
It measures the distance of an aircraft to the station. It is very beneficial for pilots,
especially IFR pilots. It simply uses coded pulses between the transmitter and
receiver. Knowing the speed of the pulses, it measures the time needed for the pulse
to be received, thus measuring the distance between the receiver and the transmitter. It
measures speed (in knots) and time (in minutes) to station in lieu of the distance (in
nautical miles). However, the readings for the speed and time are erroneous if the
airplane is flying in any direction other than to or from the station. On the other hand,
if the airplane is flying away from the station, the ground speed will be accurate and
time to station will increase as the airplane flies further away. Other than the cases
above, DME is accurate to a great extent. Another limitation of the DME is measuring
the straight line between the station and the receiver. This is referred to as the slant
range, which is a bit higher than the actual horizontal distance. The variance between
distances measured by the DME, and the actual horizontal distance is amplified when
Chapter 10
flying over the station. The DME reads distance based on the airplane height in
nautical miles. This also affects the speed and time measurements when flying near
the station.
Although the DME has these errors, still it is one of the most reliable, yet useful
equipment. DME equipment can be coupled with other stations like VOR or ILS,
where it is of great use, especially during approaches.
Figure 10.10 DME Facility
Chapter 10
ILS  INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

The ILS system is the primary system for instrumental approaches nowadays. Very
useful in IMC, it provides horizontal, as well as, vertical guidance necessary for an
accurate approach. When complemented by distance guidance, the ILS becomes very
helpful. ILS consists of two ground equipments known as Localizer and Glide slope
along with distance measuring supplements.
Figure 10.11 ILS beam
Chapter 10
LOCALIZER
The horizontal guidance of the ILS system is called localizer, which is responsible for
the alignment of the airplane to the runway centerline. The localizer is an antenna
system that consists of VHF transmitters. The transmitter is in the axis of the runway,
but on its other end, opposite to the direction of approach. The transmitters provide
two directions radial patterns. These two directional radiation patterns intersect
creating a course plane, or a horizontal axis of approach. In some localizer systems,
these two directional radiation patterns can work in the opposite direction, known as
localizer back course, meaning that airplane can use the same localizer for the
opposite runway. The localizer antenna’s navigational ray width can span from 3° to
6°. This ray width insures that the beam is 700ft wide at the runway approach
threshold and is widened as the ray travels away from the threshold. Localizer’s range
is 18 nautical mile in the range of up to 10° from the center of the ray. This deviation
is increased to 35° within 10 nautical miles range.
Figure 10.12 is a depiction of the two radial patterns emitted by the localizer
transmitters. Figure 10.13 is a picture of the localizer equipment.
Figure 10.12 Two Radial Patterns
Figure 10.13 Localizer Equipment
Chapter 10
The course deviation indicator indicates the aircraft relation to the localizer ray, when
the CDI is centered the aircraft is on the correct localizer profile. The full deflection
of CDI indicates that the aircraft is deviated approximately 2.5° from the centerline.
GLIDE SLOPE
The glide slope is the vertical descent indicator in the ILS system. This beam is
created by ground UHF transmitter. The frequency transmitted with ground
equipment is paired with the VHF of the localizer constituting the ILS. Similar to the
localizer the glide slope consists of two intersecting radial patterns. The only
difference is that the two patterns of the localizer are spread horizontally, but the two
patterns of the glide slope are spread vertically. The standard glide slope path is 3°.
The glide slope ensures that the aircraft is 50ft above the threshold. The glide slope
transmitter is located 1,000ft from the beginning of the intended approach runway.
Below is depiction of the glide slope beam (to the left) and the ground equipment (to
the right).
Figure 10.14 Glideslope Beam
Chapter 10
Figure 10.15 Glide Slope Equipment
Flying ILS approaches
The following are different scenarios with conventional equipment when using ILS
for approach:
1. On Localizer and Glide Path
Figure 10.16 On Localizer and Glide Path
Chapter 10
2. Right of the Localizer and above glide path
Figure 10.17 Right of Localizer and Above Glide Path
3. Left of the Localizer and below glide path
Figure 10.18 Left of Localizer and Below Glide Path
Chapter 10
4. Left of the Localizer and beyond the range of usable signal for glide path
Figure 10.19 Left of Localizer and out of Glide Path Range
5. Beyond the range of usable signal for Localizer and below glide path
Figure 10.20 Out of Localizer Range and Below Glide Path
Chapter 10
ILS CATEGORIES
The ILS has three categories depending on the required visibility and the ceiling to
execute the approach. The three categories are as follows:
1. Category I (CAT I)  A precision instrument approach and landing with a

decision height not lower than 200 feet (61 m) above touchdown zone
elevation and with either a visibility not less than 800 meters (2,625 ft) or a
runway visual range not less than 550 meters (1,804 ft)
2. Category II (CAT II)  A precision instrument approach and landing with a
decision height lower than 200 feet (61 m) above touchdown zone elevation,
but not lower than 100 feet (30 m), and a runway visual range not less than
300 meters (984 ft) for aircraft category A, B, C and not less than 350 meters
(1,148 ft) for aircraft category D
3. Category III (CAT III) is subdivided into three sections:
a. Category III A – A precision instrument approach and landing with:
i. Decision height lower than 100 feet (30 m) above touchdown
zone elevation, or no decision height (alert height); and
ii. Runway visual range not less than 200 meters (656 ft).
b. Category III B – A precision instrument approach and landing with:
i. A decision height lower than 50 feet (15 m) above touchdown
zone elevation, or no decision height (alert height); and
ii. A runway visual range less than 200 meters (656 ft) but not less
than 75 meters (246 ft). Autopilot is used until the taxi-speed.
In the United States, FAA criteria for CAT III B runway visual
range allows readings as low as 150 ft
c. Category III C – A precision instrument approach and landing with no
decision height and no runway visual range limitations. This category
is not yet in operation anywhere in the world, as it requires guidance to
taxi in zero visibility as well. "Category III C" is not mentioned in EU-
OPS. Category III B is currently the best available system
Chapter 10
MODERN NAVIGATION – AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)

Although aviation nowadays uses some conventional procedures, some modern types
of navigation, due to the technological boom, came into service. The enhancement in
computers, as well as, the availability of satellites made it possible to navigate without
relying on ground based equipment. Airplanes can fly direct to a waypoint without
having to pass over ground equipment. This concept is called Area Navigation
(referred to as RNAV). Before RNAV the airways were always congested,
accordingly RNAV increased the capacity of the airspaces. Although the airway
structures are still based on conventional navaids, but still RNAV allowed the
existence of waypoints that are not based on conventional navaids, this allowed less
spacing between waypoints.
Figure 10.21 Area Navigation
Most modern jet aircrafts fly under IFR and can’t navigate based on visual cues on
ground; this means that direct routing beyond conventional navaids wasn’t possible,
until introducing new equipments that can be dependant than ground aids. This
equipment includes the following:
 Inertial Navigation System – INS

 Inertial Reference System – IRS
 Global Positioning Systems – GPS
 How the IRS and GPS supplements the airplane’s Flight Management
Computer (FMC)
Chapter 10
INS  INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
INS was one of the initial systems that enabled RNAV. This system is a self-
contained system that detects the motion of the airplane and indicates its displacement
from the aircraft’s initial position or the last position indicated based on its speed,
time and attitude. In other words, this system acts as a pilot in a dead reckoning
navigation flight. In dead reckoning, the pilot detects the speed and time, and does the
calculations to know the position of the aircraft. The INS detects the aircraft’s speed
by accelerometers and its attitudes by gyroscopes.
The accelerometers are electric plates that can measure an object’s speed. It uses
calculations from Newton’s second law (F=MA) to determine the speed based on the
assembly of electric plates. On the other hand, it detects the aircraft’s attitude based
on gyros. Same as the attitude indicator, which uses gyroscopes to identify the attitude
of the aircraft, the INS determines its attitude too. Based on knowing the speed and
attitude and calculating the time, INS can always indicate the position of the aircraft
based on the displacement from its initial position or last position, which should be
inserted manually or using GPS. The following is an assembly of INS with the
accelerometers and the gyroscopes:
Figure 10.22 INS
Although INS was very beneficial for RNAV, it had errors. INS suffers from an error
called integration drift. Integration drift is a small error in calculation of positions
based on time and speed. The INS updates the position based on the last identified
position, thus these errors amplify by time, because the small integration drift error
for new position will be based on the position shift caused by the integration error
from the last position and so on.
Chapter 10
IRS  INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
IRS is very similar to INS with some innovations. IRS has more developed
components than the INS reducing its vulnerability to integration drift. The use of
developed laser gyros reduced the noise, which results in overall reduction of
integration drift. Other than specific components, the IRS’s axis is fixated meaning
that it won’t move with the aircraft. In other words, it uses coordinates of its own,
which is not related to Earth. Thus meaning it has its own database saving the aircraft
motion and comparing it to the initial position not using the last position.
The IRS substituted the INS in modern jet aircrafts and navigation system because of
its higher reliability.
GPS GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
Global Positioning Systems is a satellite-based system for navigation owned and

operated by the United States Air Force. Most people are confused with a term GPS
thinking that this is the navigation based on satellites, which is incorrect. GPS is the
name called on the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) founded by the United
States. For example, the GNSS owned by Russia is called “GLONASS.” GPS is the
mostly used in aviation. GPS is originally composed of 24 satellites that are operated
and maintained by the US ministry of defense. In 1980, US government decided to
provide civilian services using the GPS with no fees, before that it was only available
for military applications. The 24 satellites orbit the earth twice a day in a precise orbit.
These satellites continuously transmit signals to Earth. The GNSS concept in general
based on satellites sending transmissions to vehicles, knowing its position and its
speed (speed of light) the vehicle can know its position in relation to the satellite.
Although the location of the satellites changes, still its new position is known. In
order to use GPS location, a receiver must be installed in the vehicle. This receiver
uses transmissions from a minimum of 3 satellites to provide 2D position (longitude,
latitude and track). If the receiver is able to identify 4 satellites or more, it can provide
3D position of the aircraft (adding altitude). These satellites must be in line of sight
with the vehicle and not obscured by obstacles, including clouds or mountainous
areas, to give an accurate reading.
The GPS has offices all over the world to give continuous monitoring over its system
and support its services.
Satellite navigation is very accurate. However due to the clock drift and the signal of
satellite delay due to passing through ionosphere and troposphere the accuracy of the
Chapter 10
GPS is reduced. These errors are negligible, for example, a simple receiver can be
accurate up to 100 meters in 95% of the time. This means that when using the GPS for
100 minutes the GPS may have an error of the position up to 100 meters that can only
occur within any 5 minutes of the position updates.
In order to enhance its accuracy, three techniques were developed.
 Selective Availability (SA) was a constraint that locks some satellites not
allowing seeing important and vital buildings by terrorists. This constraint is a
falsified timing provided by ground stations not to allow for accurate
positioning. This constraint was cancelled providing more accuracy.
 Differential GPS (DGPS) is a technique that enables civil receivers to achieve
accuracies of 5 m or less. This is achieved by ground monitors sending signals
to the receivers to correct for some of the errors.
 Wide-Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a system consisting of
approximately 25 ground stations controlling the GPS signals and two
reference stations that collect the data of the ground stations and calculate
correction data. These data contain corrections for the satellite orbits, clock
drift and signal delay of the satellites caused by the ionosphere and
troposphere. The data are sent to the receivers via to geostationary satellites.
The following is a table for the GPS accuracies given different constellations:
Accuracy of GPS system with SA activated ± 100 Meter
Typical accuracy with SA deactivated ± 15 Meter
Typical accuracy of differential GPS (DGPS) ± 3 - 5 Meter
Typical accuracy with WAAS/EGNOS ± 1 - 3 Meter

Table 10.1 GPS Accuracies
INS, IRS and GNSS systems enabled the airplane to navigate using RNAV.
Chapter 10
FMC  FLIGHT MANAGEMENT COMPUTER
Modern airplanes use a combination of the above systems for navigation. Modern
airplanes use IRS and GPS for its position update and then compare it to conventional
navaids. In other words, FMC gathers the position data from GPS and IRS and self-
attained position depending on regional conventional navaids to update its position.
As the position accuracy dictates the separation criteria for ATC, there are published
minimums for the required navigation performance, known as RNP. This criterion
should be met by the navigational systems in the airplane. The FMC measures its own
navigation performance known as Actual Navigation performance (ANP). At any
time, the pilots should inform the ATC when the RNP couldn’t be maintained. The
RNP is unique for different airspaces and different phases of flight. For example,
RNAV STAR might have different requirements than en-route airway structure in the
same country. The RNP is published in nautical miles as follows RNP 10. This means
that the ATC requires the airplane to have position accuracy of 10 miles radius around
its actual position 95% of the flight time. In other words, the aircraft position
indicated should be within 10 miles radius of its actual position.
Figure 10.23 ICAO RNP Containment Parameters
Chapter 10
HSI  HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

The HSI is an instrument used for navigation. It provides a basic horizontal view of
the aircraft’s navigation. It combines the heading indicator, VOR, ILS, or ADF
indications. It reduces the pilot’s scanning workload significantly as it compromises
the use of 2 or 3 indicators. However, the HSI may be at first very misleading. The
HSI components are:
Figure 10.24 HSI
Knowing the basic components allow any pilot to maximize their use from the HSI. In
the following illustrations, the techniques to use the HSI will be explained:
1. This indication shows an aircraft position on HSI with the inbound course of a
localizer set on the OBS. Note that on this heading the aircraft is flying
parallel to the localizer and won’t be able to intercept it.
Figure 10.25 Illustration 1
Chapter 10
2. The two illustrations show that the aircraft is on interception heading of the
localizer. The only difference is the interception angles of both airplanes.
Chapter 10
3. The following are different HSI indications in relation to the actual aircraft
horizontal position, with the localizer (course set, i.e. the yellow arrow).
Remember that 1 dot deviation from localizer represents 0.5° deviation, thus a
full scale deflection means a deviation of 2.5°
Chapter 10
4. Interception Angles  interception angle indication on the HSI is the

difference between the aircraft heading and the course line. In this context, the
following two illustrations shows different intercept angles
VOR APPLICATION ON HSI:
The above illustrations were based on localizer interceptions. VOR interception using
HSI is basically the same. Before pointing out the differences between both
indications, it should be noted that the HSI has no “TO/FROM” indication as the
normal VOR. These indications are replaced by the arrowhead indicating the “course
to the station” and the arrow tail indicating the “radial from the station.”
INTERCEPTION ANGLES AND LEADING RADIALS
All modern jet airplanes are equipped with HSI for navigation. There are differences
between high inertia (high weight with high speed) and low inertia (low weight with
low speed) airplanes in navigation, especially in radials or localizer interceptions.
Airplanes with high inertia tend to turn inbound earlier than low inertia airplanes. So
the leading radial for different weights airplane differ. The general rule is the higher
the inertia, the earlier the aircraft will start the turn to avoid overshooting the radial.
The leading radial is the radial which the aircraft will start its turn to intercept its
intended course. For example, if the airplane wants to track 360° radial, the turn will
start at the 350° radial to avoid overshooting. If another airplane with higher inertia
Chapter 10
wants to track the 360° radial, the turn will start earlier, for instance, at the 340°
radial. Picking the correct leading radial depends on some factors. The difference
between the leading radial and the tracked radial increase, when:
 The airplane speed increases, or

 The interception angle increases, or
 The distance from the station decreases
RMI  RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR

RMI displays two VOR or two ADF or combination of both, along with heading. The
following is the components of any RMI:
Figure 10.29 RMI
The RMI is very beneficial as it gives the pilot directly which radials or bearing to the
station the airplane is crossing. However, the RMI doesn’t include a CDI, with no
indication of the deviation from the exact radial or the required bearing to the station.
In modern airplanes, the RMI is used as a standby navigation instrument.
CLIMB GRADIENT CALCULAITONS
In the daily operation of jet liners, pilots are required to calculate their climb
gradients, for example, to comply with a SID. These gradients are required especially
in airports with close in obstacles. Usually, there is a schedule for each required
gradient. However, pilots must know how to calculate the required rate of climb
(Ft/min) from the required gradient (% or Ft/nm).
Chapter 10
In order to calculate the climb gradient, the ground speed of the airplane and the
required gradient should be identified. The required gradients are given either in ft/nm
or in percentage.
For example in Malpensa airport in Milan, the required gradient for a specific SID is
as follows:
The ground speed is circa 150 knots,
Using the 425’ per NM, the required rate of climb will be:
Rate of Climb = (Gradient in ft/nm × Ground Speed) ÷ 60
= (425 × 150) ÷ 60 = 63,750 ÷ 60 = 1,062.5 ≈ 1,063 Ft/min
Using the 7% gradient, the required rate of climb will be:
Rate of Climb = Gradient in % × Ground Speed
= 7 × 150 = 1,050 Ft/min*
* The difference between both methods result from the approximation when
converting height to horizontal distance
DESCENT CALCULATIONS
Descent calculation is particularly important because it contributes to fuel saving,

time saving and eases the ATC and reduces their workload. Descent calculation gives
the pilot vertical awareness, whether the airplane is above or below its correct profile.
The following is some tips on descent calculations:
Assume that the airplane is at FL370
1. No wind condition:
The required distance to run = (altitude ÷1000 × 3) + 10*
Chapter 10
*  10 miles for deceleration
= (37 × 3) + 10 = 111 + 10 = 121NM
This means that the aircraft needs 121 nautical miles to descent
2. Headwind of 30 knots:
For every 3 knots headwind, subtraction of 1nm is required.
Thus a subtraction of 10 nm to the required distance to run is needed. So the new

required distance to run is  111NM
3. Tailwind of 90 knots:
For every 3 knots tailwind, an addition of 1 nm is required.
Thus the addition of 30nm to the required distance to run is needed. So the new
required distance to run is  151nm
HOLDING PATTERNS
In many cases, ATC is required to delay traffic inbound for landing at their airports.
Holding pattern was the best way in order to do a coordinated delay to airplanes in
flight. A holding pattern is a racetrack pattern based on a holding fix. This fix can be a
radio beacon such as a VOR or NDB. The fix is the start of the first turn of the
racetrack pattern. Aircraft will fly towards the fix, and once there, it will enter a
predefined racetrack pattern. A standard holding pattern uses right-hand turns and
takes approximately 4 minutes to complete one pattern (one minute for each 180-
degree turn, and two one-minute sections)
ENTRY PROCEDURES
The pilot is expected to enter a holding pattern according to the aircraft’s heading in
relation to the three sectors shown below, recognizing a zone of flexibility of five
degrees on either side of the sector boundaries.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.30 Holding Pattern Entry Sectors
Sector 1 (parallel entry) procedures are:
1. Upon reaching the fix, turn to the outbound heading of the holding pattern for
a period of time equivalent to that of the leg
2. Turn left to intercept the inbound track or to return directly to the fix
3. Over the fix, turn right and follow the holding pattern
Sector 2 (offset entry or teardrop) procedures are:
1. Upon reaching the fix, turn to a heading equal to the reciprocal minus 30°
2. Continue for the a period of time equivalent to that of the leg, then turn right
to intercept the inbound track and follow the holding pattern
Sector 3 (direct entry) procedures is:
1. Upon reaching the fix, turn right and follow the holding pattern
LEFT HAND PATTERN ENTRY
The standard turn of the hold is to the right. Sometimes due to the unavailability of
protected areas to the right or for planning process, the holding turn is to the left. The
same rules as the above applies, but reversed. The following diagram shows the
section of the entries for the non-standard holding patterns:
Figure 10.31 Non-Standard Hold
Chapter 10
TIMING AND DME BASED HOLDING
The still air time for flying the inbound leg of a holding pattern should not exceed 1
min if at or below 14 000 ft ASL, or 1 1/2 min if above 14 000 ft ASL. Wind
correction is the pilot’s responsibility.
Sometimes holding procedures are expressed in distance. Pilots should use these
distance limitations to determine the leg's length.
Figure 10.32 Holding Pattern
SPEED LIMITATIONS
There are maximum speed limitations for the holding procedures.
The FAA Maximum holding speeds:
 Up to 6,000 ft MSL  200 KIAS

 From 6,001 to 14,000 ft MSL  230 KIAS
 14,001 ft MSL and above  265 KIAS
The ICAO Maximum holding speeds:
 Up to 14000 ft  230kts
 Above 14000 ft to 20000 ft  240kts
 Above 20000 ft to 34000 ft  265kts
 Above 34000 ft  M0.83
Chapter 10
DME ARC
Some airports require some procedures to avoid close in obstacles. One of these well-
known procedures is DME arc. DME arcs require pilots to fly at a constant distance
from DME station. Flying with constant DME distance from the station results in arc
shaped track.
Although new equipments in the airplane can maintain the DME arc, it is necessary
for pilots to know how to fly the arc in case of automation failure. Flying the arc
manually depends on keeping the arrow of the VOR directly off the left wing (if
flying left DME arc) and insuring the correct DME distance.
With an RMI, in a no-wind condition, pilots should theoretically be able to fly an

exact circle around the facility by maintaining an RB of 90° or 270°. The initial turn
should be initiated at 0.5 miles from the required arc distance for ground speed of 150
knots or less. For instance, if a right 10 DME arc needs to be flown, the airplane will
start its turn to the left at 10.5 miles (if the airplane is coming from outside the arc),
and then the procedures will be:
1. With the RMI bearing pointer on the wingtip reference (90°) and the aircraft at
the desired DME range, maintain a constant heading and allow the bearing
pointer to move 5° to 10° behind the wingtip. This will cause the range to
increase slightly
2. Turn toward the facility to place the bearing pointer 5° to 10° ahead of the
wingtip reference, and then maintain the heading until the bearing pointer is
again behind the wingtip. Continue this procedure to maintain the approximate
arc
3. If a crosswind is drifting you away from the facility, turn the aircraft until the
bearing pointer is ahead of the wingtip reference. If a crosswind is drifting you
toward the facility, turn until the bearing is behind the wingtip
4. As a guide in making range corrections, change the RB 10° to 20° for each
half-mile deviation from the desired arc. For example, in no-wind conditions,
if you are 1/2 to 1 mile outside the arc, and the bearing pointer is on the
wingtip reference, turn the aircraft 20° toward the facility to return to the arc.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.33 DME Arc
SDF, LDA and MLS APPROACHES

The Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) provides a final approach course similar
to the ILS localizer. The SDF course may or may not be aligned with the runway, and
the course may be wider than a standard ILS localizer, resulting in less precision.
Usable off-course indications are limited to 35° either side of the course centerline.
Instrument indications in the area between 35° and 90° from the course centerline are
not controlled and should be disregarded. The SDF antenna may offset the runway
centerline. Because of this, the angle of convergence between the final approach
course and the runway bearing should be determined by reference to the instrument
approach chart. This angle is usually not more than 3°. The course width of the SDF
signal emitted from the transmitter is fixed at either 6° or 12°, as necessary, to provide
optimum approach course quality.
The Localizer Type Directional AID (LDA) is of comparable utility and accuracy to
a localizer, but is not part of a complete ILS. The LDA course width is between 3°
and 6° and thus provides a more precise approach course than an SDF installation.
Some LDAs are equipped with a glide slope. The LDA course is not aligned with the
runway, but straight-in minimums may be published where the angle between the
Chapter 10
runway centerline and the LDA course does not exceed 30°. If this angle exceeds 30°,
only circling minimums are published.
The Microwave Landing System (MLS) provides precision approach navigation

guidance. It provides azimuth (left/right) and elevation (glide slope) information,
displayed either on conventional CDI or with multifunction cockpit displays. Range
information is also provided.
MLS requires separate airborne equipment to receive and process the signals from
what is normally installed in general aviation aircraft today. It has data
communications capability, and can provide audible information about the condition
of the transmitting system and other pertinent data such as weather, runway status,
etc.
PATH INDICATORS
VASI
The Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) system is a system consisting of four
light units situated (mostly on the left side of the runway) in the form of two wing
bars referred to as the upwind and downwind wing bars. The aircraft is on slope if the
upwind bar shows red (the near set), and the downwind bar shows white (the far set).
The aircraft is too high if both bars show white, and too low if both bars show red.
Some aerodromes serving large aircraft have three-bar VASI.
PAPI
The Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) uses lights similar to the VASI
system, except they are installed in a single row, normally on the left side of the
runway.
TRI-COLOR
A tri-color system consists of a single light unit projecting a three-color visual

approach path. Below the glide path is indicated by red, on the glide path is indicated
by green, and above the glide path is indicated by amber. When descending below the
glide path, there is a small area of dark amber. Pilots should not mistake this area for
an “above the glide path” indication.
Chapter 10
PULSATING VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE
The Pulsating Visual Approach Slope indicators consist of a single light unit
projecting a two-color visual approach path. The on-glide path indication is a steady
white light. The slightly below glide path indication is a steady red light. If the aircraft
descends further below the glide path, the red light starts to pulsate. The above glide
path indication is a pulsating white light. The pulsating rate increases, as the aircraft
gets further above or below the desired glide slope.
Chapter 10
CHAPTER 11
“FLIGHT PLANNING”
FUEL POLICY
FUEL PLANNING
An operator is required to establish a fuel policy to ensure that every public transport
flight carries sufficient fuel for the planned operation and reserves to cover deviations.
To do this we must understand the legal requirements for minimum fuel, at take-off
and en-route, and to be able to extract fuel flow and consumption data for given
conditions and phases of flight.
FUEL DEFINITIONS AND FUEL POLICY
TAXI FUEL
Taxi fuel must not be less than the fuel expected to be used for engine start up and taxi
to the take-off position, taking into account taxi distances and anticipated traffic delays
at the departure aerodrome.
TRIP FUEL
Trip fuel must not be less than the fuel expected to be used for take-off, climb to the
expected cruising level/altitude, en-route, descent, approach and landing. The
planned/expected routing for all phases of the flight shall be used.
CONTINGENCY FUEL
A contingency is a chance occurrence or unforeseen event. Contingency fuel is carried

to compensate for deviations from:
 the expected fuel consumption data for the individual airplane;

 the forecast meteorological conditions; and/or
 planned routing and expected altitudes.
Chapter 11
FLIGHT PLANNING 11-1
Contingency fuel shall be the higher of (a) or (b) below.
a. Either 5% of the planned trip fuel or, in the event of in-flight re-planning, 5%
of the remaining trip fuel, or
Not less than 3% of the planned trip fuel or, in the event of in-flight re-
planning, 3% of the remaining trip fuel, provided that an en-route alternate is
available. The en-route alternate should be located within a circle having a
radius equal to 20% of the total flight plan distance, the center of which lies on
the planned route at a distance from the destination of 25% of the total flight
plan distance, (or at 20% of the total flight plan distance plus 50 nm, whichever
is the greater); or
An amount of fuel sufficient for 20 minutes flying time based upon the planned
fuel consumption provided that the operator has established a fuel consumption
monitoring program for individual airplanes and uses valid data determined by
means of such a program for fuel calculation; or
An amount of fuel not less than which would be required to fly for 15 minutes
at holding speed 1500 ft above the destination aerodrome in standard
conditions, when an operator has established a program, approved by the
Authority, to monitor the fuel consumption on an individual route/airplane
combination and uses this data for a statistical analysis to calculate contingency
fuel for that route/airplane combination.
b. An amount equal to that required to fly for 5 minutes at the holding speed,
1500 ft above the destination aerodrome in standard conditions.
ALTERNATE FUEL
If an alternate is required, the alternate fuel should be sufficient for:
a. a missed approach from the applicable MDH/DH at the destination aerodrome, to

the missed approach altitude, taking into account the complete missed approach
procedure; and
b. A climb from the missed approach altitude to the cruising altitude; and
c. The cruise from top of climb to top of descent; and
d. The descent from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated, taking
account of the expected arrival procedure; and
e. approach and landing at the alternate aerodrome.
If two alternates are required, the alternate fuel shall be sufficient to get to the alternate
requiring the greater amount of fuel.
Chapter 11
FINAL RESERVE FUEL
Final Reserve fuel should be sufficient to fly for:
a. 45 minutes in an airplane with reciprocating engines; or

b. 30 minutes for an airplane with turbine engines, at the holding speed, 1500
ft above the alternate aerodrome (or destination aerodrome if no alternate is
required).
ADDITIONAL FUEL
Fuel in addition to the above, required for specific types of operation (e.g. ETOPS and
all weather operations).
EXTRA FUEL
Additional fuel that the commander considers necessary.
Figure 11.1 Minimum fuel requirements
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 illustrates and summarizes the different components of the minimum fuel
requirements.
FUEL SUMMARY
In the next two diagrams, fuel that is expected to be burnt is shown in blue and reserve
fuel is shown in red. Any extra fuel that the commander may decide to uplift is shown
in black.
LOCATION OF FUEL BURN
The below diagram shows where the fuel would or could be burnt relating to the
minimum fuel required by fuel policy. From start up to arrival at the destination, taxi
and trip fuel (shown by the blue line) will be burnt. However fuel policy dictates that
reserve fuel (shown by the red lines or dots) must also be on board at start up. The
reserve fuel comprises of:
 Contingency fuel which is normally 5% of the trip fuel. This is represented by

the red dots superimposed on the blue trip line.
 Alternate fuel (when an alternate is required) which is the fuel burnt from
destination to the alternate (requiring the most fuel if more than one is
required). This is represented by the red line from the destination to the
alternate.
 Final reserve fuel which is the amount of fuel that would be burnt if the
airplane held for 30 minutes (jet engine airplane at 1500 ft above the
alternate/destination aerodrome) or 45 minutes (reciprocating engine airplane).
Shown by the red oval holding pattern at the alternate aerodrome.
 Additional fuel if required (not shown on diagram)
 Extra fuel (not shown on diagram)
Figure 11.2 Fuel use relating to fuel policy
Chapter 11
COMPOSITION OF FUEL ON BOARD
The composition of ramp or block fuel is shown in the second column of the block
diagram in figure 11.3. The fuel that is expected to be burnt in flight is shown in blue
and includes start-up, taxi and trip fuel. Fuel policy requires that reserve fuel is also
uplifted before start-up, and for public transport always includes, contingency fuel and
final reserve fuel. Extra fuel is shown in black at the bottom of the column and is at the
discretion of the commander. The minimum planned fuel that must be uplifted (which
excludes the extra fuel) is shown by the left hand column which is colored green.
Figure 11.3 Composition of Ramp fuel and fuel during phases of operation
The graph on the right hand side of the above diagram shows which fuel is being burnt
during each phase of an operation and the composition of the actual fuel on board at
any time. During the operation, taxi fuel is burnt during start up and taxi, trip fuel is
burnt from take-off at the departure aerodrome to arrival at the destination aerodrome
and alternate fuel is burnt if the airplane needs to divert to an alternate.
Chapter 11
Note
1. When arriving at the destination aerodrome (for which an alternate is required),

the fuel on board will consist of alternate fuel, contingency fuel, final reserve
fuel, plus if required or chosen additional fuel* and extra fuel*.
2. At the alternate aerodrome, the fuel on board should consist of contingency
fuel, final reserve fuel, plus if required or chosen additional fuel* and extra
fuel*.
Fuel annotated with an asterisk ‘*’ may not be required or chosen to be carried.
RE-PLANNING IN FLIGHT
As stated before if the actual fuel used is significantly greater than the estimated fuel
used then you might have to consider diverting to either en-route alternate or a nearer
destination alternate.
When you re-plan in flight you effectively re-plan as though you were on the ground,
so the basic flight planning principles and fuel policy rules still apply.
The commander must check the weather conditions are suitable for the new
destination and designated alternate are within required minima.
Fuel on board should be made up of the following:-
 Trip fuel form current position (decision point) to new destination

 Contingency fuel (5% of new trip fuel required)
 Alternate Fuel
 Final Reserve – the aircraft MUST be able to land with this fuel unused.
To get the trip fuel figure you would have to work out the distance, new ground speed
and therefore time to reach the new destination. You need to select a suitable altitude
for the aircraft’s performance AND the upper winds to give you the “minimum time
route” which gives the least fuel required. Modern aircraft flight management
computers can assist in this process.
It is worth noting that the shortest distance or the most optimum altitude might not
give the “minimum time route” when upper winds are applied. Operators are looking
for reduction of costs (fuel) and maximum load factors (passenger/freight) so they
might possibly produce two or three computerized flight plans for a route to find the
most economical one.
Chapter 11
MINIMUM FUEL FOR DIVERSION
The absolute minimum fuel for diversion consists of:
1. Alternate fuel including go- around fuel at destination and approach and
landing fuel at alternate.
2. Fuel required to fly for 30 minutes at 1500 feet above alternate airport
elevation at optimum holding speed.
Any fuel quantity in excess of the minimum fuel for diversion may be used to hold
over the destination airport provided that the prevailing weather conditions are
expected to improve above landing minimum.
PROCEED TO ALTERNATE AIRPORT IMMEDIATELY WHEN FUEL

REMAINING ON BOARD APPROACHES THE MINIMUM FUEL
REQUIRED FOR DIVERSION
Figure 11.4 summarizes the concept of minimum diversion fuel
Figure 11.4 Minimum Diversion Fuel Illustration
Chapter 11
COMPUTERIZED FLIGHT PLANNING

The computerized flight planning system utilizes computer technology to calculate and
provide a highly efficient and accurate flight planning service that will assist airlines in
the rapid, cost effective and safe dispatch of their aircrafts.
How does this work?
The computerized flight planning system, as the name implies, simply is a computer
system with the following inputs:
1. Aircraft performance and company fuel policy data base.

2. Meteo-Upper winds and temperature data base.
3. Navigation data base.
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AND COMPANY FUEL POLICY

DATA BASE
Aircraft performance is a `type` specific attribute. Three regimes are considered
Climb, Cruise and Descent:
Climb:
From ground level to service ceiling interpolated for different weights, ISA 0 to ISA +
20, airfield elevation is also accounted for.
Cruise
Fixed Mach or KIAS, Variable Mach and optimization for:
 Time
 Fuel or Cost
Descent
Time, distance and fuel from altitude to touchdown for ISA standard atmosphere,
airfield elevation is also taken into account.
1. Fuel Policies
No two airlines are the same when it comes to fuel reserve techniques and fuel
policies. Each airline has unique operating circumstances and experience which
require a provider of computerized plans to be as flexible as possible. A special fuel
policy module is incorporated in the system, which meets this requirement in full.
Chapter 11
METEO-UPPER WINDS AND TEMPERATURE DATA BASE
SITA Flight Planning utilizes Meteorological data received from the United Kingdom
Meteorological Center at Bracknell, which is recognized as producing the most
accurate forecasts in the world.
Flight Planning also uses forecasts from each prognosis that are spanned by a flight
plan. A prognosis is a 6 hour forecast of upper air wind activity and each forecast
produces 6 sequential prognoses. Forecasts take place every 12 hours and as soon as
new weather data is received, the old data is deleted. This means plans are as accurate
as possible.
2. Navigation Database
The Navigation database contains over 2 million data items as shown figure 11.5
including:
 All the reporting points and airports in the world

 All SIDS and STARS
 Class 1 NOTAM
 Routes
Airlines can add in their own customized way points as well and also use these for
route construction. Airlines can also number their routes to conform to FMS
numbering and their own unique alternate files to cater for different operating
practices.
A flight plan consists of a fuel plan and route calculated between a city pair. Because
of unique factors (weather patterns etc.) the ideal route between the two cities may
vary on a day to day basis. There is thus a need for several routes between the one city
pair.
The flight planning system will examine, on a thorough basis for each plan, the
prevailing weather conditions and the unique performance characteristics of the
aircraft assigned to derive the optimum plan based on the users` criteria (whether that
be least time, least fuel or least cost). In short the best route for the day is picked
automatically.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.5 Production of a Computerized Flight Plan
The Appendix section includes a detailed example of a computerized flight plan that
will help you understand all of its contents.
Chapter 11
CHAPTER 12
“METEOROLOGY”
THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the study of the earth`s atmosphere and the physical processes that
occur within it. The study of meteorology is important for the pilot because the
atmosphere is the medium through which the aircraft moves. It is important to know
what conditions are present along a route and at the departure, destination and
alternate aerodromes. Also knowledge of the processes in which weather forms is
useful for predicting what conditions may occur during flight.
DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is the gaseous envelop surrounding the Earth. It is held to the earth by
the force of gravity. It moves with the rotation of the Earth and extends from the
surface of the planet slowly fading away into space.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. The composition is not affected
by this up to an altitude of at least 60 km. The following percentages show the
composition of dry air in the lower levels:
Nitrogen: 78.09%
Oxygen: 20.95%
Argon: 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide: 0.03%
This composition of air does not allow for the effects of water in the atmosphere (up to
4% by volume), dust and smoke, or carbon dioxide.
WATER (H20)
Water can assume all three physical states in the atmosphere, the solid state (ice), the
liquid state (water), and the gaseous state (water vapor).
Water is unique in that it can readily change from one state to another and can co-exist
in all three states
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-1
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is divided into 5 distinct layers. Outwards from the surface these are
the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere and exosphere. However, the
last two layers are sometimes combined into the thermosphere.
TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere extends from the surface up to an average height of 11 km. In this
layer, the temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. The troposphere contains
over 75% of the mass of the total atmosphere.
TROPOPAUSE
The boundary separating the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the tropopause.
It is characterized by an isothermal layer, i.e. the temperature is constant.
Figure 12.1 Height of the Tropopause

The height of the tropopause varies with temperature. As the air is heated it extends
and when it is cooled down, it becomes denser and contracts. Therefore, over areas
where there is lots of sunshine and heating the height of the tropopause will increase
and vice versa.
Since the air is generally colder over the poles than over the Equator, the tropopause is
lowest at the poles (approximately 23,000 feet) and highest over the equator
(approximately 53,000 feet).
The height of the tropopause also varies with the atmospheric pressure. When the
atmospheric pressure increases, the air will expand thus forcing the tropopause further
away from the Earth. The opposite will happen when the atmospheric pressure
decreases resulting in the height of the tropopause to decrease.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-2
Although the surface temperature is higher at the Equator than the poles, the
temperature at the tropopause will be lower over the Equator than over the poles since
the temperature on average reduces with increasing altitude and it has a greater
distance over which it will decrease over the Equator.
Figure 12.2 Tropopause
The height of the tropopause doesn’t decrease steadily from the Equator towards the
poles but tends to decrease in segments leaving breaks in the tropopause. There are
two main breaks, one at 40° latitude and one at about 60° latitude. A third break may
be found around 55° latitude, as shown in figure 12.2.
These breaks can often cause strong winds in the area just below the tropopause in the
vicinity of the breaks which are known as jet streams.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-3
STRATOSPHERE
The stratosphere extends to approximately 50 km above the surface of the Earth. Some
flying occurs in the lower parts of the stratosphere, so this lower part, together with the
troposphere, may be referred to as the aviation atmosphere.
The stratosphere is relatively stable. After the isothermal layer in the tropopause, the
temperature starts to increase due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by ozone in
the upper part. The temperature at the stratopause, which is the boundary between the
stratosphere and the mesosphere, is around 0°C.
The stratosphere is generally warmer at high latitudes. This is due to the fact that the
concentration of ozone varies with the latitude, being greater over the poles than the
Equator.
Generally there is very limited vertical movement of air in the stratosphere. However,
strong horizontal wind may be present.
MESOSPHERE
In the mesosphere, temperature again decreases with height. The lowest temperature is
approximately -90°C occurs between 80 and 90 km which is the mesopause.
THERMOSPHERE
This is the outmost layers of the atmosphere that holds the ionosphere in its lower
region and the exosphere in its upper regions.
The thermosphere is characterized by an increase in temperature with height.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-4
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)
Since the conditions within the atmosphere are continuously changing and since
airplane performance varies with the different conditions, aircraft designers sought to
define a “standard day” which could be helpful to use as a reference for all
calculations. The standard day is defined in the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA) and is based on approximate average values throughout the year for the entire
globe. The values defined in ISA are shown in the table below.
Mean Sea Level (MSL) Temperature 15°C
Pressure 1013.25 hPa
Density 1225 g/m3
From MSL to 11 km (36,090 ft.) Temperature decreases at 1.98°C per 1000 ft.
Tropopause at 11 km (36,090 ft.) Temperature -56.5°C
From 11 km to 20 km Temperature constant at -56.5°C
From 20 km to 32 km Temperature rises at 0.3°C per 1000 ft.
ISA DEVIATION
ISA deviation is the difference between the ISA temperature at a level and the actual
temperature at the same level.
The ISA deviation will be either a positive or negative number depending on whether
it is warmer or colder that the ISA temperature. For example, the ISA temperature at a
level is -25°C but an airplane flying at the level measures and outside air temperature
of -30°C. The actual temperature is 5°C lower than the ISA temperature which given
as an ISA deviation would be ISA -5°C. On the other hand, if the ISA temperature is -
25°C and the actual temperature is ISA +5°C, the outside air temperature is -20°C.
Example: You are flying at 30,000 feet. The outside air temperature is -50°C. What is
the ISA deviation?
Answer: The ISA temperature at 30,000 feet based on a 2°C/1000 feet lapse rate is:
15°C – (30,000 X 2°C / 1000 feet) = -45°C. The ISA deviation is -50°C – (- 45°C) = -
5°C
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-5
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND CIRCUALTION

INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere is basically a fluid. The fluidity of the air means that it tends to flow
from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure same way as water will flow
from high to low ground. It is these pressure differences and the consequent movement
of air that are the main cause of weather. An understanding of pressure and pressure
systems is vital for pilots.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Air is made up of particles that, small as they are, are nevertheless under the force of
gravity. The surface will support the weight of the air vertically above it. Atmospheric
pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere in any surface in contact
with it. If pressure is considered as a weight of a column of air with constant cross
sectional area above a surface, then it can be seen from figure 12.3 that the pressure of
the upper surface will be less than the pressure if the lower surface. Thus, atmospheric
pressure will decrease with an increase in height although the rate of change may vary.
Figure 12.3 Volume of air and air pressure
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METEOROLOGY 12-6
MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The SI unit for force is Newton (N). Pressure is unit of force per unit of area;
therefore, the SI unit of pressure becomes Newton per square meter (N/m2). The
average pressure at MSL is 100,000 N/m2, however, atmospheric pressure is normally
expressed in hectopascal (hPa), millibars (mb), millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or
inches of mercury (inHg).
ISA pressure at MSL is 1013.25 hPa or 1013.35 mb. hPa and mb are interchangeable.
Most countries of the world use hPa as the unit of measuring atmospheric pressure,
however, a few countries still use millibars such as the UK.
Measuring pressure as a column of mercury is common as it is very accurate. The

pressure will be measured as a height from a datum and expressed as either
millimeters or inches of mercury, depending on whether the country uses metric or
imperial measurements respectively. ISA pressure at MSL is 760 mmHg or 29.92
inHg. These units may be found in some countries, for example mmHg in Russia and
inHg in the USA.
To convert between hPa or mb to mmHg or inHg, the following formula may be used:
Pressure (hPa or mb) / 1013.25 hPa (or mb) = Pressure (inHg) / 29.92 inHg
Pressure (hPa or mb) / 1013.25 hPa (or mb) = Pressure (mmHg) / 760 mmHg
Example Convert 986 hPa into mmHg:
986 hPa X 29.92 inHg / 1013.25 hPa = 28.50 inHg
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METEOROLOGY 12-7
PRESSURE VARIATION
Pressure varies diurnally, horizontally and vertically.
DIURNALLY
There is a change in pressure during the day which although small (about 1mb) in
temperate latitudes, can be as much as (3 mb) in the tropics and would need to be
taken into account when considering pressure tendency as an indication of changing
weather. The variation is shown in figure 12.4
Figure 12.4 Diurnal variation of pressure

HORIZONTALLY
In addition to the diurnal pressure variation the pressure will also vary between
different places on Earth, even if they are at the same level. This pressure difference
will cause wind which again can cause changing weather.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-8
VERTICALLY
As previously mentioned, the pressure always decreases with increase of height. In

ISA conditions, it is assumed that the surface pressure is 1013.25 hPa. From this the
pressure for any height at the ISA atmosphere can be calculated.
Pressure altitude (flight level) Pressure level
40,000 ft. (FL 400) 200 hPa
30,000 ft. (FL 300) 300 hPa
20,000 ft. (FL 200) 500 hPa
10,000 ft. (FL 100) 700 hPa
MSL 1013.25 hPa
Table 12.1 Pressure variations with height

In table 12.1, one can see that the rate of change of pressure decreases with increasing
altitude. For a 10,000 ft. altitude change starting at MSL the pressure will decrease by
approximately 300 hPa. However, for the same altitude increase when starting at
30,000 ft. the pressure will decrease with about 1/3 of the pressure change by MSL,
i.e. 100 hPa. This is due to the fact that density will also decrease with an increase in
height; therefore, the reduction in weight of air above the surface will not vary
linearly.
For calculation involving pressure changes of less than 50 hPa, the following formula
can be used to calculate the change of height for a change of pressure.
H = 96 X T / P Where,
H = Height change in feet

T = Mean temperature in Kelvin (K)
P = Pressure in hectopascal
Example: Using the values for ISA MSL
T = 15 C + 273 K = 288 K
P = 1013.25 hPa
H = (96 X 288 K) / 1013.25 hPa = 27.3 ft.
Therefore, at mean seal level, 1 hPa change of pressure equals 27.3 ft. change of
height.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-9
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
The primary cause of weather is uneven heating of the Earth`s surface by the sun.
Solar radiation is the driving force that sets the atmosphere in motion. Uneven heating
modifies air density and creates circulation patterns resulting in changes in pressure.
Air flows from the cool dense air of high pressure into the warm, less dense air of low
pressure. The speed of the resulting wind depends on the strength of the pressure
gradient.
If the Earth did not rotate, pressure gradient force would drive wind directly from
highs to lows. Instead, the Earth`s rotation introduces another force, called Coriolis,
that deflects the flow of air to the right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern hemisphere. The deflection continues until pressure gradient force and
Coriolis force are in balance and the wind flows roughly parallel to the isobars.
Wind flows clockwise around a high and counterclockwise around a low. Air flows
outwards and downwards from a high and inwards and upwards towards a low.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Pressure systems as shown on charts are areas around which the isobars (See definition
below) for some sort of patterns. These patterns may often take the shape of concentric
circles. There are basically two types of pressure systems, high pressure areas
(anticyclones) and low pressure areas (depressions).
STANDARD PRESSURE
Standard pressure is 1013 hPa, according to ISA as defined by ICAO.
QFE
QFE is the pressure at a meteorological station or at the datum level of an aerodrome.
QNH
QNH is the QFE corrected to MSL assuming ISA conditions.
QFF
QFF is the QFE corrected to MSL using actual outside air temperature and assuming
an isothermal layer between the station and MSL.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-10
QNE
QNE is indicated altitude at touchdown with reference to the standard pressure surface
(1013 hPa), i.e. pressure altitude.
ISOBAR
An isobar is a line joining places of equal pressure which is found on certain weather
charts.
COMPARISON BETWEEN QFE, QNH AND QFF

At MSL, QFE, QNH and QFF will all be identical in any condition.
For stations that are not at MSL there will be a difference between QFE and
QNH/QFF. The difference between QFE and QNH will always be the same for a given
station. QNH and QFF will be the same in ISA conditions, however, when the
temperature is different from ISA, there will be a difference QNH and QFF.
Figure 12.5 QFE vs. QNH vs. QFF for a station above MSL
The figure above shows an aerodrome with an elevation of 540 ft. above MSL with the
QFE at the aerodrome being 998 hPa. QNH, which is always calculated using ISA
conditions, may be calculated using 27 ft./hPa over 540 ft. giving a 20 hPa change.
Since MSL, and therefore QNH reference level, is below the aerodrome level, the 20
hPa pressure difference must be added to the QFE giving a QNH of 1018 hPa.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-11
To calculate the QFF, actual conditions are being used. Since the center column has
ISA conditions, both QFF and QNH will be the same.
The left hand column of air is warmer than ISA. The air is less dense so the pressure
change is less over the same change of height. This results in the pressure change from
QFE to QFF being less than 20 hPa, making the QFF lower than the QNH.
The right hand column of air is colder than ISA. The air is denser so the pressure
change is greater over the same change of height. This results in the pressure change
from QFE to QFF being greater than 20 hPa, making the QFF higher than the QNH.
PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
When flying towards lower pressure with a constant altimeter setting, the following
applies:
 True altitude will decrease when flying at a constant indicated altitude.
 Indicated altitude will increase when flying at a constant true altitude.
 The altimeter indicates that the aircraft is higher than it really is, i.e. indicated
altitude is lower than true altitude.
 When flying towards higher pressure with a constant altimeter setting, the
following applies:
o True altitude will increase when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

o Indicated altitude will decrease when flying at a constant true altitude.
o The altimeter indicates that the aircraft is lower than it really is, i.e.
indicated altitude is higher than true altitude.
Example 1 shows how to calculate QNH when given QFE and elevation of an
aerodrome
Example 1:
An aerodrome has an elevation of 351 ft. The QFE is reported as 999 hPa. What is the
approximate QNH?
The change of pressure equivalent to 351 ft. is 351ft. / 27ft./hPa = 13 hPa
The airfield is above MSL, making the QNH: 999 hPa + 13hPa = 1012 hPa
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-12
Example 2 shows how to calculate the height of an aircraft when given the QNH and
QFE for the aerodrome and the indicated altitude of the aircraft.
Example 2:
An aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 3500 ft. with an altimeter setting of

1010 hPa. A nearby aerodrome reports a QFE of 988 hPa and a QNH of 1010 hPa.
Assuming ISA temperature, what is the height of the aircraft?
Since the altimeter setting is the same as the QNH and the temperature is according to
ISA, indicated altitude and true altitude are the same. Elevation of the aerodrome may
be found using the difference between QFE and QNH.
Aerodrome elevation is : ( 1010 hPa – 988 hPa) X 27 ft./hPa = 594 ft.
The height of the aircraft is: 3500 ft. – 594 ft. = 2906 ft.
DEPRESSIONS
If we get a point from which the pressure will increase as we move horizontally in any
direction from this point we have a low pressure center or a depression.
As seen on Figure 12.6, the depression is seen as an “X” indicating the center with an
“L” and the lowest pressure value to be found in the center. The isobars surrounding
the center are typically circular and fairly close together covering a relatively small
area.
Figure 12.6 Typical depression
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METEOROLOGY 12-13
The air within the depression will ascend (which makes the pressure drop in the first
place) and air will flow towards the depression along the surface of the Earth. This
inflow of air will converge in the center, trying to equalize the pressure and fill up the
depression. When the rising air reaches the tropopause it cannot rise any further and
will flow out, along the tropopause. Depending on the rate of this flow, a relatively
high pressure may form at the tropopause level, as shown in figure 12.7
Figure 12.7 Depression with high pressure at altitude

.
Due to the rising air in the depression clouds tend to form and typical weather is
described in the table below.
Cloud Full cover from near the surface to the

tropopause
Precipitation Generally continuous light or moderate.

Heavy showers and thunderstorms
possible due to the unstable nature of air.
Visibility Good out of precipitation but poor in

precipitation.
Temperature Mild.
Winds Depends on the pressure gradient of the

isobars but normally strong.
Table 12.2 Typical weather in a depression
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METEOROLOGY 12-14
ANTICYCLONES
If we get a point from which the pressure will decrease as we move horizontally in any
direction from this point we have a high pressure center or an anticyclone.
As seen on Figure 12.8, the anticyclone is seen as an “X” indicating the center with an
“H” and the highest pressure value to be found in the center. The isobars surrounding
the center may be roughly circular and reasonably well spaced. The anticyclone will
cover a large geographical area compared to a typical depression and may be said to
have a relaxed pressure gradient (little pressure variation over a large distance).
Figure 12.8 Typical anticyclone
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METEOROLOGY 12-15
The air within the anticyclone will descend, which is the cause of the pressure rise on
the surface. The descending air will diverge and flow out from the center when it hits
the surface of the Earth. As the air descends from tropopause level, the pressure at
high altitudes tends to drop causing a relatively low pressure at high altitude and an
inflow of air as shown in figure 12.9.
Figure 12.9 Anticyclone with low pressure at altitude

The descending air normally stops any clouds forming and typical weather is
described in the table below.
Cloud None because of the warming effect of

the descending air.
Precipitation None.
Visibility In summer, haze conditions can occur. In

winter, foggy conditions.
Temperature Depends on the type. Hot in summer,

cold in winter.
Winds Light.
Table 12.3 Typical weather in an anticyclone
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METEOROLOGY 12-16
TROUGHS
If the isobars around a low become elongated in one direction into a V-shape, a trough
has formed. The pressure along the axis of the trough is lower than when moving away
from the axis. A trough will often form with frontal activity, in particular cold fronts.
Whether the trough is frontal or not, there will be increased lifting along its axis
because of convergence. As the air flows along the isobars inertia will make it difficult
for the air to change direction fast enough to make the turn which means that the air to
rise as it cannot flow towards higher pressure or into the ground.
Figure 12.10 Typical shape of a trough
The weather associated with a trough will typically be similar to that found in the
depression but often more severe because of the increased lifting caused by the
convergence. If there is no particular frontal activity, there will often be a line of
cumuliform clouds along the axis of the trough.
Generally the winds will be gusty and the visibility good except in precipitation.
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METEOROLOGY 12-17
RIDGES
Ridges are an extension from a high pressure system. They are more rounded than
troughs; more like a U shape.
Figure 12.11 Typical shape of a ridge

Ridges are often found between two polar front depressions. They provide periods of
good weather.
Ridge weather is very similar to anticyclone weather and will have light winds and
will often give improving weather as a ridge may frequently form after a depression.
COLS
A col is a region of very little pressure variation between two high and two lows.
Winds are therefore very light and the air remains mostly stationary, so it remains in
contact with the ground for an extended period of time. Cols generally get quickly
absorbed into other systems, lasting only a few days.
Figure 12.12 Typical position of a col
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-18
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

INTRODUCTION
Weather is very dependent upon the moisture content of the air. If the air is dry, the
weather is usually good. If the air is very moist, poor or even severe weather may be
present.
Most water in the atmosphere is in the form of water vapor, which is water in its
gaseous state. This water cannot be seen. In order for water to become visible in the
form of clouds, mist or fog it must turn into water droplets or ice crystals.
SATURATION
As water evaporates into the air, there comes a point in which the air can no longer
accept any more water vapor. The amount of vapor that air can hold is dependent on
its temperature. The higher temperature, the more water vapor the air can hold.
When the air contains the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold, it is described
as being saturated.
The air can reach saturation in two ways, either by increasing the amount of water
vapor or cooling the air as cold air holds less water vapor than warm air.
HUMIDITY
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the air. It is often expressed as a
percentage and is known as relative humidity.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity is an expression of how much water vapor is in the air, expressed as
a percentage of the maximum amount the air could hold at that temperature and
pressure.
SATURATION AND DEWPOINT
As previously mentioned, the higher the temperature, the larger the amount of water
the can hold. Thus, if a parcel of air contains a certain amount of water vapor and is
cooled, it will be able to hold less water vapor. If it continues to cool, it eventually
reaches a point where the amount of water vapor it can hold is equal to the amount it is
actually holding. The air is said to be saturated, the temperature at which this occurs is
called the dew point. Cooling the air beyond this point results in water vapor
condensing to become droplets, this causes clouds, fog/mist, or dew.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-19
DENSITY
INTRODUCTION
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Density in the atmosphere is
usually expressed as grams per cubic meter. It may also be expressed as a percentage
of the standard surface density. This is called relative density. Density altitude is
another way of expressing density.
EFFECT OF WATER VAPOR ON AIR DENSITY
Water vapor is less dense than air. Therefore, all other things being equal, the density
is lower in more humid atmospheres. This difference is usually insignificant and can
be ignored for aviation purposes. In the tropics, however, where it can be very humid,
it can make a large difference.
VARIATION OF SURFACE AIR DENSITY WITH LATITUDE
Air density is lowest with low pressure and high temperature. So in the equatorial
regions, density at the surface is low.
High pressure and low temperature results in high density. Examples of this can be
found at the poles or at the center of a large land mass in winter (e.g. Siberia).
So, in general, density increases with increasing latitude.
The lowest density can be found at an aerodrome that is not only hot and high, but
humid. An example is Nairobi, which is very close to the equator, so experiences high
temperatures and humid conditions. It is also at an elevation of about 5500 ft., so has
all the attributes that contribute to low density.
VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH HEIGHT
As height increases, both the temperature and pressure decreases. A decrease in

temperature will lead to an increase in density and a decrease in pressure leads to an
increase in density. This, however, does not mean that the density remains constant
increasing altitude since pressure and density decrease at different rates.
As previously mentioned, the pressure decreases with approximately 10 hPa for a 300
ft. increase in altitude close to MSL. This will result in a reduction in density of about
1%. However, a similar height increase would cause a drop in temperature of
approximately 0.6 °C. This will lead to an increase in density of about 0.3%.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-20
Therefore, the density will have an overall decrease with increasing altitude. This is
because the reduction in density due to reducing pressure is greater than the increase in
density caused by the reducing temperature.
Typical density values with increasing altitude would be:
20,000 ft. Density is 50% of the surface value.
DENSITY ALTITUDE
Density altitude is the pressure altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at
which that density would occur.
If it is warmer than ISA, the density altitude is higher than the pressure altitude and
vice versa for colder than ISA conditions.
CALCULATING DENSITY ALTITUDE
Density altitude differs from pressure altitude by approximately 120 ft. per 1°C
deviation from ISA. Add the difference to the pressure altitude if warmer than ISA,
subtract of colder.
Example: The pressure altitude is 20,000 ft. The ISA deviation is +4 °C. What is
the density altitude?
Answer: It is warmer than ISA so the difference must be added.
Density altitude = 20,000 ft. + (120ft. /°C x 4°C) = 20,480 ft.
EFFECT OF DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Low density reduces the performance of engines and aerofoils.
Engines work by accelerating air backwards in order to produce thrust. Less dense air
has lower mass. The lower the mass, the less thrust the engine produces.
The amount of lift produced is directly proportional to the density. If density is low,
the lift will decrease with all factors constant.
Density must be considered when calculating take-off and landing performance. The
aircraft must produce enough life to counteract the weight and as stated above, lift
decreases with decreasing density. This means an airplane must its take-off and
landing speeds, which will lead to greater take-off and landing distances. Another
option is to reduce the weight of the aircraft to enable it to take-off and land on a given
runway as the speeds could be lower.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-21
At an airport such as Nairobi, airplanes often have to operate with reduced weight at
the hottest time of the day.
TEMPERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Temperature is one of the most important variables that affect the atmosphere. The
temperature changes that occur on the surface of the Earth result in both vertical air
movements that lead to cloud formation and horizontal air movement that leads to
wind generation.
As previously stated, the temperature has steady decrease with height in the
troposphere. However, in the actual atmosphere it may be constant with height
(isothermal) or increase with height (inversion)
HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Heat is transferred in the atmosphere by different processes. The processes include:
SOLAR RADIATION
Radiation from the sun does not heat the atmosphere directly but heats the surface of
the Earth which in turn will heat the atmosphere. This process is called insolation.
Figure 12.13 Solar Radiation

CONDUCTION
Conduction occurs when two bodies are touching one another. Heat passes from the
warmer body to the colder body. For example, heat passes from a warm ground
surface to the air.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-22
CONVECTION
The vertical movement of air is called convection. As air is heated by conduction or

radiation, it becomes less dense and tends to rise.
ADVECTION
Advection is the horizontal movement of air. It is caused by variation in pressure,

which in turn creates wind that will transport air from one place to another where the
air initially will keep its characteristics including temperature.
DIURNAL VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE

Despite the maximum of insolation occurring at noon, the warmest time of the day will
be a couple of hours past this (1400-1500 local time). This is due to the slow emission
of energy from the Earth compared to the rate of supply from the sun. Although the
amount of insolation will reduce after noon, the rate of radiation from the Earth will
still be lower than the rate of supply from the sun, which results in an overall increase
in temperature. Once past this time the amount of insolation is lower than the energy
the Earth is losing through radiation, thus it starts getting colder.
As the figure 12.14 also shows, the coldest time of the day is about 30 minutes after
sunrise. This is due to the fact that when the sun comes above the horizon nearly all
the energy is reflected which means that the insolation initially will be lower than the
radiation from the Earth, which means the Earth is still losing energy. However, as the
sun gets higher, the amount of insolation will eventually be greater than the energy
loss through radiation and the surface will start heating again.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-23
Figure 12.14 Idealized diurnal variation of temperature
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
As previously stated, the temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude in
the troposphere. This was defined as the lapse rate.
However, sometimes there is an increase in temperature with an increase in altitude.

This is called a temperature inversion. Inversions may occur near the surface or at high
altitudes, but they often occur in stable air with little or no wind and turbulence.
Visibility is often restricted by fog, haze, smoke and low clouds.
STABILITY
The stability of the atmosphere is found by comparing the temperature between a
parcel of air, which is being forced to rise, with the temperature of the air which is
surrounding that parcel of air in its new position. As air is moving vertically it is
subject to adiabatic processes which are the main cause of this temperature difference
between the parcel of air and the surrounding air.
This possible temperature difference is of great importance when it comes to assessing

the type of weather to expect. If the parcel of air becomes warmer than the surrounding
air it will act like a hot air balloon and continue to rise under its own power, which can
create large clouds and associated weather. On the other hand, if the parcel of air
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-24
becomes colder than the surrounding air it will sink back towards its origin and
therefore limit any cloud formation. An understanding of the general concepts behind
stability is essential for a professional pilot.
LAPSE RATES
Lapse rates in connection with stability are said to be positive when the temperature is
decreasing with increasing altitude and negative in an inversion. Thus, a large lapse
rate is one where the temperature decreases rapidly with increasing altitude. There are
three lapse rates in connection with stability, the environmental lapse rate (ELR), the
dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)
ENVIROMENTAL LAPSE RATE
The environmental lapse rate, or ELR, is the accrual vertical temperature profile for
the atmosphere above a given point on the Earth`s surface. This will continuously vary
as air of different temperatures is moving around and the air is cooled and heated
during the day.
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE.
When unsaturated air is forced to ascend to descend it will, as previously mentioned,

cool with increasing altitude or heat with decreasing altitude respectively. The DALR
is the amount by which the air will change its temperature for a given altitude change,
provided the air is unsaturated. Its common value is 3°C per 1000 ft.
SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
If the air is saturated and the water in the air changes its state from vapor to liquid, the
water will release latent heat. This heat will then affect the lapse rate for the parcel of
air. For air that is ascending and cooling, this release of latent heat will make the air
cool more slowly. On the other hand, if the air is descending and heating, it will be
able to hold more moisture and some of the water in liquid state will now evaporate,
thus absorbing heat. This absorption of heat will make the air cheat more slowly.
The effect of water changing state as the air is either ascending or descending is the
reason for the existence of the SALR. The SALR will always be lower than the DALR
because of this.
However, since the amount of released or absorbed heat depends on the amount of
water changing state, air with high temperature will have a lower SALR than air with
low temperature. This means that the SALR will be slightly variable, but generally is
lower in tropical regions than in polar regions. The SALR will also gradually increase
towards the DALR with increasing altitude since the air becomes colder and holds less
moisture that will condense.
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METEOROLOGY 12-25
THE STABILITY OF THE AIR

The ELR determines whether the air is stable (air that has been lifted sinks back),
unstable (air that has been lifted continues to rise) and conditionally unstable (air that
has been lifted sinks back or continues to rise depending on whether it is saturated).
ABSOLUTE STABILITY
The air is absolutely stable when any parcel of air, which is forced to rise, will sink
back down when the lifting force is removed. This will happen when the parcel of air
is colder than the surrounding air, which is when the lapse rate for the rising air is
higher than the surrounding air. Thus, when the ELR is lower than both the DALR and
the SALR, any rising parcel of air will cool faster than the surrounding air and
therefore, sink back down once the lifting force is removed.
ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
The air is absolutely unstable when any parcel of air, which is forced to rise, will
continue to rise under its own power when the lifting force is removed. This will occur
when the parcel of air is warmer than the surrounding air, which is when the lapse rate
for the rising air is lower than the surrounding air. Thus, when the ELR is greater than
both the SALR and the DALR, any rising parcel of air will cool slower than the
surrounding air and, therefore, continue to rise under its own power when the lifting
force is removed.
CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY
This occurs when the state of stability is decided by whether the air is saturated. When
the air is unsaturated, it will cool down by the DALR, which is greater than the lapse
rate for the surrounding air, and therefore the air will sink back down once the lifting
force is removed. When the air is saturated, it will cool by the SALR, which is lower
than the lapse rate for the surrounding air, making the air rise under its own power
when the lifting force is removed.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-26
CLOUDS
INTRODUCTION
Whenever the air reaches saturation, water vapor will change state to water droplets or
ice crystals, which will be visible to the eye. If this occurs above the ground a cloud
may be formed. The stability of the atmosphere is among the factors that dictate what
type of cloud will be formed.
The main types of clouds are stratiform, cumuliform and cirriform. The table below
outlines the difference.
Cloud Classification State of Stability Composition
Cirriform N/A Ice crystals only
Cumuliform Unstable Water droplets and/or ice

crystals
Stratiform Stable Water droplets and/or ice

crystals
Table 12.4 Cloud classification vs. state of stability and composition

The average lifetime of a cloud is 15-20 minutes, but cumulonimbus clouds can last 2
– 3 hours.
CLOUD TYPES
There are several types of cloud, and most of them are named depending on how they
were formed, the altitude at which they may be found and whether they indicate stable
or unstable conditions. There are three main categories, which are based on the height
bands in which they are found. These are high level, medium level and low level
clouds.
The following table shows an overview of the different cloud types split into the level
where they are found.
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METEOROLOGY 12-27
Height Band Cloud Name Code Remarks
High level 45 000 ft. to Cirrus CI

clouds
16 500 ft. Cirrocumulus CC
Cirrostratus CS
There are two sub-types of altocumulus:
 Altocumulus lenticulars, which

are associated with mountain
Medium waves.
level  Altocumulus castellanus, which
clouds 23 000 ft. to Altocumulus AC are associated with medium level
6500 ft. instability, e.g. inflow of cold air
at medium levels
Altostratus AS
The base is usually found in the low

level band, however, the cloud may
Cumulus CU have a large vertical extent.

level band, however, the cloud will have
Cumulonimbus CB a large vertical extent.
Low level 6 500 ft. to
clouds the surface Stratus ST
Stratocumulus SC Also called turbulence cloud.

level band, however, the cloud may
Nimbostratus NS have a large vertical extent.
Table 12.5 Overview of cloud types
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METEOROLOGY 12-28
STRATUS
It is a cloud layer with large horizontal extent but little vertical development. It
generally has a very low cloud base and covers the whole sky. It is a turbulence cloud,
often found in the warm sector of polar front depressions. They consist of water
droplets, so light to moderate icing can be expected. Precipitation may occur as
drizzle, freezing drizzle, or snow grains.
Figure 12.15 Layer of low stratus
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METEOROLOGY 12-29
STRATOCUMULUS
It is stratiform cloud caused by turbulence. It can be found between heights of 1000 ft.
and 6500 ft. Since it is formed by turbulence, light to moderate turbulence when flying
in or below the cloud might be expected. Conditions are calm above the cloud.
Like stratus, the cloud consists of water droplets, so light to moderate icing, drizzle,
freezing drizzle, or snow grains can be expected. In addition, ice pellets and, from the
thicker stratocumulus, intermittent rain or snow might be expected. Heavy snowfall
can be expected in winter.
Figure 12.16 Layer of stratocumulus
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METEOROLOGY 12-30
CUMULUS
They are formed convectively and the base can be found between 3000 and 7000 ft. in
the summer and 700 and 4000 ft. in the winter. The tops can extend to 25,000 ft.
They consist of water droplets, which are supercooled above freezing level.
Precipitation can be present when the cloud has a vertical extent greater than 10,000 ft.
It can take the form of rain or snow showers.
When the cloud becomes towering without being “iced” at the top, it is called towering
cumulus (TCU).
Strong vertical currents can be present and larger cumuliform clouds should be
avoided. Moderate to severe icing may be encountered.
Figure 12.17 Layer of fair weather cumulus
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METEOROLOGY 12-31
CUMULONIMBUS
They are towering cumulus clouds with a top that has turned into cirrus. This is called
the anvil and extends in the direction of the wind. The anvil is fibrous and diffuse in
appearance.
This cloud is very hazardous to aircrafts. It is very dense and consists of water droplets
of varying sizes, so moderate to severe to icing may be expected. Moderate to severe
turbulence is also likely.
These clouds may have precipitation in the form of rain or snow showers and hail.
Figure 12.18 Well developed cumulonimbus
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METEOROLOGY 12-32
ALTOSTRATUS
They are similar to nimbostratus but are less deep and less dense. This type of cloud
can be an indication of an approaching warm front
It contains water droplets and ice crystals; therefore, it can cause light to moderate
icing. Light to moderate turbulence can also be expected. Precipitation can take the
form of continuous or intermittent rain or snow.
Figure 12.19 Layer of altostratus
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METEOROLOGY 12-33
CIRRUS
They are thin wispy clouds, which are often associated with an approaching warm
front. They can also indicate the line of jet streams.
They consist of ice crystals and do not produce icing or precipitation. Likewise, there
is no turbulence.
Figure 12.20 Layer of cirrus
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METEOROLOGY 12-34
CIRROSTRATUS
It is a sheet like cloud which is associated with warm fronts. It contains ice crystals
and does not produce icing, precipitation or turbulence.
Figure 12.21 Layer of cirrostratus
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METEOROLOGY 12-35
CIRROCUMULUS
They are formed when there is turbulence within cirrus or cirrostratus. It consists of
ice crystals and occasionally freezing water droplets. There is no icing or precipitation.
There may be light turbulence.
Figure 12.22 Layer of cirrocumulus
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METEOROLOGY 12-36
CLOUD FORMATION
As previously mentioned, in order for the cloud to form, the air has to reach saturation.
The most common way for that to be is when air is rising and cooling adiabatically
until reaching dew point. This will then be the cloud base. The cloud tops will mostly
be determined by the stability of the atmosphere and the cause of lifting.
The typical lifting actions causing clouds are:
 Convection
 Frontal uplift
 Orographic uplift
 Turbulence
 Convergence
CONVECTIVE CLOUDS
These clouds form as a result of convection which is the vertical movement of air. If
the ground is heated by the sun on a clear summer day, the air close to the ground will
be heated by conduction and may therefore begin to rise. As it rises it will be cooled
adiabatically and, depending on the spread between temperature and dew point and the
depth of the unstable layer, it may reach saturation and the cloud will form.
Convective clouds will be cumuliform as they form as a result of instability.
FRONTAL CLOUDS
When air of a different temperature replaces an airmass which has been over an area, it
may create a front. Depending on whether the replacing air is warmer or colder than
the original airmass it will dictate the stability of the air. If the replacing airmass is
warmer, it creates a warm front where the air cooled from below, thus becoming stable
and creating stratiform clouds. If the replacing air is colder, it is heated from below
and therefore becoming less stable or unstable and cumuliform clouds will form,
OROGRAPHIC CLOUDS
These form as a result of air being forced to rise above high ground. Orographic
clouds may be concealed by the high ground if the air reaches saturation as it ascends
along the rising ground or be above the high ground and slightly downwind of the high
ground.
However, the main bulk of cloud will often be found on the windward side with less
cloud and drier conditions on the downwind side as the air will lose moisture as it
condenses out on the windward side and there may be a small tendency for the air to
sink on the downwind side.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-37
An example of this type of cloud is the altocumulus lenticulars which form above the
crest of high ground and have a lens like shape as shown in the figure below.
TURBULENCE CLOUDS
They form in a turbulent, stable layer. If the wind is strong enough, even over a
relatively smooth surface as the sea, the airflow will be disturbed and turbulence will
form. The turbulence will lift parcels of air from the lower part of the layer and force
parcels of air to descend. The air that is lifted will cool adiabatically and the air that is
descending will heat adiabatically. These parcels of air will mix with environmental
air and cause a lowering temperature at the top of the layer and an increase in the
lower part of the layer.
CONVERGENCE CLOUDS
Convergence of air, which occurs in depressions and troughs, where forced lifting
occur as a result of it. This will generally lead to clouds with large vertical extent
which are most likely of the cumuliform type.
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METEOROLOGY 12-38
AIRMASSES
INTRODUCTION
Air masses are large volumes of air with properties of humidity and temperature which
remain almost constant horizontally.
This mass of more or less constant properties arises from the fact that the air in air
masses remains stationary over the source region for an extended period of time. This
essentially means that the air masses originate only in high pressure areas, as low
pressures tend to be temporary lived.
ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION

Air masses are initially classified by the latitude from which they originate.
There are three main types:
 Tropical
 Polar
 Arctic
They are further subdivided depending in whether they originate over sea or land:
 Maritime
 Continental
This classification results in five main air masses:
1. Tropical continental
2. Tropical maritime
3. Polar continental
4. Polar maritime
5. Arctic
Tropical air originates in the sub-tropical high pressure zones. An example of

continental tropical air would be the air mass which originates in North Africa.
Maritime tropical air originates in the permanent high pressures over the oceans. In the
North Atlantic this is the Azores high. There is an equivalent high pressure in the
North Pacific.
Continental polar air originates in the high pressures over large land masses, hence this
air mass is mainly a winter phenomenon. Examples of sources are Siberia and North
America
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-39
Maritime polar air originates in the north of the North Atlantic and North Pacific.
Arctic air originates over the North Polar ice cap. Since the region is ice covered,
arctic air is not subdivided into continental and maritime. In the southern hemisphere
there is an Antarctic air mass originating over the South Polar ice cap.
MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

As the air masses pass over other regions as they travel away from their sources, their
properties change. In general, the following rules apply:
An air mass passing over a warmer area:
 Becomes warmer.
 Becomes more unstable.
 Experiences a reduction in relative humidity.
An air mass passing over a colder area:
 Becomes colder.
 Becomes more stable.
 Experiences an increase in relative humidity.
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METEOROLOGY 12-40
FRONTS
INTRODUCTION
When an air mass moves out of its source region, it comes in contact with other air
masses that have different moisture and temperature characteristics. The boundary
between air masses is called a front. Since fronts can produce quite active weather, a
professional pilot has to have a thorough understanding of this weather.
The change in temperature and pressure are the easiest ways to recognize the passage
of a front. But the most reliable indications of crossing a front are the change in wind
direction and less frequently wind speed. Although, the exact new wind direction is
difficult to predict, the wind always shifts to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.
As a front approaches, atmospheric pressure usually decreases, with the area of lowest
pressure lying directly over the front.
TYPES OF FRONTS
When two air masses meet, the warmer air is less dense and rises up over the colder
air. This gives a sloping frontal surface.
QUASI-STATIONARY FRONT
When there is little frontal movement, and neither air mass can be said to be replacing
the other, it is termed a quasi-stationary front. Figure 12.23 shows this situation along
with the synoptic symbol used on the charts for the quasi-stationary front.
Figure 12.23 Quasi-stationary front
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METEOROLOGY 12-41
WARM FRONT
A warm front occurs when warm air replaces cold air. It rides up over the cold air
forming a sloping frontal surface.
Since warm air is less dense, its progress is retarded by the cold dense air ahead of it.
The gentle slope of the front means that the lifting will not be strong enough to form
cumuliform clouds. Instead, stratus clouds are more likely to form in the following
order: Cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, nimbostratus and stratus.
No precipitation will be experienced prior to reaching the altostratus where virga,

which is precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground, may occur. As the
nimbostratus approaches the precipitation will become continuous moderate or heavy.
As the front approaches, the pressure drops, but once it passes the drop will be
arrested.
Wind direction change tends to be gradual over some time since the passage of the
system is quite slow. Figure 12.24 also shows the synoptic symbol used on charts to
represent a warm front.
Figure 12.24 Warm front
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METEOROLOGY 12-42
COLD FRONT
A cold front occurs when cold air replaces warm air. The cold air undercuts the warm
air because it is denser and its progress is not impeded by the warm air it replaces.
Cold front lifting is relatively great therefore it produces cumuliform clouds such as
cumulus and cumulonimbus with possible thunderstorm activity. There may be layers
of altostratus, altocumulus and some cirrus extending behind the main bulk of clouds
associated with the cold front.
As the front approaches, the pressure drops due to the rising air, but after its passage it
rises again and settles at a greater value than that preceding the front since the air is
now colder.
Wind direction changes relatively quicker than warm fronts. Therefore, strong
windshear tends to be associated with active cold fronts.
Figure 12.25 also shows the synoptic symbol used on charts to represent a cold front.
Figure 12.25 Cold Front

OCCLUSIONS
An occluded front occurs when a fast moving cold front catches up to a slow-moving
warm front. The point at which the two fronts meet is called the occlusion point. There
are two types of occlusions, the warm occlusion and the cold occlusion. The difference
in temperature within each frontal system is a major factor that influences the type of
front that develops.
A cold front occlusion when the fast moving cold front is colder than the air ahead of
the slowing warm front. In this case, the cold air replaces the cool air at the surface
and forces the warm front aloft.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-43
A warm front occlusion takes place when the air ahead of the slow-moving warm front
is colder than the air within the fast moving cold front. In this case, the cold front rides
up over the warm front and forces the cold front aloft.
Figure 12.26 Synoptic symbol for warm occlusion and cold occlusion
Figure 12.27 Vertical cross-section of a typical warm occlusion
Figure 12.28 Vertical cross-section of a typical cold occlusion
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-44
THUNDERSTORMS
INTRODUCTION
Thunderstorms develop from well-developed cumulonimbus clouds. Not all
cumulonimbus clouds develop into thunderstorms.
CONDITIONS
Thunderstorms are most likely to occur with the following combination of conditions:
1. An environmental lapse rate greater than the saturated air lapse rate (SALR)
through a depth of at least 10 000 ft. and extending to above the freezing
level.
2. Sufficient water vapor to provide early saturation and to form and maintain the
cloud.
3. A trigger action to start the lifting process. This can take several forms.
TRIGGER ACTIONS
There are five different possible trigger actions:
1. Convection
2. Orographic uplift
3. Advection
4. Convergence
5. Frontal Lifting
THUNDERSTORM CLASSIFICATION
Thunderstorms are generally classified as one of two types:
1. Heat or airmass – in this case the trigger action is one of the first four above.
2. Frontal – the trigger action is the fifth in the list.
HEAT AIRMASS THUNDERSTORMS
CONVECTION
Convection is the most likely trigger action that contributes to the development of
heat/airmass thunderstorms. They are more likely to occur during the summer since
this is the time where surface heating is greater. They are also more likely to occur
during day and over land and tend to be isolated, especially if they have formed in a
cold air mass. The cold airmass thunderstorms tend to dissipate in the evening.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-45
Warm airmass thunderstorms often form a multicell structure. This structure is made
of a cluster of CBs where different cells at various stages interact. The downdrafts
from dissipating and mature cells spread out to form a flow of cold air along the
ground. If the ground is warm, the cold air becomes more unstable and the warm air
ahead will be forced to rise as the cold air undercuts it. This ascent of air may be
sufficient to trigger off the formation of a new cumulonimbus.
OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT
This trigger action may cause thunderstorms to occur at any time of the day or night,
in summer and in winter. Thunderstorms occur when the conditions are unstable or
conditionally unstable.
Orographic processes may feed an existing thunderstorm that moves over the
obstruction.
ADVECTION
With advection, storms may occur at any time of the day or year. However, it is more
common for them to occur in winter, when cold, moist air moves over a progressively
warmer sea. An example of this is the polar maritime air moving south. The can also
occur in the summer, when maritime air from a cold sea passes over warm land and
becomes heated form below.
CONVERGENCE
This trigger action is associated with low pressures or non-frontal troughs.
When associated with a trough, storms form in a line along the centerline of the
trough.
FRONTAL THUNDERSTORMS
This type of thunderstorms is more frequent in winter due to the increased frequency
in the passage of fronts. They are normally associated with cold and occluded fronts
and can form over land or sea, any time during the day or night.
These thunderstorms tend to form in a line and are rarely isolated as they are
associated with a front. They can be embedded in other clouds and are difficult to
identify, especially when formed from an occluded front.
They are often accompanied by squall lines, which is a line of thunderstorms formed
just ahead of the front.
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METEOROLOGY 12-46
IDENTIFICATION OF THUNDERSTORMS
A thunderstorm cloud generally consists of several self-contained cells, each in a
different state of development. New and growing cells may be their cumuliform shape.
Cell development is not always easily identified since other clouds may obscure the
view.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
There are three stages in the development of a thunderstorm cloud summarized in
figure 12.29
Figure 12.29 Stages of a development for a cumulonimbus

GROWTH OR CUMULUS STAGE
In this stage, several small cumulus clouds combine together to form a large cumulus
of about 5 miles across. This stage is characterized by strong updrafts that are
generally as strong as 1000 fpm but can be as great as 4000 fpm.
Air is drawn in from the sides and underneath the cloud, replacing the lifting air within
the cloud.
This stage lasts for approximately 15 to 20 minutes.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-47
MATURE STAGE
This stage is characterized by the onset of precipitation. This precipitation is produced

by the combination of ice crystals and water droplets. The precipitation causes
downdrafts of approximately 2000-3000 fpm.
Updrafts are still present in this stage and can be as much as 10000 fpm. Tops can
reach the tropopause, which can be in excess of 50 000 ft. in low latitudes.
The mixture of updrafts and downdrafts can cause strong turbulence within and below
the cloud.
The downdrafts are colder than the surrounding air when they reach the base of the
cloud, due to some water droplets evaporating and latent heat being absorbed.
This strong downdraft of cold air reacts with the ground and causes a gust front
extending up to 17 nm ahead of the storm.
Other hazards associated with this stage, such as microbursts and lightning, are
discussed later in this section.
The mature stage lasts approximately 20-30 minutes.
DISSIPATING STAGE
This stage begins when the local supply of moisture is no longer sufficient to support
the storm.
The stage is characterized by the appearance of an anvil. This occurs when the cloud
top reaches the tropopause and is spread out by the strong upper winds.
Updrafts stop and the cloud starts to dissipate as the downdrafts remove the moisture
from the cloud. Lightning might still occur at this stage.
This stage lasts about 30 minutes but the cloud can continue for 2 to 3 hours.
SQUALL LINES
Squall lines are usually formed in the warm mass ahead of a cold front. Squall lines
are most frequent during the evening and early night. They are also more common
over large continental areas such as Eastern Europe or, more frequently, North
America. A squall line also contains hail, and tornadoes can occur.
Although the CBs along the squall can seem small relative to the frontal clouds
behind, the most intense weather phenomena are caused by squalls.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-48
HAZARDS
TURBULENCE AND WINDSHEAR
Turbulence is moderate to severe in thunderstorms. This turbulence is caused by

updrafts and downdrafts within the cloud. Gusts associated with thunderstorms can
cause vertical displacements of up to 5000 ft. The effects can be felt up to 40 miles
away.
Severe turbulence can occur several thousand feet above the cloud tops, as well as
within and below the cloud. Flying within a few thousand feet at the top of a
cumulonimbus should be avoided.
Windshear is a sudden change in wind speed or direction. This phenomenon is more

likely to be dangerous, especially in the approach phase, when the aircraft speed and
altitude is low. In extreme cases, changes of as much as 80 kts in speed and 90° in
direction can be experienced within a layer of only a few hundred feet.
GUST FRONT
Some thunderstorms may have a well-defined area of cold air flowing out from a
downdraft in all directions, but tends to lead the storm along its line of movement. A
gust front might extend out 24 to 32 km from the storm center and can be felt from the
surface to about 6000 ft. The cold air undercuts warm air and wind shear may be
associated with it.
This gust front can be quite distant from the thunderstorm cloud and without
precipitation it does not show up on weather radar and therefore can be quite
unexpected.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-49
Figure 12.30 Development of the gust front

MICROBURSTS
Microbursts are strong downdrafts of air that descend from the center of the
cumulonimbus with speeds up to 60 kts down to levels as low as 300 ft. They are
typically less than 5 km across and last from 1 to 5 minutes.
As the downdrafts approach the ground, the air flows out in all directions. Figure
12.31 below shows an aircraft approaching the area of a microburst below a
cumulonimbus
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-50
Figure 12.31 Effects of a microburst

There are two types of microbursts: wet and dry. The wet types have large amounts of
precipitation associated with it so it can be identified clearly on the weather radar. In
the dry type, any precipitation has evaporated before reaching the ground, so is less
likely to identify. Some virga may show up on radar.
Dry microbursts are generally the more severe type and tend to be associated with hear
airmass thunderstorms over dry near-desert regions. The evaporation of the
precipitation absorbs latent heat and enhances downdrafts.
HAIL
Hail can be encountered in the cloud, below the cloud and beneath the anvil. The
stronger the lifting and the greater the moisture content, the greater the chances of hail.
Hail can be up to 14 cm in diameter, and can be present up to 45 000 ft, producing
severe skin damage with even a short exposure.
Since it is not possible to tell whether or not a given storm produces hail, it is safer to
assume that it will.
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METEOROLOGY 12-51
ICING
Any flight in cloud or precipitation can result in icing when the temperatures are
below zero. Icing can occur down to temperatures as low as -40°C. Icing is more
severe near the base of the cloud where the droplets are larger. Icing is discussed more
thoroughly later in this chapter.
LIGHTNING
Most lightning occurs within 10°C (approximately 5000 ft.) of the freezing level.
Hazards associated with lightning are temporary blindness caused by the flash,
interference with compasses and other instruments, and possible airframe damage.
TORNADOES
Tornadoes are associated with severe thunderstorms. They form with massive
convergence in a trough with sharply inclined isobars. Differing wind direction give a
rotating twist and the lifted air becomes spiral.
They are localized and the lifting force can be as strong that it can pick up water from
a sea surface or dust from the land. Wind speeds in the vortex can reach 200 kt.
If the funnel does not touch the ground it is called a funnel cloud; if it does touch, it is
called a tornado over land and a waterspout over sea.
WEATHER RADAR
Weather radar is provided to enable pilots to avoid thunderstorms and is designed to
detect areas of heavy precipitation.
The strength of the echo is not necessarily an indication of the strength of the
associated turbulence. Radar return intensities may be misleading due to attenuation
resulting from intervening heavy rain.
The high rate of growth of thunderstorms and the danger of flying over or near the
tops of main and small convective cells close to it must be considered when using
weather radar for storm avoidance.
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METEOROLOGY 12-52
AVOIDANCE CRITERIA
When using weather radar the avoidance criteria to be used as shown in the table
below.
Flight Echo Characteristics

Altitude
Shape Intensity Gradient of Rate of
Intensity Change
0 to 20 000 ft. Avoid by 10 Avoid by 5 nm Avoid by 5 nm Avoid by 10

nm echoes with echoes with echoes with nm echoes
hooks, fingers, sharp edges or strong showing rapid
scalloped edges strong intensity gradients of change of
or other intensity shape, height
protrusions or intensity
20 to 25 000 Avoid all echoes by 10 nm

ft.
25 to 30 000 Avoid all echoes by 15 nm

ft.
Above 30 000 Avoid all echoes by 20 nm

ft.
Table 12.6 Weather radar avoidance criteria

General rules:
 If a storm cloud has to be overflown, maintain at least 5000 ft. vertical

separation from the cloud tops.
 If the aircraft has no weather radar, avoid any storm cloud by 10 nm that is tall,
growing rapidly, or has an anvil top.
 Avoid flying under a CB overhang.
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METEOROLOGY 12-53
VISIBILITY
INTRODUCTION
Visibility is a measurement of atmospheric clarity. Reduction in visibility may be
caused by:
 Water droplets, such as cloud, fog, or rain.

 Solid particles, such as sand, dust, or smoke.
 Ice, such as crystals, hail, or snow.
Poor visibility is more common in stable conditions, for example, beneath an

inversion. Visibility is generally better upwind of towns and industrial area, away from
the atmospheric pollutants.
TYPES OF VISIBILITY REDUCTION

In aviation, the cause of a reduction in visibility is only reported when the visibility is
5000 meters and below. The causes of the visibility reduction are defined as:
Mist Caused by very small water droplets and a relative humidity of more than 95%.
The visibility is between 1000 m and 5000 m.
Fog Caused by very small water droplets and a relative humidity very close to
100%. The visibility is less than 1000 m.
Haze Caused by solid particles such as sand, dust, or smoke. The visibility is 5000 m
or below with no lower limit.
TYPES OF VISIBILITY
METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY
Meteorological visibility is the furthest horizontal distance on the ground that an

observer with normal eyesight can recognize a dark-colored object.
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
Runway Visual Range (RVR) is the maximum distance in the direction of take-off or
landing at which a pilot in the threshold area at 15 ft. above ground can see marker
boards by day, or runway lights by night. It is only used when the meteorological
visibility is less than 1500 meters or when fog is reported or forecast.
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METEOROLOGY 12-54
OBLIQUE VISIBLITY
When flying at altitude, slant visibility is the maximum distance a pilot can see to a
point on the ground. The oblique visibility is the distance measured along the ground
from the point directly beneath the aircraft to the furthest point the pilot can see, as
shown in the figure below.
Figure 12.32 Visibility from an aircraft
MEASURMENT OF VISIBLITY
BY DAY
Measurement by day is made by reference to suitable landmarks at known distances

from the observing position.
BY NIGHT
Measurement by night is done by using a suitable arrangement of lights of known

power as a substitute for landmarks.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-55
MEASURMENT OF RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

INSTRUMENT OBSERVER
Instrument reporting is done with an instrument called a transmissometer, which

consists of a projector and a receiver.
Figure 12.33 Transmissometer, principle

The receiver contains photoelectric cells which measure the opacity of the air and give
an equivalent daytime visibility.
RVR REPORTING
Three transmissometers are positioned alongside the runway giving three readings, one
for touchdown, one from the mid-point, and one for the stop-end of the runway.
RVR is reported in increments of 25 m up to 200 m, 50 m up to 800 m, and 100 m

over 800 m.
Sometimes not all three readings are transmitted. The touchdown reading is always
reported but the mid-point and stop-end values may be omitted if certain conditions
are met. If one reading is omitted, the second figure in the group must be specified as
the mid-point or stop-end value.
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METEOROLOGY 12-56
The conditions for the omission of midpoint and stop-end RVR values are:
a. They have equal to or greater values than the touchdown value.

b. They are above 400 meters
e.g. 300/500/600 would be reported as R 300.
300/350/500 would be reported as R 300 mid-point 350.
c. They are 800 meters or greater
e.g. 900/850/950 would be reported as R 900.
900/850/750 would be reported as R 900 mid-point 750.
VISIBLITY WHILE FLYING

EFFECT OF SUN AND MOON
Visibility is reduced looking into the sun due to the harsh glare of the strong rays.
Conversely, looking into the moon may improve visibility at night as it casts a gentle
light on water surfaces and other ground based features.
WITH A DEEP HAZE LAYER
When flying within the haze layer at different heights the slant visibility stays the
same. When flying higher, the vertical component of the slant visibility increases, so
the horizontal component, that is oblique visibility, decreases.
Conversely, when flying above the layer flying higher increases oblique visibility.
WITH A SHALLOW FOG LAYER
If the fog is shallow the pilot may be able to see the airfield quite clearly from directly
above it. Once the pilot descends and turns into final, visibility may be much poorer
looking through the horizontal extent of the fog instead of the depth. It is important,
therefore, to note the visibility readings given by the tower even if your own
observations are different.
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TYPES OF FOG
RADIATION FOG
Radiation fog is caused by radiation of the Earth`s heat at night. The ground becomes
cold and cools the air in contact with it. If this lowers the air temperature below the
dewpoint, water vapor condenses out as droplets. For radiation fog to form, the
following requirements have to be met:
 Clear sky which increases the rate of terrestrial radiation.

 High relative humidity so that only a little cooling will be required for the air to
reach saturation.
 A light wind of 2 to 8 kt which mixes the air bringing warmer air from above
to the surface to be cooled and thickening the fog.
Radiation fog is most common in autumn and winter when there is a long night giving
the land time to cool. It occurs at night and early morning after a prolonged period of
cooling. It doesn’t occur over the sea as the sea has insufficient diurnal variation.
Dispersal of the fog can occur by:
 The increase of insolation during the course of the morning, raising the
temperatures above the dewpoint and evaporating the fog away from the base.
 The increase of thermal turbulence which lifts the fog and forms low stratus
clouds
 An increase of cloud cover preventing the loss of radiation from the lower
atmosphere and raising the temperature of the air above the dewpoint.
 Replacement of the air mass with a drier air mass by advection.
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Figure 12.34 Radiation Fog

ADVECTION FOG
Advection fog forms when warm moist air flows over a cold surface. It can occur over
land or sea. Conditions necessary for it to form are:
 A wind of up to 15 kt (20 kt over the sea)

 A high relative humidity so little cooling is required to bring the air to
saturation.
 The cold surface over which the air moves must have a temperature lower than
the dewpoint of the warm moist moving air.
Advection fog is common over land areas in winter and early spring when the land is
colder than the sea and over sear areas in late spring and early summer when the land
becomes warmer than the sea.
This type of fog is more persistent than radiation fog and can last several weeks.
Examples are the coast of Newfoundland in Canada and the Kamchatka peninsula
where the temperature difference between land and sea is extreme.
Dispersal comes when there is a change of airmass or an increase in windspeed

beyond that described in the conditions above.
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Figure 12.35 The formation of advection fog
STEAM FOG
This type of fog occurs at very high latitudes over sea areas such as around Iceland,
Greenland and Norway. It is similar to advection fog in that the airmass is moving but
in this case it is a cold moist air mass passing over a warmer sea.
Normally this would lead to convection and the formation of cumuliform clouds.
However, in this case the air is too cold and stable for sufficient lifting to occur.
Instead, the small amount of lifting and evaporation from the sea leads to saturation
and fog formation.
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Figure 12.36 The forming of steam fog

FRONTAL FOG
Frontal fog is associated with warm fronts and warm occlusions. Precipitation from the
clouds forming above the frontal surface falls into the cold air below. As the warmer
droplets fall through the cold and drier air, they will start evaporating adding moisture
to the cold air. Additionally, the precipitation wets the ground and the moisture then
evaporates into the air just ahead of the front aiding saturation.
Figure 12.37 Formation of frontal fog
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This may produce a band of fog up to 200 nm wide that travels just ahead of the front
as shown in the diagram.
HILL FOG
Hill fog is really stratiform clouds that forms when there is orographic lifting in stable
conditions.
A nice example is the tablecloth effect on Table Mountain in Cape Town, South Africa
as shown in figure 12.38
Figure 12.38 Example of hill fog or orographic clouds
OTHER VISIBILITTY REDUCERS

SMOKE FOG (SMOG)
Smoke fog is a combination of water droplet fog and solid particles. It occurs in
industrial cities when there is an inversion layer preventing air from lifting ad
removing the pollutants. In addition, the particles may aid as condensation nuclei
assisting the formation of fog.
DUST AND SAND
Dust is a solid particle less than 0.08 mm in diameter. Sand is between 0.08 mm and
0.3 mm in diameter. Winds can carry these particles aloft causing dust and sand
storms.
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In dust storms, the wind is upwards of 15 kt and the dust can rise to up to 15 000 ft. In
sand storms, the winds are upwards of 20 kt but these remain within a few feet of the
surface due to the weight of the particles.
Both types tend to be daytime phenomena as wind strengths are usually insufficient at
night.
Visibility in dust or sand storms is generally less than 1000 m.
PRECIPITATION
Smaller water droplets have a worse effect on the visibility than the larger ones. The
greatest effect is caused by snow. Heavy snow can lower the visibility to 50 m and
possibly even less if it is blowing or drifting.
VISUAL ILLUSIONS
SHALLOW FOG
If the pilot enters a shallow fog layer on descent it can give the illusion that the aircraft
has pitched up. If the pilot believes this illusion and pitches the nose down, a very
dangerous situation can arise, especially if this happens on the approach to land.
RAIN SHOWERS
A rain storm moving toward the aircraft can give the illusion of the horizon moving
lower which may lead the pilot to reduce power or lower the nose.
LAYER CLOUD
In the absence of a well defined horizon, the pilot may orientate himself with respect
to layer clouds. If the layer clouds are not parallel to the ground, the orientation to a
false horizon will cause banking.
RAIN EFFECTS
Rain can have two opposing effects:
1. Rain falling between the aircraft and visual landmarks such as the runway
lights will diffuse the light and the objects or runway lights appear further
away than they really are. The pilot might perceive this as being low on
approach.
2. Rain on the windscreen can make runway lights bloom, making the runway
appear closer than it really is. The pilot might perceive this as being high on
approach and may make adjustments to the aircraft’s power and/or attitude
which will result in undershooting the runway.
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ICING
INTRODUCTION
Ice accumulation can have serious implications for aircraft performance. Modern jets
are equipped with efficient anti-icing and de-icing equipment. However, these systems
may become inoperative or icing conditions may be so severe that these systems
become unable to handle.
It is necessary for the pilot to understand the conditions and risks associated with icing
as even if these systems operate perfectly, there is a significant fuel penalty in running
these systems. Therefore the preferred approach would be to avoid conditions of
severe icing altogether.
CONDITIONS
Ice forms on airframes if the following three conditions are present:
1. Water is present in a liquid state.

2. The ambient air temperature is below 0°C.
3. The airframe temperature is below 0°C.
EFFECTS OF ICING
Effects of icing can include the following:
AERODYNAMIC
Ice forms mostly on the leading edges of airframes and aerofoils. This spoils the
aerodynamic shape of the aerofoil and leads to:
 Reduced Lift (up to 30%)

 Increased drag (up to 40%)
 Increased weight
The increased weight combined with loss of lift results in an increased stalling speed.
The added weight coupled with an increased drag leads to greater fuel consumption.
Furthermore, ice accumulation may lead to jammed control surfaces.
WEIGHT
The rate of ice accumulation is rarely constant across the airframe. This leads to a
shifting center of gravity which may cause instability and difficulty controlling the
aircraft.
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INSTRUMENTS
Ice may block the pitot and static inlets leading to gross instrument errors in the
altimeter, airspeed indicator vertical speed indicator and TAT probes.
OTHER EFFECTS
Other effects include:
 Windscreen obscuration.
 Increased skin friction and associated performance effects.
 Radio interference due to ice buildup on antennas.
 Landing gear deployment/retraction problems if ice forms in gear wells or
freezes gear doors closed.
ICING DEFINITIONS
Should any pilot encounter unforecasted icing conditions, they should report the time,
location, level, intensity, icing type and aircraft type to the ATS unit they are in
contact with. The following definitions shall be used.
TRACE
Ice becomes noticeable. Rate of accumulation is slightly greater than rate od

sublimation It is not hazardous.
LIGHT
Rate of accumulation might create a problem if flight in this environment exceeds one
hour. Occasional use of de-icing/anti-icing removes/prevents accumulation. It does not
present a problem if anti-icing is used.
Note: The ICAO definition of light icing is: “Change of heading or altitude not
considered necessary”
MODERATE
Rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous
and the use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment, or diversion, is necessary.
Note: The ICAO definition of moderate icing is: “Change of heading or altitude
considered desirable”
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SEVERE
Rate of accumulation is such that de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or

control the hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary.
Note: The ICAO definition of severe icing is: “Immediate change of heading and/or
altitude necessary”
SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

In order for a droplet of water to freeze, it not only must be below freezing point, but
there must be a freezing nucleus present. This could take the form of salt, dust or
smoke particles. There are less freezing nuclei than condensation nuclei, therefore, it is
frequent that droplet cools to a temperature below zero without any freezing nucleus
available. When this occurs, the droplet stays in liquid form even though it is below
zero. It is then referred to as a supercooled water droplet. These droplets can exist in
temperatures as low as -40°C.
Most icing is caused by aircraft colliding with these droplets while in cloud or fog. As
the droplet touches the airframe its surface tension breaks down and it starts to freeze.
FREEZING PROCESS
When a supercooled water droplet impacts an airframe, not all of it freezes instantly.
The fraction that freezes instantly depends on the temperature of the droplet.
For every degree below zero, 1/80 of the droplet will freeze on impact. Therefore, if
the temperature is -20°C, 1/4 will freeze on impact; if the droplet is at -40°C, 1/2 will
freeze on impact.
So with a warmer droplet, the freezing process is slower. As a fraction of the droplet
freezes, latent heat is released which delays the freezing of the remainder of the
droplet. This allows the liquid part to flow over the frame and freeze more gradually.
Also, the size of the droplet is important. Large droplets tend to retain latent heat
better, so freezing is delayed even more, allowing a greater spread of the droplet. This
will determine the type of ice which will be forming.
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TYPES OF ICING
CLEAR ICE
Clear ice forms when large supercooled water droplets impact with an airframe. When
the droplet impacts the airframe it does not freeze instantly. It starts to freeze and as a
result some latent heat is released. This raises the temperature slightly, allowing the
water to flow over the airframe before subsequently freezing. This results in a clear
coating of ice which adheres strongly to the surface of the aircraft.
Clear ice is heavy and difficult to remove. It is usually described as moderate to

severe, due to the weight addition which could be uneven leasing to stability and
control problems.
Clear ice is only found in cumulus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds as large
droplets occur only in these clouds.
RIME ICE
This forms from impact with small supercooled droplets. When the droplet impacts,
most of it freezes instantly.
Usually rime icing is classed as light to moderate as buildup is generally light enough
for anti-icing measures to handle.
This type of icing can occur in any cloud where there are small supercooled water
droplets. Therefore, it will occur in layer clouds at any temperature below zero.
Rime ice may also occur in freezing fog.
MIXED ICE
This is a combination of clear ice and rime ice and occurs where both types of water
droplets are present. This applies to clouds where the temperature is close to transition
between small and large supercooled water droplets.
RAIN ICE
This type of icing is very severe and very similar to clear ice. It is common beneath a
warm front or a warm occlusion, when precipitation falls from the clouds above the
frontal surface. The warm rain falls into colder air and becomes supercooled. If the
aircraft is above freezing level on the cold side of the front, the airframe is below zero
and the droplets strike the airframe and form ice in the same way as described in the
clear ice section.
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Figure 12.39 Freezing precipitation

HOAR FROST
This type of icing occurs when air is cooled to the temperature at which saturation
occurs and the airframe is below 0°C. The frost forms by sublimation, that is, water
vapor turns directly to ice without passing through the liquid state.
The correct conditions for frost formation occur when an aircraft takes off from an
aerodrome at a temperature below zero and climbs through an inversion into warm
moist air. Also, if an aircraft descends from a very cold region into a warm moist
layer, the same conditions will be present.
This causes similar problems to those caused by rime ice.
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WIND
LOCAL WINDS
LAND AND SEA BREEZES
These winds are common where there is a high pressure with a light pressure gradient
on a clear sunny day.
SEA BREEZE
During the day, the land heats up quicker than the sea. The air in contact with the land
heats up and rises by the process of convection which leads to a decrease in pressure at
the surface and increase in pressure at approximately 1000 to 2000 ft. AGL.
The causes air at that height to move over the sea. Air then descends over the sea
causing an increased pressure at the surface of the sea. Air then flows from the slightly
higher pressure over the sea surface to the lower pressure over the land surface and
creates the sea breeze.
Figure 12.40 Sea breeze circulation

Sea breezes are typically 10 to 15 kt in temperate latitudes and extend about 10 nm
either side of the coastline. In tropical area, they can be slightly stronger and extend to
40 or 50 nm inland.
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LAND BREEZE
After sunset the land starts to cool down much quicker than the sea. This leads to a
reversal of the sea breeze situation. The sea surface experiences a lower pressure and
the land a higher pressure. The wind now blows from the land to the sea.
Figure 12.41 Land breeze circulation

The temperature difference between land and sea is less at night so the land breeze is
weaker than sea breeze, typically half the speed (about 5 kt in temperate latitudes), and
only extends to about 5 nm out to sea.
OPERATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE LAND AND SEA BREEZES
At coastal airfields, the landing and take-off direction is reversed from day to night if
the runway is at right angles to the coast. During the day landing/take-off will be
towards the sea and at night towards the land.
Coastal airfields with runways running parallel to the coast experience crosswinds
when the sea and land breeze are well established.
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KATABATIC AND ANABATIC WINDS

These winds occur on hillsides and valley sides and tend to form in slack pressure
gradients. A katabatic wind is caused by a flow of cold air down a hill or a mountain at
night. An anabatic wind is caused by a flow of air up a hill or a mountain during the
day
MOUNTAIN WIND
During the night a hillside cools down quickly. The air in contact with it is cooled by
conduction and becomes denser than the free air next to it. Therefore, it flows down
the hillside.
Figure 12.42 Mountain wind

The mountain wind, which is a katabatic wind, is more apparent if the sky is clear as
radiation is greater. It also helps if the slope is covered in snow.
The air always remains in contact with the ground with an average speed of 10 kt.
If this wind occurs in a valley, cold air collects at the bottom increasing the likelihood
of fog or frost.
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VALLEY WIND
The valley wind, which is an anabatic wind, is the opposite of the mountain wind and
occurs during the day on slopes which are subject to sunlight. As insolation increases,
the air in contact with the land warms up, becomes less dense and flows up the slope.
The valley wind is generally weaker than the mountain wind with a wind speed of
about 5 kt since it flows against the force of gravity.
Figure 12.43 Valley wind
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UPPER WINDS
JET STREAMS
A jet stream is a wind greater than 60 kt in speed, which manifests itself as a long
corridor of wind with typical dimensions of 1500 nm in length, 200 nm in width and
12 000 ft. in depth.
They are caused by large horizontal temperature differences.
Figure 12.44 Cross section of a typical jet stream

The wind speed is fastest in the core and decreases with movement away from the
core.
Figure 12.45 Typical distribution of wind speeds associated with a jet

stream
Speeds in excess of 100 kt are quite common, but it is rare for jet streams to be faster
than 200 kt. However, jets of 300 kt have been reported on occasion. These extreme
examples tend to occur in the Far East Asia and Japan area.
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COMMON JET STREAMS

Table 12.7 shows the common global, semi-permanent jet streams.
Latitude Pressure Level
Polar front jet stream 45° to 65° N/S 300 hPa – 30 000 ft.
Sub-tropical jet stream 20° to 40° N/S 200 hPa – 45 000 ft.
Equatorial jet stream 10° to 15° N/S 100 hPa – 55 000 ft.
Polar jet stream 70° to 80° N/S 50 hPa – 75 000 ft.
Table 12.7 Semi-permanent jet streams
SUB-TROPICAL JET STREAM
The sub-tropical jet streams occur above the sub-tropical high pressures which are
caused by the circulation of the Hadley cells. The Hadley cells are a circulation which
starts with lifting over the heat equator due to surface heating. When the air reaches
the tropopause it flows away from the Equator to higher latitudes.
At approximately 30° latitude, the air is cooled such that it starts to descend , forming
the sub-tropical high pressure. It then flows along the surface back towards the low
pressure at the heat equator or the low pressure along the polar fronts.
Figure 12.46 shows the circulation of air on the Earth.
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METEOROLOGY 12-74
Figure 12.46 Global circulation of the air
The sub-tropical jet stream forms when air from the Hadley cells meet air from the
Ferrel cell. Due to the large amount of air, not all of it is able to descend which means
that some of it is forced to flow horizontally. In the northern hemisphere the Coriolis
force will deflect it to the right and in the southern hemisphere it will deflect it to the
left.
In both cases this results in a westerly jet.
The sub-tropical jet streams exist all year round but move as the heat equator moves.
In the winter they are found between 25° and 40° latitude and in the summer are found
between 40° and 45° latitude.
POLAR-FRONT JET STREAM
Like the name suggests, a polar-front occurs on the polar front. Figure 12.47 shows the
position of the jet stream in cross section and in plan view
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Figure 12.47 Typical polar front depression and associated jet stream
Figure 12.48 Vertical cross-section of a polar front depression and

associated jet stream
Figure 12.48 shows that the jet stream forms in the warm (tropical air) just below the
tropopause. In figure 12.47 the jet stream appears to be in the cold sector. However, it
is the surface position of the fronts that is shown. Since the frontal surface is a slope,
the jet stream is in the warm air.
Unlike the sub-tropical jet stream, the polar front jet stream is not in a constant
westerly direction. It follows the patterns of the polar front depressions and forms a
zig-zag shape which is westerly on average.
They are less permanent than the sub-tropical jets, tending to die out in the summer.
Average speeds in the summer are 60 kt and in the winter, 80 kt.
Like the sub-tropical jet stream, the polar front jet streams change position with the
movement of the heat equator. Approximate positions are between 40°N and 65°N and
at around 50°S.
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CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE

These are large changes in wind speed over a short distance associated with a jet
stream. This causes turbulence known as clear air turbulence (CAT) since it is not
caused by ground or clouds. The most severe CAT is found level with the core of the
jet on the cold air side. A secondary area of severe CAT is found above the core,
above the warm air tropopause.
Figure 12.49 CAT areas in relation to the jet stream

If CAT associated with a polar front jet stream in the northern hemisphere is
experienced, turning South and descending will bring the aircraft into the warm air and
away from the strongest turbulence.
IDENTIFICATION OF JET STREAMS

It is usually impossible to identify a jet stream visually. However, if the air is moist,
there may be a trail of cirrus cloud associated with the jet stream, as shown in the
figure below
Figure 12.50 Trail of cirrus indicating a jet stream

Due to the high velocity of the air, the pressure will decrease and therefore the
temperature will also decrease around the jet stream. This may cool the air to its
dewpoint causing water vapor to sublimate to ice crystals.
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WINDSHEAR AND TURBULENCE

DEFINITION
Windshear is a sudden change in wind direction and/or speed in space, including

updrafts and downdrafts.
LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR
Low altitude windshear is windshear along the final approach path or along the
runway and along the takeoff and initial climb out flight path.
A windshear encounter is a highly dynamic and potentially uncomfortable event. It can

strike suddenly and with devastating effect, sometimes beyond the recovery powers of
experienced pilot flying modern and powerful aircrafts. The first and most vital
defense is avoidance.
METEROLOGICAL FEATURES
The most powerful examples of windshear are associated with thunderstorms

(cumulonimbus clouds), however, windshear can also be experienced in association
with other meteorological features such as the passage of a front, a marked
temperature inversion or a turbulent boundary layer.
FRONTAL PASSAGE
Fronts, whether warm, cold or occluded, are different in strength. It is only well
developed active fronts, with narrow surface frontal zones and with marked
temperature differences between the two air masses, which are likely to carry the risk
of windshear.
Warning signs to look out for include sharp changes in wind direction indicated in the
weather charts by an acute angle of the isobars as they cross the front, a temperature
difference of 5°C or more across the frontal zone, and the speed of movement of the
front, especially if 30 kt or more.
Although the greater risk of windshear associated fronts are with the passage of
dynamic cold fronts relative to warm fronts, it should be noted that windshear is also
possible in fronts which are slow moving, stationary or even reversing direction.
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TOPOGRPAHICAL WINDSHEARS
Either natural or man-made features affect the steady state wind flow and cause
windshears of varying strength. The direction and strength of the wind relative to the
obstacle are significant.
Wind blowing between two hills or along a valley, or even between two large
buildings may be channeled, therefore changing direction and increasing in speed.
This creates the possibility for shear, with sudden changes of wind speed and direction
becoming a hazard.
Large airport buildings adjacent to busy runways can create hazardous local effects
and typical windshear problems, such as loss of airspeed and abrupt crosswind
changes.
In smaller aerodromes, lines of trees can mask the wind and cause problems of a late
stage in the approach.
EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

Windshear affects aircrafts in many different ways and during an encounter the
situation is constantly changing, especially during the more dynamic thunderstorm
windshears. They can be encountered at any height and the effects will be similar.
However, the greatest hazard lies with a low level windshear encounter.
In a windshear it is not only the magnitude of the change of wind direction or speed
that counts but the rate at which it happens. For example, an airplane at 1000 ft. AGL
may have a headwind component of 30 kt, but the surface wind report shows that the
head wind is only 10 kt on the runway. That 20 kt difference may taper off evenly with
the effect of a gradual wind gradient. However, it may be noticed that the 20 kt
differential still exists at 300 ft. and the change, when it comes, will be far more
sudden and its effects more pronounced. The 20 kt of wind speed may well be lost
over a vertical distance of 100 ft. as the aircraft descends from 300 to 200 ft.
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Figure 12.51 Effect of a negative windshear

If the pilot wanted a stabilized approach speed of 130 kt, the power would be set
according to the conditions, providing the required airspeed and rate of descent.
On passing through the shear line, the loss of airspeed is sudden, but the inertia of the
aircraft at first keeps it at its original ground speed of 100 kt and power is needed to
accelerate the aircraft back to its original speed. This takes time; meanwhile the
aircraft having lost 20 kt of airspeed, sinks faster as a substantial amount of lift has
also been lost.
The headwind was a form of energy and when it dropped 20 kt, an equivalent amount
of energy loss occurred. One source available to balance that loss is engine power, this
reduced the increased rate of descent and starts the process of accelerating back to the
approach reference speed.
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Figure 12.52 Effect of a positive windshear

The opposite effect can be explained using similar conditions, but seen from the point
of view of an airplane taking off. Initially take-off along the runway and into the
second segment of the climb, with a 10 kt headwind, the wind becomes a 30 kt
headwind after encountering the shear between 200 and 300 ft. Assuming a target
climbing speed of 120 kt, the effect of a sudden transition through the shear line into a
20 kt increase of headwind, increases the IAS by the same amount until the
momentum of the groundspeed is lost.
This is a case of temporary energy gain, with lift added so the aircraft climbs more
rapidly. This example shows the windshear as being positively beneficial with a rapid
increase in headwind enhancing performance.
It may help with understanding windshear to see it in terms of energy changes, when it
is readily obvious that the windshear which causes temporary loss of energy (sudden
drop of headwind or increase in tailwind, and downdrafts) is the main hazard at low
altitude.
The effect of a downdraft is not always easy to visualize, as it is normally thought of

the airplane in relation to airflow along the flight path even when climbing or
descending.
In turbulent conditions, air in motion may strike the airplane from an angle and the
situation may be constantly changing. However, in thunderstorms, strong shafts of air
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which can be moving either up or down may be encountered with no warning. These
shafts may be virtually side by side and the shear very marked and violent.
Entering a vertical updraft or downdraft from a horizontal airflow, the airplane`s

momentum at first keeps it on its original path relative to the new direction of flow. In
addition to a loss of airspeed, also realize that the shift of relative airflow affects the
angle of attack of the wing, which may result in either increased or decreased lift. If
the aircraft is already on approach with a high angle of attack, an increase might put
the wing near the stall and any decrease will bring about a loss of lift. Normally below
1000 ft., the risk of a downdraft is more likely than an updraft.
Figure 12.53 Effect of a downdraft
Having described the combination of increasing headwind followed by increasing

tailwind consider, the this is the sequence which might be encountered in a microburst
on the approach or following a take-off.
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Figure 12.54 Effect of a microburst
A Energy gain
Increasing headwind
Rate of descent reduced
Tendency to go high on glide path
B Energy loss
Reducing headwind and downdraft

Rate of descent increased
Tendency to go low on glide path
C Energy loss
Increasing tailwind
Airspeed still falling
Rate of descent checked by missed approach
Success depends upon power, height and speed reserves available.
An aircraft, approaching on a 3° ILS glidepath, might see ahead an area of heavy rain.
Ideally, this might alert the pilot to possible danger, and missed approach could be
executed in good time, though even this might take the aircraft into the microburst,
Then, however, the aircraft will have gained valuable extra height.
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Given that the approach continues towards the microburst, the leading edge can
produce a rapidly increasing lift from the headwind increase; the airspeed increases
and the aircraft goes high on the glidepath. The likely reaction is to reduce power to
increase the rate of descent and adjust attitude to reduce airspeed. Then comes the
downdraft when the rate of descent increases rapidly and the aircraft passes through
and below the glidepath, still with the nose high and the power low.
Power is re-applied but it takes time to spool up the engines, meanwhile the aircraft
passes from downdrafts to increasing tailwind with the airspeed dropping.
A strong microburst has a more pronounced effect on the rise and fall of airspeed and
extremes of rate of descent. The power reserves available and the rate at which they
can be applied and built up to give maximum thrust , determine the aircraft`s ability to
counteract the energy loss of down draft and increasing tailwind.
Strong wind buffeting, the lashing of rain, and possibly blinding flashes of lightning
may accompany the dynamic sequence of events. Therefore, the aim must be to:
AVOID WINDSHEAR AT ALL COSTS

It might be thought that an encounter with windshear from a microburst after take-off
is likely to be less hazardous than when approaching to land. The aircraft is at high
power and is not constrained by the need to hold a precise glide path. The temporary
energy gain that results from the increased headwind, with higher airspeed and rate of
climb may seem positively beneficial.
The transition to downdraft soon kills any rise in airspeed; it may even drop. The rate
of climb may decrease or even transform into a rate of descent that is enhanced by the
shift to increasing tailwind, when the airspeed may drop further. Any benefits of high
power may be balanced by higher aircraft weight. There may be a small power reserve
in hand which may or may not be sufficient to enable the aircraft to fly through the
microburst.
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TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR

If the golden rule of avoidance fails for whatever reason, it is impossible to predict at
the first stages of a windshear encounter how severe it will be and it would be a good
idea to plan recovery based on anticipating the worst.
Pilots who study the meteorological situation carefully in advance and update their
knowledge with the latest reports during pilot are unlikely to be taken totally by
surprise by windshear. If thunderstorms are forecast in the vicinity of the planned
destination and then are reported as being active and are seen on the weather radar or
visually, then a mental windshear alert should register. At this stage, a diversion might
be considered, as windshear avoidance is the safest course.
If it is decided to continue to the destination, then the crew should consider a few basic
measures to anticipate a possible windshear encounter. One of these is to increase the
airspeed on the approach. The amount of airspeed increase will vary from one type of
aircraft to the other.
The windshear encounter which produces a sudden increase in airspeed on the

approach will act to destabilize it, which calls for some control adjustments. The
normal reaction to the rise above the glidepath is to reduce power to regain the
glidepath. The pilot must then be alert to the need to reapply power in good time to
avoid dropping below the glidepath.
If the approach has been badly destabilized, full missed approach action may be the
wiser and safer option, with a second approach made with an airspeed “margin” to
counter the anticipated windshear effect.
Vital actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground:
 Briskly increase power

 Raise the nose to check descent
 Co-ordinate power and pitch
 Be prepared to carry out a missed approach rather than risk landing from an
unstabilized approach.
To counter the effect of a downburst or a microburst on an approach or take-off , it

must be stressed that any report of either phenomenon must be treated seriously and
the approach or take-off delayed until the danger has passed.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-85
When there is an indefinite risk of shear, it may be possible to use a longer runway or
a runway that points away from an area of potential threat. It may also be an option to
rotate at a slightly higher speed, provided this does not cause undue tire stress or any
handling problems.
In both approach and take-off cases, vital actions are:
 Use the maximum power available as soon as possible,

 Adopt a pitch angle of around 15° and try to hold that attitude. Do not chase
airspeed.
 Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch
attitude, easing the back pressure as required to attain and hold a slightly lower
attitude.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-86
AVIATION WEATHER MESSAGES

INTRODUCTION
In order to standardize the format which meteorological information is presented in
certain reports, forecasts and warnings have been defined by for aviation by ICAO.
These will be the same wherever in the world the report has been made. Therefore, it
is important to know how to decode and use this information to ensure the safety of
the flight.
The messages in use in aviation are METARs and SPECIs (including TREND), TAFs,
AIRMETs, SIGMETs, GAMETs, special air report, volcanic ash advisory information
and aerodrome warning.
METAR, SPECI AND TREND

The METAR and SPECI are messages based on observations at the aerodrome. The
TREND is a forecast, often referred to as a landing forecast, which may be attached to
either a METAR or a SPECI. Not all aerodromes issue TRENDs.
The difference between a METAR and SPECI is that the METAR is a report based on
regular routine observations which are performed either every hour or every thirty
minutes depending on the aerodrome traffic levels and so on whereas the SPECI is
only issued in defined circumstances. A SPECI is to be issued if the conditions
described in the METAR vary significantly from what was reported and it is between
the regular observation times for the METARs. It is more common to issue a SPECI
for deteriorations than improvements as deteriorations are more likely to affect flight
safety in an adverse manner.
CODES
METAR AND SPECI
The table below shows the standard layout of a METAR or SPECI. Not all information
will be shown in all reports as information is omitted if not applicable. The items
which are required are:
 Item 1, 3 and 4: Identification groups

 Item 5: Wind group
 Item 8: Visibility group
 Item 11: Weather group
 Item 12: Cloud group
 Item 14: Temperature group
 Item 15: QNH
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-87
If an item is not observed or observation equipment is faulty the applicable data will
be replaced by one “/” per character.
1 METAR Code name for the type of report
or METAR – Aerodrome routine meteorological report
SPECI SPECI --- Aerodrome special meteorological report.
2 COR Only used if a correction to the previous report (COR) or if no report

exists (NIL)
or
NIL
3 CCCC ICAO Location indicator.
4 YYGGggZ Day of the month and time in hours and minutes of observation in UTC
5 AUTO Indication of fully automated observation
6 Wind direction rounded off to the nearer 10° and mean speed over the
10 min preceding the observation. Direction may be substituted by
KMH VRB if it varies by more than 60° and the wind speed is less than 3 kt.
dddffGfmfm KT or If the wind speed is more than 3 kt VRB (ddd) may be used if the
variation is 180° or more, dddff as 00000 denotes calm conditions,
MPS Gfmfm is only given if the wind gust speed during the 10 min preceding
the observation exceeds the mean wind speed by 10 kt or more
7 dndndnVdxdxdx Variation in wind direction is given in a clockwise order when the

variation is between 60° or more and less than 180°.
8 VVVV
or Prevailing horizontal visibility in meters. 9999 indicates 10 km or

more.
VVVNDV
NDV is added when the visibility sensors are being used and no
or directional variations can be given.
CAVOK The use of CAVOK is explained in item 13.
9 VNVNVNVNDV Horizontal visibility in a given sector (8-point compass) if different

from prevailing visibility and less than 1500 or 50% of the prevailing
visibility
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-88
10 Runway designator indicated by DR, VR indicates the RVR as mean

over 10 min in meters (P1500 = more than 1500 m and M0050 = less
RDRDR/VRVRVRVRi than 50 m), I is tendency, upward (U), downward (D) or no change (N).
or If significant variations occur a minimum and a maximum value is
given separated by V
RDRDR/VRVRVRVR
V VRVRVRVRi
11 w`w` Weather coded in accordance with Weather Codes table
12 Cloud amount (NsNsNs) is reported as FEW (1-2 oktas), SCT (3-4

oktas), BKN (5-7 oktas) and OVC (8 oktas) and cloud height (hshshs) is
NsNsNs hshshs(cc) given in hundreds of feet. (cc) will only be included if cumulonimbus
or (CB) or towering cumulus (TCU) is present.
VV hshshs If the sky is obscured vertical visibility (VV) will be given in hundreds
of feet.
or
SKC will be used if no clouds are present, no restriction on vertical
SKC visibility and CAVOK cannot be used.
or NSC will be used if SKC cannot be used and there are no clouds below
5000 ft. or minimum sector altitude whichever is greater, no
NSC
cumulonimbus and no restriction on vertical visibility.
or
NCD will be used when no clouds detected by an automatic
NCD observation system.
13 CAVOK Replace items 7 to 11 if the visibility is 10 km or more, no clouds

below 5000 ft. or minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater, no
cumulonimbus and no significant weather phenomena.
14 T’T’/T’dT’d Temperature and dewpoint rounded to the nearest whole °C.

Temperatures below 0°C are prefixed by M.
15 QPH PH PH PH QNH rounded down to the nearest whole hector Pascal (hPa).
16 REw’w’ Recent weather phenomena of operational significance that has been

observed since the last report but not present during this observation.
17 WS RWY DRDR Windshear has been observed along the take-off or landing path to a
runway (signified by DRDR) between the runway level and 1600 ft. If
or all runways are affected by the windshear, WS ALL RWY is used.
WS ALL RWY
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-89
18 (WTsTs/SS’) Sea temperature (TsTs) and sea state. Reported if applicable.
19 RRRRERCReReRBRBR Runway state group coded in accordance with Runway State group
table.
Table 12.8 METAR standard layout

TREND
Table 11.9 shows the standard layout for a TREND. If issued, the TREND will be
attached to the METAR after item 18 in table 12.8
The TREND forecast period is the 2 hours following the time of observation as given
in item 3 in table 12.8.
1 TTTTT NOSIG will be used when no significant changes are

expected to the observed elements.
or
BECMG (TTTTT) is used to indicate changes expected to
NOSIG reach or pass specified threshold criteria at either a regular or
irregular rate.
TEMPO (TTTTT) is used to indicate temporary fluctuations

expected to reach or pass specified threshold criteria and last
for a period of less than one hour in each instance and in the
aggregate cover less than half of the forecast period during
which the fluctuations are expected to occur.
2 TTGGgg Time group in hours (GG) and minutes (gg) that is used to
indicate (TT) the beginning of (FM), the end of (TL) or the
time (AT) at which the specific forecast condition(s) is (are)
expected to occur.
3 KMH
dddffGfmfm KT As for item 5 in the previous table.

or
MPS
4 VVVV
or As for item 7 in the previous table.
CAVOK
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-90
5 w`w` Weather coded in accordance with the previous table.
or NSW indicates the end of a significant weather phenomenon.
NSW
6 NsNsNs hshshs(cc)
or
VV hshshs
or
SKC As for item 12 in the previous table.
or
NSC
or
NCD
7 RMK Denotes the beginning of a section containing information by

national decision which shall not be disseminated
internationally. If no TREND is issued RMK follows after
item 19 in the previous table.
Table 12.9 TREND standard layout
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-91
WEATHER CODES (W’W’)
Intensity or - Light Only used with TS,

proximity precipitation, PO
Moderate (no denominator) or FC
+ Heavy
VC In the vicinity. Defined as within 8 km of the aerodrome perimeter but

not at the aerodrome. Intensity or type of the precipitation will not be
specified.
Descriptor MI Shallow. The visibility 2m above the ground is

1000 m or more and the apparent visibility in the
fog layer is less than 1000 m. May be used
combined with
BC Patches. There are patches of fog within the fog (FG)
aerodrome perimeter.
PR Partial. Part of the aerodrome is covered in fog.
DR Drifting (low drifting) less than 2 m above the May be used

ground combined with
snow (SN), dust
BL Blowing 2 m or more above the ground. (DU) or sand
(SA).
SH Showers
TS Thunderstorm. Thunder is heard or lightning is detected within the 10

min preceding the time of observation.
FZ Freezing. There are supercooled water droplets present either as fog or

precipitation.
Precipitation DZ Drizzle.
RA Rain.
SN Snow.
SG Snow grains.
IC Ice crystals.
PL Ice pellets.
GR Hail.
GS Small hail.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-92
Obscuration BR Mist.
FG Fog.
FU Smoke.
VA Volcanic Ash.
DU Dust.
SA Sand.
HZ Haze.
Other PO Dust/sand whirls (dust devils)
SQ Squalls.
FC Funnel cloud(s) (tornado or waterspout)
SS Sandstorm
DS Duststorm
Table 12.10 Codes for the weather group

The codes for the weather (w’w’) group in table 12.10 above may either be used single
or combined depending on the nature of the weather phenomena. If there is mixed
precipitation the most prominent type will be listed first followed by the other types in
sequence.
RUNWAY STATE GROUP
05 = Runway 05 or 05L Add 50 for right runway: 55 = Runway 05R
26 = Runway 26 or 26L Add 50 for right runway: 76 = Runway 26R
RRRR Runway designator 88 = All runways
99 = Repetition of previous message as no new information has been

received
0 = Clear and dry
1 = Damp
2 = Wet or wet patches
3 = Rime or frost covered (depth normally less than 1 mm)
Runway deposits 4 = Dry snow
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-93
ER 5 = Wet snow
6 = Slush
7 = Ice
8 = Compacted or rolled snow
9 = Frozen ruts or ridges
/ = Type of deposit not reported (e.g. due to runway clearance in progress)
1 = Less than 10% of runway contaminated (covered)
Extent of runway 2 = 11% to 25% of runway contaminated (covered)

contamination
CR 5 = 26% to 50% of runway contaminated (covered)
9 = 51% to 100% of runway contaminated (covered)
/ = Not reported (e.g. due to runway clearance in progress)
00 = Less than 1 mm 15 = 15 mm
01 = 1 mm etc.
02 = 2 mm 20 = 20 mm
etc. etc. up to
10 = 10 mm 90 = 90 mm
etc. 91 = Code not used
eR eR Depth of the deposit 92 = 10 cm 96 = 30 cm
93 = 15 cm 97 = 35 cm
94 = 20 cm 98 = 40 cm or more
99 = Runway or runways non-operational due to snow, slush. Ice, large

drifts or runway clearance, but depth not reported.
// = Depth of deposit operationally not significant or not measurable.
If friction coefficient is available it will be given as:
BRBR 20 = 0.20
35 = 0.35
48 = 0.48
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-94
etc.
Friction If coefficient is not available, breaking action will be given as:
BRBR coefficient/ braking 91 = Poor

action
92 = Medium/poor
93 = Medium
94 = Medium/good
95 = Good
99 = Unreliable
// = Breaking action not reported, runway not operational, aerodrome

closed etc.
Table 12.11 Codes for the runway state group
If there has been precipitation or other phenomena affecting the runways and clearing
has been completed and the contamination conditions have ceased to exist CLRD will
be used in the runway state group. Below are examples of runway state groups:
 16491237 Runway 16 51% to 100% covered by dry snow, depth 12 mm

and friction coefficient 0.37.
 88//99// All runways non-operational due to snow clearance in progress.
 86CLRD95 Runway 36R contamination has ceased to exist, braking action
good.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-95
TAF
The TAF is an aerodrome forecast issued at regular intervals. The duration of the
forecast is between 9 and 24 hours. TAFs valid for less than 12 hours are issued every
3 hours and those valid for more than 12 hours are issued every 6 hours. The standard
in Europe is 9 hours for the short TAF (FC) and 23 hours for the long TAF (FT).
CODES
1 TAF Code name for the type of report
METAR – Aerodrome routine meteorological report.
SPECI – Aerodrome special meteorological report.
2 COR Only used of a correction to the previous report (COR),

amended forecast (AMD)
or AMD
3 CCCC ICAO Location Indicator
4 YYGGggZ Day of the month and time of origin of the forecast
5 NIL No forecast has been issued
6 Y1Y1G1G1G2G2 Day of the month and time in hours (G1G1) for the start of
the forecast period and the end time in hours (G2G2) of the
forecast period.
7 CNL Forecast has been cancelled.
8 KMH The mean direction and speed of the forecast wind. VRB
(ddd) will normally only be used when the mean wind
dddffGfmfm KT or speed is less than 3 kt or when it is impossible to indicate a
single direction. Dddff as 00000 denotes calm conditions,
MPS
Gfmfm is only given if the wind gust speed exceeds the
mean wind speed by 10 kt or more.
9 VVVV Prevailing horizontal visibility in meters. 9999 indicates 10

km or more. The use of CAVOK is explained in item 12.
or CAVOK
10 w’w’ Weather coded in accordance with weather codes table.
or NSW (nil significant weather) is used to indicate the end of

a significant weather phenomenon.
NSW
11 Cloud amount (NsNsNs) is reported as FEW (1-2 oktas),

SCT (3-4 oktas), BKN (5-7 oktas) and OVC (8 oktas) and
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-96
NsNsNs hshshs(cc) cloud height (hshshs) is given in hundreds of feet. (cc) will
only be included if cumulonimbus (CB) is forecast.
or
If the sky is expected to be obscured vertical visibility (VV)
VV hshshs will be given in hundreds of feet.
or SKC will be used if clear sky is forecast and CAVOK

cannot be used.
SKC
NSC will be used when no clouds below 5000 ft. or
or minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater and no
cumulonimbus is forecast and CAVOK or SKC are not
NSC appropriate.
12 CAVOK Replacing items 9 to 11 when a visibility of 10 km or more,

no cloud below 5000 ft. or minimum sector altitude,
whichever is greater, no cumulonimbus and no significant
weather phenomena are expected.
13 PROBC2C2GGGeGe Indicates a probability of occurrence of alternative value(s)

of forecast element(s). C2C2 of 30 or 40 indicates 30% or
40% probability. GGGeGe defines the time of onset and the
end of the values in hours.
14 TTTTT GGGeGe BECMG (TTTTT) is used to indicate changes

expected to reach or pass specified threshold criteria at
or
either a regular or irregular rate commencing at GG in
TTGGgg hours and have completed by GeGe
TEMPO (TTTTT) is used to indicate temporary

fluctuations expected to reach or pass specified
threshold criteria and last for a period of less than one
hour in each instance and in the aggregate cover less
than half of the forecast period during which the
fluctuations are expected to occur as defined by GG to
GeGe
15 TXTFTF/GFGFZ Forecast maximum (TX) and minimum (TN) temperature at

TNTFTF/GFGFZ the time in hors defined by GFGF. Temperatures below 0°C
are prefixed by M.
Table 12.12 TAF standard layout
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-97
The table above shows the standard layout of a TAF. The required items are:
 Items 1, 3, 4 and 6 Identification groups and period of validity.

 Item 8 Wind group
 Item 9 Visibility group
 Item 10 Weather group
 Item 11 Cloud group
Item 14 is used to denote changes, either permanent or fluctuations to any element(s)

specified in the forecast, by using BECMG or TEMPO respectively. Only the elements
which are described preceding the change indicator are expected to change. That
means any elements which are not replaced by new information are carried forward
from the last previous period where they were defined. There may be several change
groups throughout the period of validity for the TAF.
It is important to note that TEMPO is used to denote the fluctuations in the elements
described and that after the time defining the end of the period of the TEMPO, the
elements return to as described prior to the start time of the TEMPO.
If all elements of the TAF are expected to change at a given time, the code FM
followed by the time in hours and minutes (TTGGgg) will be used. All elements prior
to the FM will be replaced by the new elements preceding it, i.e. it indicates the start
of a new forecast period.
In general, when asked about the forecasted conditions consider PROB and TEMPO
and choose the relevant conditions based on the time given. When asked about the
expected or most likely conditions, disregard the elements described with a PROB or
TEMPO.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-98
AIRMET, SIGMET AND SPECIAL AIR REPORT

AIRMET and SIGMET have similar layout and abbreviations but different areas of
coverage. The difference between the two is outlined in their definitions.
AIRMET
AIRMET is defined as information issued by a meteorological watch office

concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather
phenomena which may affect the safety of low-level aircraft operations and which was
not included in the forecast issued for low-level flights in the flight information region
concerned.
SIGMET
SIGMET is defined as information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning

the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena which
may affect the safety of aircraft operations. SIGMET SST is issued for transonic or
supersonic flights.
SPEICAL AIR REPORT
The special air report is issued based on actual observations of a given meteorological
phenomena and no forecast is given.
Table 12.13 shows the layout and abbreviations used for the above mentioned reports.
Distances and movement speeds may be given as NM/KT (as in the table) or
KM/KMH.
AIRMET SIGMET SIGMET SST Special air

report
1 ATS unit ICAO Location Indicator for the ATS unit serving the FIR or N/A
CTA to which the SIGMET/AIRMET refers.
2 Identification Message identification and sequence number corresponding to

the number of messages issued for the FIR/CTA since 0001 UTC
on the day concerned. ARS
AIRMET [nn]n SIGMET [nn]n SIGMET SST [nn]n
3 Validity period VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg ( Date and time in hours and Withdrawn
minutes UTC) 60 min after
issue.
4 MWO CCCC- (ICAO Location Indicator of the MWO (Meteorological N/A
Watch Office) originating the message).
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-99
5 FIR/CTR or aircraft nnnnnn FIR nnnnnn FIR[/UIR] or CTR Aircraft

identification callsign
6 Phenomenon
causing the
issuance of the Phenomenon coded in accordance with Phenomenon codes table.
report
7 Phenomenon being OBS [AT GGggZ] OBS AT

observed or GGggZ
forecast FCST
OBS [AT GGggZ] AND FCST
8 Location (latitude [N OF , NE OF, E OF, SE OF, S OF, SW OF, W OF, NW OF]

and longitude or
geographical Nnnnn Ennnnn Nnnnn
position Ennnnn
Nnnnn Wnnnnn
Nnnnn
Snnnn Ennnnn Wnnnnn
Snnnn Wnnnnn Snnnn
Ennnnn
Geographical position
Snnnn
Wnnnnn
9 Level or vertical FLnnn or FLnnn/nnn or TOP FLnnn or [TOP] ABV FLnnn or

extent [TOP] BLW FLnnn
For tropical cyclone:
CB TOP [ABV] FLnnn WI nnnNM OF CENTER
CB TOP [BLW] FLnnn WI nnnNM OF CENTER

FLnnn
For volcanic ash:
FLnnn/nnn [APRX nnnNM BY nnnNM]
Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn TO
Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-100
10 Movement or MOV N [nnKT] or MOV NE [nnKT] or MOV E [nnKT] or N/A

expected movement MOV SE [nnKT] or MOV S [nnKT] or MOV SW [nnKT] or
or stationary MOV W [nnKT] or MOV NW [nnKT]
STNR
11 Changes in INTSF or WKN or NC N/A

intensity
12 Forecast position FCST GGggZ TC CENTER Nnnnn or

(only volcanic ash Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
clouds and tropical
cyclones) FCST GGggZ VA CLD Nnnnn or Snnnn,
N/A Ennnnn or Wnnnnn TO N/A
13 Outlook (only OTLK YYGGgg TC CENTER Nnnnn or

volcanic ash and Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
typical cyclones)
YYGGgg TC CENTER Nnnnn or Snnnn,
Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
OTLK YYGGgg VA CLD APRX

N/A [FLnnn/nnn] Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or N/A
Wnnnnn
YYGGgg VA CLD APRX [FLnnn/nnn]

14 Cancellation of CNL AIRMET CNL SIGMET CNL SIGMET

SIGMET/AIRMET [nn]n [nn]n SST [nn]n
YYGGgg/YYGGgg YYGGgg/YYGGgg YYGGgg/YYGGgg N/A
Table 12.13 AIRMET/SIGMET/Special air report standard layout
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-101
PHENOMENON CODES FOR AIRMET/SIGMET/SPECIAL AIR REPORT
AIRMET SIGMET SIGMET SST Special air report
SFC WSPD ffKT OBSC TS MOD TURB TS
(Surface windspeed) (Obscured TS) (Moderate turbulence) (Thunderstorm)
SFC VIS VVVVM (w’w’) EMBD TS SEV TURB TSGR
(Surface visibility) (Embedded TS) (Severe turbulence) (Thunderstorm and hail)
ISOL TS FRQ TS ISOL CB SEV TURB
(Isolated/individual TS) (Frequent/little or no (Isolated/individual (Severe turbulence)

separation TS) CBs)
OCNL TS SEV ICE
SQL TS OCNL CB
(Occasional/well separated (Severe icing)
TS) (Squall line/along a line (Occasional/well
with little or no separation separated CBs) SEV MTW
MT OBSC TS)
FRQ CB (Severe mountain waves)
(Mountain obscured) TC nnnnnnnn
(Frequent/little or no HVY SS
BKN CLD hShShS/hThThTFT (Tropical cyclone [name]) separation CBs) (Heavy sandstorm)
(Broken clouds base/tops) SEV TURB GR VA CLD FLnnn/nnn
OVC CLD hShShS/hThThTFT (Severe turbulence) (Hail) (Volcanic ash cloud
(Overcast clouds base/tops) SEV ICE VA ERUPTION MT base/tops)
nnnnnn LOC Nnnnn or VA MT nnnnnn
ISOL CB (Severe icing) Snnnn, Ennnnn or
(Isolated/individual CBs) Wnnnnn (Volcanic ash from mount
SEV ICE FZRA
[name])
OCNL CB (Severe icing, freezing (Volcanic ash eruption
rain) from mount [name] MOD TURB
(Occasional/well separated located [lat/long])
CBs) SEV MTW (Moderate turbulence)
VA CLD
FRQ CB (Severe mountain waves) GR
(Volcanic ash cloud)
(Frequent/little or no HVY DS (Hail)
separation CBs)
(Heavy duststorm) CB
ISOL TCU
HVY SS (Cumulonimbus)
(Isolated/individual TCUs)
(Heavy sandstorm)
OCNL TCU
VA ERUPTION MT
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-102
(Occasional/well separated nnnnnn LOC Nnnnn or

TCUs) Snnnn, Ennnnn or
Wnnnnn
FRQ TCU
(Volcanic ash eruption
(Frequent/little or no from mount [name]
separation TCUs) located [lat/long])
MOD TURB VA CLD
(Moderate turbulence) (Volcanic ash cloud)
MOD ICE
(Moderate icing)
MOD MTW
(Moderate mountain waves)
Table 12.14 Codes for the phenomenon group in AIRMET/SIGMET/Special

air report
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-103
GAMET
GAMET is an area forecast for low-level flights which employs abbreviated plain
language which is similar in style to the previous reports and forecasts that have been
shown. The GAMET normally covers the layer between ground and FL100 or FL150
(or higher if necessary) in mountainous areas. A GAMET has two sections, Section 1
which supports any information as given by an AIRMET and Section II will include
supplementary information in accordance with regional agreements, e.g. pressure
centers and fronts, wind and temperature for various levels and the freezing level. The
abbreviations being used include the ones already introduced for METARs, TAFs and
SIGMET/AIRMET/special air report in addition to the ones shown in the table below.
There are regional differences in the layout of the GAMET, however, the coding will
still be similar and therefore the information given should become apparent when
decoding it.
ABT About IAO In and out of clouds PROB Probability
ABV Above ICE Icing PS Plus
ACT Active, activated IMC Instrument meteorological PSYS Pressure

conditions system(s)
ALT Altitude IMPR Improve, improving RAPID Rapid(ly)
AMD Amend, amended INC In clouds SAND Sandstorm
ASSW Associated with INS Inches SEC Seconds
BASE Cloud base INTER Intermittent SECN Section
BLO Below clouds INTST Intensity SEV Severe (icing,

turbulence etc.)
BLW Below INTSF Intensify(ing) SFC Surface
BTL Between layers JTST Jet stream SHWR Shower
BTN Between L Low pressure SLW Slow
C Degrees Celsius LAN Land SMK Smoke
CAT Clear air turbulence LGT Light SMO Supplementary

meteorological
office
CLD Clouds LOC Locally STNR Stationary
CNS Continuous LSQ Line squall T Temperature
COT Coast LYR Layer(ed) TAIL Tailwind
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-104
CUF Cumuliform M Meters TDO Tornado
DEG Degrees MAR At sea (maritime) TEMPO Temporary,

temporarily
DMO Dependent MAX Maximum TEND Tend or tending

meteorological office to
DP Dewpoint MB Millibars TOP Cloud top
DTRT Deteriorate, deteriorating MET Meteorological, meteorology TURB Turbulence
DUST Dust storm MIN Minutes UNL Unlimited
EXC Except MMO Main meteorological office VER Vertical
EXP Expect(ed), expecting MNM Minimum VIS Visibility
FBL Light (icing, turbulence MOD Moderate (icing, turbulence VMC Visual
etc.) etc.) meteorological
conditions
FCST Forecast MON Mountain(s) VRBL Variable
FL Flight level MOV Move, moving VSP Vertical speed
FPM Feet per minute MS Minus WDSPR Widespread
FRONT Front MSL Mean sea level WI Within
FRQ Frequent MTW Mountain waves WKN Weaken(ing)
FT Feet MWO Meteorological watch office WSPD Windspeed
FZLVL Freezing level NC No change WTSPT Waterspout
GND Ground NIL None, not existent WX Weather
GRADU Gradual(ly) NM Nautical miles XXX Above FL

100/FL 150
H High pressure OBS Observe(d), observation
HAIL Hail OBSC Obscure(d), obscuring
HURCN Hurricane OCNL Occasional(ly)
HVY Heavy OTP On top
Table 12.15 Aeronautical meteorological abbreviations
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-105
EXAMPLE REPORTS
METAR AND SPECI
METAR SA ENTC 181020Z 18023G34KT CAVOK M04/M13 Q1019 NOSIG

RMK WIND 2600FT 17050G73KT=
METAR for Tromso airport on the 18th of the month at 1020 UTC. Wind is from 180°
at 23 kt gusting 34 kt. Visibility 10 km or more, no significant weather, no clouds
below the greater of 5000 ft. or MSA and no CBs. Temperature -4°C and dewpoint -
13°C. QNH is 1019 hPa. No significant changes are expected for the next two hours.
Additional information is wind at 2600 ft. from 170° at 50 kt gusting 73 kt.
METAR SA ENGM 210850Z 00000KT 5000 1000SE R19R/P1500U

R01R/0450V0800D PRFG NSC M07/M09 Q1031 TEMPO 0700 FZFG VV001=
METAR for Oslo Gardermoen airport on the 21st of the month at 0850 UTC. Wind is
calm. Prevailing visibility is 5 km with visibility in sector southeast being 1000 m.
RVR on runway 19R is more than 1500 m with an upward trend, RVR in runway 01R
is varying between 450 m and 800 m with a downward trend. Part of the aerodrome is
covered in fog. No clouds below the greater of 5000 ft. or MSA and no CB.
Temperature -7°C and dewpoint -9°C. QNH is 1031 hPa. Temporarily fluctuations
within the next two hours lasting for a maximum one hour accumulating to maximum
one hour may occur giving a prevailing visibility of 700 m in freezing fog with a
vertical visibility of 100 ft.
SPECI SP EDDS 121304Z 08003KT 9999 TSRA BKN040CB 23/14 Q1024

BECMG FM1330 NSW=
SPECI for Stuttgart airport on the 12th of the month at 1304 UTC. Wind from 080 at 3
kt. Prevailing visibility is 10 km or more. Thunderstorm and rain. 5 to 7 okta of
cumulonimbus clouds at 4000 ft. Temperature +23°C and dewpoint +14°C. QNH is
1024 hPa. From 1330 UTC there will be change to nil significant weather.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-106
TAF
TAF FC UUWW 231330Z 231524 12003MPS 4000 BR SCT007 TEMPO 1724

0900 FG DZ OVC004=
Short TAF for Moscow Vnukovo airport issued on the 23rd of the month at 1330 UTC
and valid on the 23rd of the month from 1500 UTC to 2400 UTC. Forecast wind is
from 120 at 3 mps. Forecast visibility is 4 km in mist. 2 to 4 okta clouds at 700 ft.
Temporary fluctuations lasting maximum one hour accumulating to maximum half the
time period specified between 1700 UTS and 2400 UTC. Forecast visibility 900 m in
fog and moderate drizzle. 8 oktas clouds at 400 ft. The wind will remain the same as
previously stated throughout the period of the TEMPO.
TAF FT EKCH 081040Z 081818 20015KT 8000 BKN012 BECMG 1820

20015G30KT 4000 RA BKN008 BECMG 2022 24020G30KT 9999 NSW SCT025
TEMPO 2210 5000 SHRA BKN012CB FM1000 29025G38KT 9999 SCT025
TEMPO 1018 4000 SHRAGS BKN010CB BECMG 1214 31030G48KT BECMG
1517 31025G38KT
Long TAF for Copenhagen Kastrup airport issued on the 8th of month at 1040 UTC
and valid on the 8th of the month from 1800 UTC to 1800 UTC the following day (9th
of the month). Forecast wind is from 200° at 15 kt. Forecast visibility is 8 km. 5 to 7
okta clouds at 1200 ft.
Change commencing at 1800 UTC and completing by 2000 UTC. Forecast wind is
from 200° at 15 kt gusting 30 kt. Forecast visibility is 4 km in moderate rain. 5 to 7
okta clouds at 800 ft.
Change commencing at 2000 UTC and completing by 2200 UTC. Forecast wind is
from 240 at 20 kt gusting 30 kt. Forecast visibility is 10 km or more with nil
significant weather. 3 to 4 okta clouds at 2500 ft.
time period specified between 2200 UTC and 1000 UTC. Forecast visibility 5 km with
moderate showers of rain. 5 to 7 okta cumulonimbus clouds at 1200 ft. The wind will
remain the same as previously stated (24020G30KT) throughout the period of the
TEMPO.
From 1000 UTC. Forecast wind is from 290° at 25 kt gusting 38 kt. Forecast visibility
is 10 km or more. 3 to 4 okta clouds at 2500 ft.
time period specified between 1000 UTC and 1800 UTC. Forecast visibility is 4 km in
moderate showers of rain mixed with small hail. 5 to 7 okta of cumulonimbus clouds
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-107
at 1000 ft. The wind will remain the same as previously stated (29025G38KT)
throughout the period of the TEMPO.
Change commencing at 1200 UTC and completing at 1400 UTC. Forecast wind is
from 310 at 30 kt gusting 48 kt. The visibility, weather and clouds will remain the
same as stated after previous permanent change which affected them (9999 SCT025).
Change commencing at 1500 UTC and completing at 1700 UTC. Forecast wind is
from 310 at 25 kt gusting 38 kt. The visibility, weather and clouds will remain the
same as stated after previous permanent change which affected them (9999 SCT025).
SIGMET
EGTT SIGMET 05 VALID 081510/081830 EGRR-
EGTT LONDON FIR ISOL SEV TURB FCST BLW FL060 WITHIN 10NM OF
A LINE N5100 W00500 TO N53000 E00300 MOV S 40KT NC=
London Air Traffic Control Center SIGMET number 5 valid on the 8th of the month at
1510 UTC until the 8th of the month at 1830 UTC issued by Bracknell World Area
Forecast Center (WAFC).
Within London FIR isolated severe turbulence is forecast below flight level 60 within
19 nm if a ling extending between N5100 W00500 and N5300 E00300 moving South
at 40 kt with no change in intensity.
EDWW SIGMET 02 VALID 180900/181200 EDZH
EDWW BREMEN FIR EMBD TS FCST NW, C AND SE PART TOP FL350
MOV NNE NC=
Bremen Area Control Center SIGMET number 2 valid on the 18th of the month at
0900 UTC until the 18th of the month at 1200 UTC issued by Hamburg
Meteorological Regional Center.
Within Bremen FIR embedded thunderstorms are forecast for the northwestern, central
and southeastern part with top of clouds at flight level 350 moving north-northeast
with no change intensity.
ENSV SIGMET 04 VALID 180640/181025 ENVV –
NORWAY FIR LOC MOD/SEV CAT OBS AND FCST BTN FL180 AND FL300.
S OF N6200 AND W OF E00730. WKN W PART LATE=
Stavanger Air Traffic Control Center SIGMET number 4 valid on the 18th of the
month at 0640 UTC until the 18th of the month at 1025 UTC issued by Bergen
Meteorological Forecast Center.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-108
Within Norway FIR local moderate to severe clear air turbulence is observed and
forecast between flight level 180 and flight level 300 South of N6200 and West of
E00730 weakening in the western part later.
LIRR SIGMET 03 VALID 121000/121600 LIMM-
ROMA FIR FBL VA LAST OBS (120530Z BY LICZ) EXT 5 NM E OF ETNA

FL070/110 MOV E 40 KT=
Roma Area Control Center SIGMET number 3 valid on the 12th of the month at 1000
UTC until the 12th of the month at 1600 UTC issued by Milano Area Control Center.
Roma FIR feeble volcanic ash last observed on the 12th of the month at 0530 UTC by
Sigonella extending 5 nm East of Etna between FL70 and FL110 moving East at 40 kt.
AIRMET
LSAS AIRMET 5 VALID 091400/091700 LSZH-
LSAS SWITZERLAND FIR MOD ICE OBS 2500 FT AMSL/FL120 ALPS AND
N OF ALPS STNR NC AND MOD TURB OBS STNR NC=
Switzerland FIR/UIR AIRMET number 5 valid on the 9th of the month at 1400 UTC
until the 9th of the month at 1700 UTC issued by Zurich.
Within Switzerland FIR moderate icing has been observed between 2500 ft. above
MSL and FL120 in the ALPS and North of the Alps which is stationary with no
change in intensity. Also, moderate turbulence is observed which is stationary with no
change in intensity.
SPECIAL AIR REPORT
LOWW 120921
ARS
ENRT ACGT MEDIUM MOD TURB OBS AT 0918Z NE PART FL290. =
Special air report issued by Wien Schwechat on the 12th of the month at 0920 UTC.
An en-route aircraft of medium size observed moderate turbulence at 0918 UTC in the
north-eastern part at FL290.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-109
GAMET
EDMM GAMET VALID 090900/091500 EDZM-
MUENCHEN FIR S OF N50 BLW FL150
SECN I
SFC VIS : ISOL 1000 SHSNGS
1500 SN S OF N48
SIGWX : 12/15 ISOL TS
MT OBSC : ABV 3000 FT AMSL ALPS
ABV 2500 FT AMSL NE PART
SIG CLD : ISOL TCU/CB 3000 FT AMSL/FL180
TURB : MOD BLW FL060
SIGMET APPLICABLE: AT TIME OF ISSUE NIL
SECN II
PSYS : 12 L 982 HPA S SWEDEN STNR WKN
: 12 COLD FRONT LINE GOTLAND-LODZ-BRNO-GENEVA

MOV SE
: 12 UPPER TROUGH LINE GOTLAND-BERLIN-VERONA

MOV E
WIND/T : 3000 FT AMSL 300/30KT MS01
FL050 310/35KT MS06
FL100 310/40KT MS16
CLD : SCT/BKN CU/SC 3000 FT AMSL/FL140
FZLVL : 2000 FT AMSL
MNM QNH : 09/11 1006 HPA
11/13 1007 HPA
13/15 1007 HPA
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-110
CHECK GAFOR (VIS AND CLD BASE), AIRMET AND SIGMET-

INFORMATION=
Munchen Area Control Center/Flight Information Center GAMET valid on the 9th of
the month at 0900 UTC until the 9th of the month at 1500 UTC issued by Munchen
Meteorological Regional Center.
Surface visibility isolated 1 km in showers or snow and small hail and 1.5 km in snow
South of N48. Significant weather between 1200 UTC and 1500 UTC of isolated
thunderstorms. Mountains are obscured above 3000 ft. in the Alps and above 2500 ft.
in the north-eastern part. Significant clouds are towering cumulus or cumulonimbus
with base 3000 ft. above MSL with tops FL180.
Turbulence is moderate below FL60. No SIGMETs are applicable at the time of issue
of GAMET.
Pressure systems at 1200 UTC. A low at 982 hPa situated South of Sweden being
stationary and weakening. A cold front is situated along a line Gotland – Lodz – Brno
– Geneva moving southeast. An upper trough is situated along a lone Gotland – Berlin
– Verona moving East.
Wind at 3000 ft. is from 300° at 30 kt and temperature is -1°C. Wind at FL50 is from
310° at 35 kt and temperature -6°C. Wind at FL100 is from 310° at 40 kt and
temperature -16°C.
Clouds are 3 to 7 okta of cumulus and stratocumulus with base at 3000 ft. and tops at
FL140. The freezing level is at 2000 ft. above MSL. Minimum QNH is 1006 hPa
between 0900 UTC and 1100 UTC, 1007 hPa between 1100 UTC and 1300 UTC and
between 1300 UTC and 1500 UTC.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-111
UPPER AIR CHARTS

INTRODUCTION
Upper air charts include significant weather (SIGWX) charts and wind and
temperature (WT) charts. Both types will cover a certain geographical area (e.g.
Europe, Far East, South Atlantic and so on) and are valid on a given time, 0000 UTC,
0600 UTC, 1200 UTC and 1800 UTC. Also, both charts show the forecast situation at
the time given.
Figure 12.55 SIGWX symbols

Figure 12.55 shows the common symbols used on SIGWX charts. The symbols used
on charts vary slightly between the charts.
The SIGWX charts will be issued for a block between two levels, as given on the
chart. Some charts may start on the surface and others may start at an altitude above
the surface, usually FL100 or FL260. The top level of the charts is usually FL450 or
FL630.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-112
Figure 12.56 SIGWX chart for Europe
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-113
Figure 12.56 shows the SIGWX chart for Europe. The information shown on the chart
will be explained in the following pages all referring to the SIGWX chart for Europe
in the figures below:
INFORMATION BOX
Figure 12.57 Information box on SIGWX chart figure 11.56
The information box above contains the following information, starting at the top:
 Code for the chart (PGDE15) and issued by EGRR on the 12th of the month at
0600 UTC.
 The chart is fixed time prognostic chart for ICAO area Euro showing
significant weather.
 The chart coverage is from FL100 up to FL450.
 The chart is valid at 0600 UTC on the 13th of November 2007.
 CB implies thunderstorm, large hail and moderate or severe turbulence and
icing.
 Heights are in flight levels.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-114
 Information on volcanic ash is given by SIGMETs, advisories, ASHTAM and

NOTAM.
 Clear air turbulence (CAT) areas.
This information box is found in all SIGWX charts somewhere along the edge, but not
necessarily in the top, right hand corner. Wherever it is located on the chart, it will
contain the same amount of information.
The chart shows the standard rough sketching of the coastlines and meridians and
parallels of latitude are shown by the grid of small dots. Every 10° of latitude and
every 10° of longitude is shown. The black dots on the charts with a letter by them
signify the position of larger cities.
HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE
Figure 12.58 Height of tropopause

The boxes with the three digits in as shown in figure 11.58 indicate the height of the
tropopause in hundreds of feet for that position. In two of the positions the tropopause
is at FL450 whereas in the third position the tropopause is at FL350. The L and the
downwards pointing shape on the box signify that this is the lowest tropopause for this
area. A similar type box but with it pointing upwards will signify the highest
tropopause for a given area.
To find the tropopause between any of the positions given, interpolate between the
given heights. At the coastline for example, where the line of latitude and longitude
meet, the approximate height of the tropopause could be around FL400.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-115
WEATHER AREAS AND ACTIVE VOLCANOS
Figure 12.59 Weather area and active volcano
Weather areas are shown as areas enclosed within a cloud shaped pattern. An
information box will either be within the area or having an arrow pointing into as
shown in the figure above. For the area above southern Italy and Greece moderate
turbulence may be experienced below FL140 and down to below the lower limit of the
chart (FL100 on this chart) as denoted by the XXX. Moderate icing may also be
encountered from FL140 to below the lower limit of the chart.
On the right hand side of the figure above covering part of the Mediterranean and
Turkey, there is an area within another area stating ISOL EMBD CB (isolated
embedded CB) with tops at FL350 and base below the lower limit of the chart. Within
this area the flying conditions will be moderate or severe turbulence and icing
according to the information box.
When there is an active volcano in the area it will be shown by using the symbol for
volcano and an information box stating the name of the volcano and its position in
latitude and longitude. The volcano on this chart is Etna which is found on Sicily.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-116
JET STREAMS AND CAT AREAS
Figure 12.60 Jet stream and CAT area

Figure 12.60 shows parts of the jet stream flowing form above Iceland to South of the
British Isles. Jet streams are shown using the thick, black lines with an arrowhead
indicating the direction of the flow. The wind speed is given using the same coding as
for synoptic charts with a short line being 5 kt., a long line 10 kt. and a triangle 50 kt.
The wind speed in the jet stream shown starts at 140 kt above Iceland and has a wind
speed of 100 kt above northern France. The level of the core is at FL320 as shown
below where the wind speed indicators are.
If two lines close together cross the core at right angles it indicates a rapid change in
wind speed of 20 kt or more or a rapid change in the level of the core of 3000 ft. or
more.
The ends of the black line showing the core indicates when the wind speed drops
below 80 kt.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-117
The CAT areas are defined by the dashed lines which are shown around this jet
stream. The magnitude and vertical extent of the turbulence is given in the CAT area
part of the information box. Here there are two CAT areas, number 1 and number 2
indicated by a rectangular box with a number inside either placed within the CAT area
or outside with an arrow pointing into it as here. The divide between CAT area 1 and 2
are difficult to spot on this chart but it goes where the middle wind speed indicators
are 120 kt just North of Scotland.
CAT area 1 has moderate turbulence between FL250 and FL370 and CAT area 2 has
moderate and occasional severe turbulence between FL210 and FL380.
THE UPPER WIND AND TEMPERATURE CHART

The WT chart shows the forecast wind direction and speed and temperature at a given
level. The charts have the same tine of validity as the SIGWX charts (0000 UTC, 0600
UTC, 1200 UTC and 1800 UTC). The levels that are covered are:
 FL050
 FL100
 FL180
 FL240
 FL300
 FL340
 FL390
 FL450
The area of coverage will also be similar to the SIGWX charts.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-118
Figure 12.61 WT chart for Europe
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-119
Figure 12.61 shows an example of the WT chart covering Europe at FL300. The
information shown will be explained on the following pages, all referring to the chart
in figure 12.61.
INFORMATION BOX
Figure 12.62 Information box on WT chart figure 12.61

The information box in the figure above contains the following information, starting at
the top:
 Code for the chart (PWBD30)

 Source of the information shown (WAFC/met.no)
 The chart is an upper wind and temperature chart for FL300
 The chart is valid at 0600 UTC on the 13th of November 2007.
 Temperatures given are negative unless prefixed by PS
 The chart is based on data retrieved at 1200 UTC on the 12th of November
2007.
This information is found on all WT charts, somewhere along the edge in the same
fashion as on the SIGWX charts.
The chart shows the standard rough sketching of the coastlines and meridians and
parallels of latitude are shown by the grid of solid lines. Every 5° of latitude and 5° of
longitude is shown. Some charts may have black dots with a letter by them to signify
the position of larger cities as on the SIGWX chart.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-120
WIND AND TEMPERATURE INFORMATION
Figure 12.63 Wind and temperature information
The temperature is indicated by the number which is placed next to the wind arrow. As
stated in the information box, all temperatures are negative unless prefixed by PS,
which means the temperatures shown in the figure above are varying around -50°C.
The wind direction is indicated by an arrow with lines or triangles at one end
indicating wind speed. The indicators for speed also indicate the tail end of the arrow,
i.e. the wind speed is blowing from the wind speed indicators towards the other end of
the arrow.
The coding for wind speed is:
 Short line – 5 kt
 Long line – 10 kt
 Triangle – 50 kt
When finding the wind direction there is a couple of things that one has to remember:
 Wind direction is given as the direction from which the wind is blowing, i.e.
opposite to the direction the arrow is pointing.
 In order to find the correct direction the meridians must be used as reference
for North and not the top of the page.
Considering the wind arrow in the lower left hand corner of the figure above, the wind
direction is approximately 320°, wind speed 75 kt and the temperature -47°C.
Chapter 12
METEOROLOGY 12-121
CHAPTER 13
“ATC”
INTRODUCTION
Air Traffic Controllers play a major role in aiding pilots to undergo successful flights.
Comprehending the nature and the rationale of ATC enhances the safety operation of
any flight and make it easy to understand the meaning of each communication phrase.
In addition, it reduces workload on both pilots and controllers. This workload
reduction saves time for pilots, for other required tasks especially during emergency
phases, and for ATC to assist other traffic especially distressed aircrafts. The purpose
of this chapter is to know the necessary aspects about ATC job, especially which
involves pilots.
Contents
 Abbreviations
 Definitions
 Contents of ATC Flight Plan  both old version and the newly computerized
 ATIS and VOLMET
 Time
 Air Space Classes
 Air Traffic Control Units
 Methods of separation
 Air Traffic Control Unit Clearance and other clearances
 Slot times
 Flight Level Orientation Systems:
o Including RVSM
 Wake Turbulence Categories
 Flight Rules
 Position Reports
o Contents of Routine Reports
o Contents of Special Air Reports
 Traffic Information Broadcast by Aircraft (TIBA)
 Inadvertent Changes
 Communication
 Emergency
Chapter 13
ATC 13-1
ABBREVIATIONS
ACARS Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System
ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems
ACC Area Control Center
ADF Automatic Direction-Finding equipment
ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance
AGL Above Ground Level
AMSL Above Mean Sea Level
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control (in general, sometimes refer to the personnel)
ATD Actual Time of Departure
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
ATS Air Traffic Service
CAVOK Visibility, cloud and present weather better than prescribed values or
conditions
CMU Central Management Unit
CTA Control Time
CTOT Calculated Take-Off Time
CTR Control Zone
DA Decision Altitude
DH Decision Height
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
EAT Expected Approach Time
Chapter 13
ATC 13-2
EET Estimated Elapsed Time
EFC Expected Further Clearance
ELEV Elevation
EOBT Estimated Off-Block Time
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
ETO Estimated Time Over significant point
ETOPS Extended Twin-jet Operations
FIC Flight Information Centre
FIR Flight Information Region
FIS Flight Information Service
FPL Filed Flight Plan
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
HF High Frequency
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
ILS Instrument Landing System
IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions
INS Inertial Navigational System
MEA Minimum En-route Altitude
MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications
MSA Minimum Sector Altitude
MSL Mean Sea Level
Chapter 13
ATC 13-3
NDB Non-Direction radio Beacon
NOSIG No Significant Change
NSC Nil Significant Cloud
NSW Nil Significant Weather
OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude
OCH Obstacle Clearance Height
PANS Procedures for Air Navigation Services
PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator system
PCN Pavement Classification Number
QDM Magnetic Heading (zero wind)
QDR Magnetic Bearing
RA Resolution Advisory
RCF Radio Communication Failure
REG Registration
RNAV Area Navigation
RNP Required Navigation Performance
RVR Runway Visual Range
RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum
RWY Runway
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SKC Sky Clear
SLP Speed Limiting Point
SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar
Chapter 13
ATC 13-4
STAR Standard (instrument) Arrival Route
STD Standard
TA Traffic Advisory
TCAS Traffic Collision Avoidance System
TDZ Touch Down Zone
TFC Traffic
QFE Atmospheric pressure at aerodrome elevation (or at runway threshold)
QNH Altimeter sub-scale setting to obtain elevation when on the ground
THR Threshold
TMA Terminal control area
UTC (Z) Coordinated Universal Time
VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator system
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VHF Very High Frequency
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
VOLMET Meteorological information for aircraft in flight
VOR VHF Omni directional Range
WIP Work in Progress
WX Weather
Chapter 13
ATC 13-5
DEFINITIONS
 Aerodrome Control Tower  a unit established to provide air control service
to aerodrome traffic
 Air Traffic Control Clearance  authorization for an aircraft to proceed under

conditions specified by an air traffic control unit
Note
The abbreviated term "clearance" includes the clearance to "taxi", "take-off",

"departure", "en-route", "approach" or "landing" to indicate the particular portion of
flight to which the air traffic control clearance relates
 Air Traffic Control Service  a service provided for the purpose of:
o Preventing collisions between aircrafts, and in the maneuvering area

between aircrafts and obstructions
o Expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic
 Alternate Aerodrome  an aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when

it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or to land at the
aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include:
o Take-off Alternate
o En-Route Alternate
o Destination Alternate
 Approach Control Office  a unit established to provide air traffic control

service to controlled flights arriving at, or departing from, one or more
aerodromes
 Area Control Center  unit established to provide air traffic control service to
controlled flights in control areas under its jurisdiction
 Blind Transmission  a transmission form one station to another station in

circumstances where two-way communication cannot be established, but
where it is believed that the called station is able to receive the transmission
Chapter 13
ATC 13-6
 Ceiling (ICAO)  the height above the ground or water of the base of the
lowest layer of cloud below 6,000 meters (20,000 feet) covering more than
half the sky
 Centralized Management Unit  centralized unit providing airflow

management services within a specific area of responsibility
 Clearance Limit  the point to which an aircraft is granted an air traffic

control clearance
 Control Area  a controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified

limit above the earth
 Control Zone  controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of

the earth to a specified upper limit
 Danger Area  an airspace of defined dimensions within which activities

dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times
 Minimum Sector Altitude  the lowest altitude which may be used which
will provide a minimum clearance of 300m (1000 ft) above all objects located
in an area contained within a sector of a circle of 25 NM radius from a
navigation radio aid
 Prohibited Area  an airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or

territorial waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited
 Restricted Area  an airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or

territorial waters of a State within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in
accordance with certain specified conditions
 Total estimated elapsed time  is the estimated time required from take-off to
arrive over that designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids, from
which it is intended that an instrument approach procedure will be
commenced, or, if no navigation aid is associated with the destination
aerodrome, to arrive over the destination aerodrome. For VFR flights, the
estimated time required from take-off to arrive over the destination aerodrome
 Traffic Information  information issued by an air traffic services unit to alert

a pilot to other known or observed air traffic which may be in proximity to the
position or intended route of flight and to help the pilot avoid a collision
Chapter 13
ATC 13-7
 Transition Altitude  the altitude at or below which the vertical position of an

aircraft is controlled by reference to altitudes
 Transition Level  the lowest flight level available for use above the
transition altitude
Chapter 13
ATC 13-8
ATC FLIGHT PLAN

EgyptAir flights are carried out under an ATC flight plan submitted to the FIC of each
and every FIR the aircraft will be flying over, including the FIR of the destination and
alternate. This flight plan is then distributed by the FIC to the air traffic control units
along the intended route. Flight plans include the following:
 Aircraft Identification  Aircraft tail number or its registration
 Flight rules  either IFR, VFR, or combination of both
 Type of flight  either scheduled, non scheduled, general aviation or military
 Type of aircraft and wake turbulence category  either heavy, medium, or

light
 Equipment  suffixes for the types of equipment onboard of the aircraft
 Departure aerodrome
 Estimated off-block time  estimated time for an aircraft to push back from a
gate or start its engines whichever is earlier
 Cruising speed(s)
 Cruising level(s)
 Route to be followed  composed of airways and waypoints to be flown
 Destination aerodrome
 Total estimated elapsed time
 Alternate aerodrome(s)  in case the aircraft is not able to reach its intended
destination for any reason
 Fuel endurance  as discussed in the performance section, endurance is the

total time the aircraft can fly using the fuel onboard
 Total number of persons on board  passengers and crew
 Emergency and survival equipment  suffixes for onboard emergency and

survival equipment available for crew
Chapter 13
ATC 13-9
 Other information
The flight plan provides the associated ATC with all the available information
concerning the flight. Although pilots may deviate from the flight plan, subject to an
ATC clearance, the flight plan is the only link between pilots and ATC in case of
communication failure. The ATC expect the pilots to comply with the filed flight
plan.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-10
The next illustrations are the conventional ATC flight plan. Still used in African
destinations.
Figure 13.1a ICAO Flight Plan
Chapter 13
ATC 13-11
Figure 13.1b ICAO Flight Plan
Chapter 13
ATC 13-12
Figure 13.2 Computerized ATC Flight Plan
The next illustration shows the new computerized ATC flight plan:
1) The addresses associated with this ATC flight plan, including the receiver and the
sender. In this example the following are the addresses:
a. HECAZPZX,
b. HECAZIZX, and
c. HECAMSRO
2) FPL-MSR771-IS
a. FPL  Flight Plan
b. MSR771  Egypt Air flight number 771
c. I  flight under IFR
d. S  scheduled flight plan
3) B738/M-SDE……..
a. B738  airplane type is Boeing 737-800
b. M  wake turbulence category (Medium)
c. SDE……  these are codes for different equipment on board of the
airplane
4) HECA0745
a. HECA  ICAO identifier of the departure airport
b. 0745  EOBT
5) N0444F380 DCT CVO A1 NOZ ……..
a. N0444  cruise speed in knots (indicated by letter “N”)
b. F380  flight level to be maintaining
c. DCT CVO  names of navaids or waypoints. In this example, it
means direct CVO VOR
d. A1  airway name
6) LSGG0407 LSZH
a. LSGG  ICAO identifier of the destination airport
b. 0407  total estimated elapsed time
Chapter 13
ATC 13-13
c. LSZH  ICAO identifier for the destination alternate airport

7) PBN/B1C1D1 NAV/RNP5 DAT/VH DOF/130316 REG/SUGDC
EET/LSGG0055 [….] SEL/BHFL OPR/EGYPTAIR RMK/TCAS AGCS
a. PBN/B1C1D1  RNAV capabilities
b. NAV/RNP5  RNP that can be achieved by the aircraft using the
navigational equipment onboard
c. DAT/VH  indicates data applications or capabilities
d. DOF/130316  date of Flight (YYMMDD)
e. REG/SUGDC  airplane registration
f. EET/LGGG0055  Accumulated estimated elapsed time from take-
off to FIR boundaries. This example shows that the airplane will enter
Athens FIR (LGGG) after 55 minutes of flying from Take-off
g. SEL/BHFL  selective calling call sign. This is unique code for each airplane
tail number, enable ATC to call the pilots anytime
h. OPR/EGYPTAIR  name of the operator of the flight
i. RMK/TCAS AGCS  other remarks. In this example the aircraft is equipped
with TCAS and AGCS
Chapter 13
ATC 13-14
ATIS and VOLMET

Approaching the airport of intended landing, pilots should obtain the current local
weather information. Although VOLMETs are available along the route, it doesn’t
include all the necessary information concerning the airport. The ultimate source for
the necessary information pilots need for landing is contained in the ATIS.
ATIS
The ATIS is a continuous message, which provides general weather conditions of the
airport along with any critical information pilots landing or departing the airport must
know. Examples of the critical information included in the ATIS are runway or
taxiway closure, runway used for take-offs and landing, and types of the approaches
in use. The sources of the ATIS include:
 Meteorological office  provides the current weather conditions at the airport

 The airport operator  provides operational data about the status and availability
of the runways and taxiways
 Tower ATC supervisor  provides operational data concerning current approach,
landing and take-off configuration
The ATIS includes:
 Meteorological information, like:

o Surface wind direction and speed, including significant variations (variable,
gusting)
o Visibility and, when applicable, runway visual range (RVR)
“Note: RVR will be reported when visibility is less than 1500m”
o Present weather
o Clouds
o Air temperature
o Dew point
o Altimeter setting(s)  QNH
o Any available information on significant meteorological phenomena in the
approach area
o Trend-type landing forecast, when available
 Current runway surface conditions, in case of precipitants or other temporary
hazards
 Changes in the operational status of visual and non-visual essentials for approach
and landing
Chapter 13
ATC 13-15
For example
“This is Cairo international airport terminal information mike at time zero six
three zero*. Expect radar vectors ILS approach runway zero five center and
zero five right and zero five left for arrival. Runway zero five center and zero
five left for departure. Wind zero eight zero one four knots varying between
zero five zero and one one zero, maximum one five knots and minimum one
zero knots, CAVOK. Temperature three four, Due point two eight, QNH one
zero zero two, no significant change. On first contact with cairo approach,
advise that you have received information mike.”
*The time of the ATIS is in ZULU
ATIS is an important tool of communication between pilots and ATC. The

unavailability of ATIS requires the ATC to provide pilots with the current weather
information of the airport causing congestion in the communication channels. In some
cases, the ATC requires pilots to confirm that they have the correct ATIS
information, especially when the weather conditions change frequently.
VOLMET
VOLMET provides flight crews with meteorological conditions at the surrounding

main airports during cruise. The information contained in a VOLMET gives pilots
updated weather conditions at different airports within the area flying in. This
enhances his/her awareness of available airports when a safe landing at the airport of
intended landing can’t be made or a diversion is required due to any emergency
during cruise. Although the VOLMET is very helpful, it doesn’t include all the
necessary information for landing, including runway conditions and its availability.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-16
TIME
All the ATC clearances and all the pilot’s reports are issued in Universal Coordinated
Time (UTC). Zulu time is used by ATC in any clearance contains timing. In addition,
pilots in their position reports use Zulu, if time estimates are required. Before any
controlled fight, a time check shall be performed. This time check is obtained from
any air traffic control unit.
AIR SPACE CLASSES

Air Space Classification is important for pilots to know their requirements to operate
in a specific airspace. An example of the airspaces that are used widely in the daily
operations of Egypt Air:
 Class A  IFR flights only are permitted. All flights are provided with air
traffic control service and are separated from each other
 Class B  IFR and VFR flights are permitted (subject to ATC clearance). All
flights are provided with air traffic control service and are separated from each
other
 Class D  IFR and VFR flights are permitted and all flights are provided with
air traffic control service, IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and
receive traffic information in respect of VFR flights, VFR flights receive
traffic information in respect of all other flights.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-17
The following table summarizes all the airspaces information:
Radio
Separation Service Speed Subject to an
Class Type of flight Communication
Provided Provided Limitation* ATC clearance
Requirement
A Air traffic control Continuous two-

IFR only All aircraft Not applicable Yes
service way
Air traffic control Continuous two-

IFR All aircraft Not applicable Yes
service way

VFR All aircraft Not applicable Yes
service way
IFR from IFR

IFR Not applicable Yes
service way
IFR from VFR
C
1) Air traffic
control service
250 kts IAS below
separation from
IFR
Continuous two-
VFR VFR from IFR Yes
way
2) VFR/VFR traffic
information 10000 ft AMSL
service
Chapter 13
ATC 13-18
(and traffic
avoidance advice
on request)
Air traffic control

service, traffic 250 kts IAS below
information about
Continuous two-
IFR IFR from IFR Yes
way
VFR flights (and
traffic voidance
10000 ft AMSL
advice on
request)
D
IFR/VFR and
VFR/VFR traffic
250 Kts IAS below
information (and
traffic
Continuous two-
VFR Nil Yes
way
Avoidance advice
10000 ft AMSL
on request)
Air traffic control

service and, as far 250 kts IAS below
as practical traffic
Continuous two-
IFR IFR from IFR Yes
way
Information about
10000 ft AMSL
VFR flights
250 kts IAS below
Traffic
VFR Nil information as far No No
as practical
10000 ft AMSL
Chapter 13
ATC 13-19
250 Kts IAS below

Air traffic advisory
IFR from IFR as service, flight Continuous two-
IFR No
soon as practical information way
service
10000 ft AMSL
250 Kts IAS below
Flight information
VFR Nil No No
service
10000 ft AMSL
250 kts IAS below
Flight information Continuous two-

IFR Nil No
service way
10000 ft AMSL
250 kts IAS below
Flight information
VFR Nil No No
service
10000 ft AMSL
* When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 10,000 ft AMSL, FL100 should be used in lieu of 10,000 ft
Table 13.1 Air Space Classes
Chapter 13
ATC 13-20
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL UNITS

In any aerodrome, the air traffic services are provided through the following air traffic
control units:
 Aerodrome Control Tower, which is divided into:

o Clearance delivery or Pre-flight (to obtain start up clearance and ATC
clearance)
o Ground (to obtain push back clearance, engine start clearance especially in
case of deviation from normal procedures and taxi clearance)
o Tower (to obtain take-off clearance and landing clearance or when crossing an
active runway)
 Approach Control Office
 Area Control Center
NOTE: Aerodrome control tower and approach control office are responsible for
controlling aircrafts operating in the control zone, while the terminal control area
and the area control center are responsible for controlling aircrafts operating in the
control area
Chapter 13
ATC 13-21
METHODS OF SEPARATION
ATC unit continuously provides separation for IFR flights. This separation has criteria
and minima the ATC abide with. These separation minimums are as follows:
 Vertical separation (1,000ft or 2,000ft)
 Horizontal separation (longitudinal or lateral) and will be based on time or

distance
In order to achieve the required separation minima, the aircraft will be instructed to
fly a certain heading, at a certain speed, and/or climb or descend to a certain altitude
or flight level.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-22
AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCES

Communications between ATC and pilots are mostly clearances. ATC clearance has a
very specific phraseology, because it carries important information in a very short
time to be heard and understood by pilots. Most of the ATC clearances are similar in
structure, as well as, the read back of the clearance should be in the same structure as
the issued clearances. Any ATC clearance usually contains the following in the same
sequence:
 Station Name
 Aircraft Identification
 Clearance Limit
 Route of Flight
 Assigned initial or final Cruising level or altitude
This clearance contents apply for any ATC clearance. For example, a clearance to an
aircraft flying from Cairo to London will be as follows:
“Cairo Control clears Egypt Air 777, destination London Heathrow (or EGLL) via
BLT A16 NOZ, TANSA exit point, climb initially FL240 while in controlled airspace,
expect runway 05C for departure, squawk 5563”
Other Clearances
When entering another FIR for the first time, the ATC expects the following:
“Athens Control, Egypt AIR 777 maintaining FL340 over TANSA squawking 5563”
The expected reply will be:
“Egypt Air 777, Athens control clears Egypt Air 777 to destination flight plan route,
squawk 4430, fly direct KOR, maintain FL340”
Pilots are always encouraged to read back the ATC clearances as it is. Not abiding
with the standard terminology requires clarification from both sides and consumes
time and effort from both.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-23
SLOT TIME
Due to the huge increase in the amount of flying traffic, FICs all over the world set
new measures in order to sequence the traffic landing at their FIR, as well as, the
traffic flying over. Most of EgyptAir flights fly over Europe, where slot time is
applied frequently due to high traffic.
CTOT
The Calculated Take-Off Time is issued to allow smooth airflow within the FIR.
Provided by the CMU, CTOT implies that the aircraft should take off within 5
minutes before or 10 minutes after this time.
FOR EXAMPLE: an aircraft has a slot of 1630Z, the aircraft should be airborne at the
time interval between 1625Z and 1640Z. In order to insure that the airplane take off
within this time the EOBT should be calculated using the following equation:
EOBT = CTOT – expected taxi time
Then if an airplane expected to taxi for 15 minutes, the

airplane should start its push at 1615z. This is calculated using
the follows 1630z – 15 = 1615z
Note  to be more conservative and allow for taxi delays a

pilot may elect to calculate the EOBT from the earliest take off
time (in this case it would be 1625z). Given that, the EOBT
should be 1610z  1625z – 15 = 1610z
*Euro Control issues CTOT for traffic passing over European FIR
DEPARTURE TOLERANCE WINDOW
For European airspace, ATC has a tolerance for any scheduled departure; of 15
minutes before and 15 minutes after. This means that any airplane intending to pass
by or land within the European airspace, should always abide with the tolerance
frame. Although the departure tolerance window is not considered a slot time, but it
should always be monitored by pilots.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-24
FLIGHT LEVEL ORIENTATION SCHEME and RVSM

As the aviation industry boomed, and the number of flying aircrafts increased, the
need for increased airspace capacity urged. A new flight level orientation system
developed in order to compensate for this increase in the number of AIR traffic. This
new flight level orientation system is called Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum
(RVSM). The separation between opposite traffic is reduced to 1,000ft compared to
the former 2,000ft separation. The magnetic course rule applies to the whole span of
flight levels in the RVSM airspace. Thus traffic flying on magnetic course of 0°
through 179° should cruise at odd levels and other traffic flying on a magnetic course
of 180° through 359° should cruise at even levels. The table below shows the new
flight level orientation scheme (in RVSM airspaces):
Figure 13.3 RVSM Flight Level Orientation Scheme
Chapter 13
ATC 13-25
This reduced separation minimum forced the governing bodies to insure new safety
measures and level of sophisticated equipment to enhance the aircraft ability to fly
within this reduced separation. For an aircraft to fly within RVSM airspace, it needs
equipment like:
 Two independent altitude measurement systems
 One SSR altitude reporting transponder
 An altitude alerting system
 An automatic altitude control system
Note: This is only a brief example of some of the equipment required; further
limitation on the above and other equipment may apply.
RVSM airspace extends from FL290 up to and including FL410. At this airspace the
minimum vertical separation of 1,000ft applies. Note that the minimum 1,000ft
separation is provided between two RVSM approved airplanes (corresponds to letter
“W” in the flight plan in item 10 above). The vertical separation reverts to 2,000ft if
any of both airplanes lose its RVSM capability, or between an airplane with RVSM
capability and other non-RVSM approved airplane. On the other hand, if any aircraft
experience communication failure in the RVSM airspace, ATC insures a 2,000 ft.
vertical separation minimum between the airplane experiencing communications
failure and any other traffic.
LOSS OF RVSM CAPABILITY
At any time an RVSM approved aircraft happened to lose its equipment capability, it
should inform the ATC as soon as possible. ATC will immediately provide a
minimum vertical separation of 2,000ft or an appropriate horizontal separation from
all other concerned traffic. In case of losing RVSM capability at any time the pilots
should use the following phraseology in different cases:
Chapter 13
ATC 13-26
Figure 13.4 Loss of RVSM Phraseology
Chapter 13
ATC 13-27
WAKE TURBULENCE CATEGORIES

The wake turbulence caused by other traffic causes wind shear, which caused
numerous incidents in the past and will continue to be an important avoidable hazard
to the safety of the airplanes. It is of great importance for both pilots and ATC to
insure at all times safe distance between airplanes based on its wake turbulence
category. The wake turbulence categories are solely dependent on the maximum
takeoff weight. However, some aircrafts are classified as a higher category than its
actual weight category (well known example is the Boeing 757). These wake
turbulence categories are:
 Heavy (H)  airplanes with maximum certified take off mass higher than
136,000kg
 Medium (M)  airplanes with maximum certified take off mass between
7,000kg and 136,000kg
 Light (L)  airplanes with maximum certified take off mass less than 7,000kg
Note: Another category is given to A380, this category is called super heavy with a
maximum take off mass of 560,000kg. Being the heaviest ever in the passenger
revenue service line, this particular airplane generates huge wake turbulence even
more than normal heavy aircraft. That’s why the governing bodies recommend to all
pilots operating near this aircraft to take excessive caution, as well as, for ATC to
provide more spacing between traffic and A380-800.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-28
ATC SEPARATION BASED ON WAKE TURBULENCE CATEGORY
ATC provide separation based on the category of the aircraft. This separation
minimum differs between a radar environment and a non-radar environment.
1. Under Radar separation, the following separation minima apply:
Figure 13.5 Wake Turbulence Separation
2. Non-radar separation with approaches separated by time intervals, the

following minimum time separation will be applied behind a H airplane:
a. 2 minutes if followed by M airplane before following the H airplane
b. 3 minutes if followed by L airplane before following the H airplane
Chapter 13
ATC 13-29
FLIGHT RULES
There are two types of flight rules for aircrafts to follow, either Visual Flight Rules
(VFR) or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Although most of jet aircrafts fly under IFR,
it is advisable to fly visual approaches whenever weather allows as it contributes in
fuel saving.
VFR
In lieu to a clearance obtained from an air traffic control unit, VFR flights are allowed
to takeoff or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic
zone or traffic pattern, if:
 The ceiling is more than 1500ft (450m), and
 The ground visibility is more than 5 km, and
 Flying below FL200, and
 Cruising with speeds less than transonic and supersonic speeds
Note: according to Egypt Air, upon requesting visual approach, the pilots should be:
1. Within 25NM from the field, and
2. Have the field insight
IFR
Other than the above criteria for VFR, IFR is applied. Usually IFR flights are under
radar coverage. Other than being authorized otherwise, pilots under IFR flight shall
not be flying at a level below the minimum flight altitude established by the State,
whose territory is over flown. However, if such minimum flight altitude has not been
established, pilots should abide by the following guidelines:
a. Over high terrain or in mountainous areas, at a level which is at least 2,000ft

(600m) above the highest obstacle located within 8 km of the estimated
position of the aircraft, or
b. Elsewhere than as specified in (a), at a level which is at least 1,000ft (300m)

above the highest obstacle located within 8 km of the estimated position of the
aircraft
Chapter 13
ATC 13-30
POSITION REPORTS
Pilots are requested along their route to give position reports. Some of these reports
are of periodical nature, and others are in reaction to given circumstances. These
circumstances that require a special report is usually concerning hazardous weather
conditions. Pilots should adhere to the periodical position reports to the appropriate
air traffic services unit whenever flying a controlled flight, unless exempted. This
report normally consists of the following:
1. Aircraft identification
2. Position
3. Time
4. FL or altitude, including passing level and cleared level if not maintaining
the cleared level
5. Next Position and time over
A position report with the correct phraseology will be as follows:
“EGYPTAIR841 position NABED time 11:00 passing FL 210 climbing FL 270

estimating position SEMRU at time 11:10 next position LXR”
On the other hand, examples of cases that need special air reports are:
1. Severe turbulence; or
2. Severe Icing; or
3. Severe mountain wave; or
4. Thunderstorms, without hail that are obscured, embedded, widespread or in
squall-lines; or
5. Thunderstorms, with hail that are obscured, embedded, widespread or in
squall-lines; or
6. Heavy dust storm or heavy sandstorms; or
7. Volcanic ash cloud; or
8. Pre-eruption volcanic activity or a volcanic eruption
Chapter 13
ATC 13-31
An example of special air report is: “EGYPTAIR 777 position TANSA reporting
moderate to severe turbulence at FL 360”
TRAFFIC INFORMATION
In some cases, ATC will alert pilots with traffic that would be flying near them. In
other cases, pilots are elected to do their own traffic information reports in areas with
no radar services supplementing the surrounding traffic of their positions to enhance
awareness.
ATC traffic information reports will always include the following information:
1. Direction of flight of aircraft concerned
2. Type and wake turbulence category (if relevant) of aircraft concerned
3. Cruising level of aircraft concerned, and
a. Estimated time over the reporting point nearest to where the level will
be crossed; or
b. Relative bearing of the aircraft concerned in terms of the 12-hour clock

(based on the aircraft track not its heading), as well as, distance from
the conflicting traffic; or
c. Actual or estimated position of the aircraft concerned
Example of expected ATC traffic information report shall be as follows:
“Traffic is, crossing traffic, Boeing 737 Medium, same FL, 11 o’clock, 10 NM,
moving from left to right”
TIBA
This specialized report is mandatory in certain areas where radar services are not
provided. The contents and the sequence of the report should be as follows:
1. All Stations
2. Call sign
3. The FIR the airplane is in
Chapter 13
ATC 13-32
4. Flight Level
5. Direction of flight
6. ATS Route
7. Position
8. Estimating
9. Then repeat again the Call sign, FIR flying over, flight level maintaining, and
direction
Example of a TIBA broadcast will be:
“All stations, Egypt Air 875 in N’Djamena FIR flight level 360 South West bound.
Proceeding from position ASKOL on UG400 to FOXTROT LIMA, estimating ASKOL
at 2127, position FL at 2157, KELAK next. Egypt Air 875 in N’Djamena FIR
maintaining Flight Level 360 South West bound”
Whenever an airplane is operating in TIBA area, they should tune 126.9 and keep
listening to this frequency 10 minutes prior entering the designated airspace until
leaving this area. On the other hand, the reports should be broadcasted at the
following times:
a. 10 minutes before entering the designated airspace or, for a pilot taking off
from an aerodrome located within the lateral limits of the designated airspace,
as soon as appropriate after take-off;
b. 10 minutes prior to crossing a reporting point;
c. 10 minutes prior to crossing or joining an ATS route;
d. At 20-minute intervals between distant reporting points;
e. 2 to 5 minutes, where possible, before a change in flight level;
f. At the time of a change in flight level;
g. Cruising level changes should not be made within the designated airspace,
unless considered necessary by pilots to avoid traffic conflicts, for weather
avoidance or for other valid operational reasons
Chapter 13
ATC 13-33
h. If level change is necessary, all available aircraft lighting, which would

improve the visual detection of the aircraft, should be displayed
i. If the pilot decides that immediate action is necessary to avoid collision risk,
he/she should immediately descend 500ft (150m) or 1,000ft (300m) if above
FL 290 in an area where a vertical separation minimum of 2,000ft (600m) is
applied
j. At any other time considered necessary by the pilot.
The TIBA broadcasts shall not be acknowledged by any traffic, unless a potential
collision risk is inevitable.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-34
INADVERTENT CHANGES
Sometimes the controlled flight is unable to comply with ATC clearances or the flight
plan. In these events the pilots are expected to report the deviation to ATC. These
cases requiring ATC notifications are:
1. Deviation from Track  whenever the aircraft deviates from its track. Pilots
should take necessary actions to regain its original track and report to ATC the
deviation
2. Variation in True Airspeed  in case of deviation of speed between two

reporting waypoints in excess of ± 5% from the original true airspeed in the
flight plan, pilots should inform the appropriate air traffic services unit
3. Change in Time Estimate  in case of variance in time in excess of ± 3

minutes from the next applicable reporting point, flight information region
boundary or destination aerodrome, pilots must inform air traffic services units
with a revised estimated time as soon as possible
Chapter 13
ATC 13-35
EMERGENCY
In case of emergency, the quick coordinated action between ATC and pilots reduces
the workload. There are some initial actions expected from them. The actions are
coupled with duties to avoid mid-air collisions. The following actions and duties are:
TRANSPONDER OPERATION
The first communication tool to indicate an airplane with emergency situation is

designated transponder codes. Aircraft equipped with an SSR transponder should use
the following codes to indicate a case of emergency the following codes should be set
on the transponder by pilots:
 On mode A, code 7700, in any emergency situation; or
 On mode A, Code 7500, to indicate specifically that the airplane is subject to

unlawful interference
NOTE: When a pilot has selected Mode A Code 7500 and is subsequently requested to
confirm the code by ATC he/she shall, according to circumstances, either confirm this
or not reply at all. The Absence of a reply from the pilot will be taken by ATC as an
indication that the use of Code 7500 is not due to an inadvertent false code selection.
PRIORITY
The ATC reacts immediately in case of any aircraft in a state of emergency. ATC
gives priority to the emergency aircraft over any other traffic; this includes airplanes
subject to unlawful interference.
DISTRESS FREQUENCIES
The ICAO Communication Procedures require the aircraft in distress to use the
current communications frequency. In case of aircraft failed to contact the existing
communication frequency, pilots can always revert to any of the following emergency
frequencies:
 VHF- 121.5MHz
 UHF- 243.0 MHz
 HF- 500 kHz, 2182 kHz, 8364 kHz
Chapter 13
ATC 13-36
DISTRESS PHASE
Distressed traffic should announce the distress signal “MAYDAY” preferable 3 times.
Traffic transmitting “MAYDAY” call gives the ATC indication that the aircraft
requires immediate assistance and will be giving this traffic absolute priority over any
other traffic. In this case, all the other traffic should keep the frequency clear until
instructed otherwise by ATC, the distressed traffic is switched to another frequency
for further assistance, the distress situation is terminated, or the traffic itself can
render further assistance.
URGENCY PHASE
A less priority than distress phase is urgency phase. This phase is when the aircraft
gives notice of difficulties that is facing without requiring immediate assistance. The
urgency signal is “PAN” preferably announced 3 times. ATC renders immediate
assistance and gives priority over any other traffic except the distressed traffic.
COMMUNICATION FAILURE
The aircraft shall attempt to establish communications with the appropriate air traffic
control unit using all available means. Although Communication failure is not
considered an emergency, it is included in this part for educational purposes. In most
cases, communication failure flights can terminate safely at its intended destinations.
ATC expects from pilots the following:
One) In VMC conditions  continue in VMC, land as soon as practical and

notify as soon as practical the air traffic services unit. ATC may try to give
visual signals for pilots to follow. Pilots should expect visual signals
Two) In IMC conditions or under IFR 
1. If flying in airspace where radar is not used, maintain the last assigned
speed and level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 20
minutes, following the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a
compulsory reporting point, and thereafter adjust level and speed in
accordance with the filed flight plan;
2. In airspace where radar is used, maintain the last assigned speed and
level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 7 Minutes
following:
Chapter 13
ATC 13-37
a. The time the last assigned level or minimum flight altitude is

reached; or
b. The time the transponder is set to code 7600; or
c. The aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory

reporting point;
Whichever is later; thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the
filed flight plan;
3. When being radar vectored or having been directed by ATC to route

offset using RNAV without a specified limit, rejoin the current flight plan
route no later than the next significant point, taking into consideration the
applicable minimum flight altitude;
4. Proceed according to the current flight plan route to the appropriate

designated navigation aid or fix serving in destination aerodrome, and
when required to ensure compliance with (5) below, hold over this aid
or fix until commencement of descent;
5. Commence descent from the navigation aid or fix specified in (4) at, or
as close as possible to, the expected approach time last received and
acknowledged; or, if no expected approach time has been received and
acknowledged, at, or as close as possible to, the estimated time of
arrival resulting from the current flight plan;
6. Complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the

designated navigation aid or fix; and
7. Land, if possible, within thirty minutes after the estimated time of

arrival specified in (5), or the last acknowledged expected approach
time, whichever is later
Note: The above is the general ICAO procedures. Some deviation from the above may
apply for a specific aerodrome in a specific country. This will be discussed in the
Jeppesen section.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-38
RECEIVER FAILURE
When an aircraft is unable to establish communications due to receiver failure, it shall

transmit reports at the scheduled times, or positions, on the frequency in use, preceded
by the phrase “Transmitting Blind Due To Receiver Failure”
EMERGENCY DESCENT PROCEDURES
In case of sudden decompression or any situation requires an emergency descent, the

aircraft shall, if able:
a. Initiate a turn away from the assigned route or track before commencing the

emergency descent ;
b. Advise the appropriate air traffic control unit as soon as possible of the
emergency descent;
c. Set transponder Code to 7700;
d. Turn on all exterior lights;
e. Watch for conflicting traffic both visually and by reference to ACAS (if
equipped); and
f. Coordinate its further intentions with the appropriate ATC unit.
Important: In all cases, the aircraft shall not descend below the lowest published
minimum altitude which will provide a minimum vertical clearance of 1,000ft (300m)
or in designated mountainous terrain 2,000ft (600m) above all obstacles located in
the area specified.
DANGEROUS GOODS AND WEAPONS
If an in-flight emergency occurs, the pilot-in-command should inform the appropriate

air traffic services unit of any dangerous goods on board. If the situation permits, the
information concerning the dangerous goods must include:
1. The proper shipping names,

In the Jeppesen section, there is a schedule for the required navigation action in
case of emergency failure in different FIRs
Chapter 13
ATC 13-39
2. UN number,
3. Class,
4. Subsidiary risks,
5. The compatibility group for Class 1,
6. Quantity,
7. Location abroad the aircraft
The items above concerning dangerous goods will be discussed in the OM-A chapter.
Chapter 13
ATC 13-40
COMMUNICATION
There is a standard terminology for communications between ATC and pilots. Some
of the correct phraseology when announcing numbers is shown in the following table:
Table 13.2 Number Phraseology
Always remember the following important points when in contact with ATC:
 Do not Rush to read back the clearance and wait until you get the full
clearance
 Communication should be in short and brief words
 Read back the clearances do not read back the information. For example, do
not read back the wind information associated with a landing or takeoff
clearance.
 Do not interrupt any other communications unless you are in an emergency

and immediate action is required
Chapter 13
ATC 13-41
 Inform the controller in case of:
o Revised ETA
o Deviation from clearance for any reason
o Un able to comply with the clearance
The final section in this chapter will be an example of a day-to-day dialogue; Egypt
Air pilots will do each initial contact from their base:
Figure 13.6 Egyptair Communications Dialogue Example
Chapter 13
ATC 13-42
CHAPTER 14
“JEPPESEN”
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE:

Jeppesen is one of the most used materials in the daily operations of any aviation
related business. The main objective of this chapter is to enable pilots to use Jeppesen
easily and to enhance their ability to obtain any information using it as fast as
possible.
HISTORY:
Airmail pilot and aviation pioneer Elrey B. Jeppesen founded Jeppesen in 1934. He
worked for years to collect as much possible information about the environment he
was flying in. “Jepp”, as he was called by his fellow colleagues, was frustrated by the
injuries and the deaths of his fellow pilots that were majorly due to the lack of
information about terrain, obstacles or potential available landing sites. He decided to
use his leisure time climbing mountains, scaling smokestacks and towers gathering all
the information about its heights and locations. He also spent times surveying
farmer’s fields recording the locations of its fences and buildings. He came up with a
notebook for him to use as a reference in his daily flying. Pilots heard about the
Jepp’s notebook and began asking for copies of it.
This notebook was the spark of a company called after his name, which provides
information solutions for about “85%” of the world’s airlines, and more than one
million individual pilots. Jeppesen even spread out to include military and nautical
services.
In 2000, August 15th, Boeing acquired Jeppesen Company. The deal was $1.5 billion
worth in cash. Phil Condit, Boeing CEO and Chairman (at the acquisition time)
described Jeppesen as “The world's number one source for flight information services,
so it's a perfect fit for our aviation services portfolio. If you're a pilot almost
anywhere in the world, you know Jeppesen.”
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-1
DAY-TO-DAY JEPPESEN EXPOSURE

Jeppesen now provides a very wide range of services. Beginning from a pilot’s early
age in training and general aviation, to advanced pilot careers and trainings, to
consulting services to airliners. The most important service that Jeppesen provides to
Airline Transport Pilots will be discussed in this chapter.
First officers in EgyptAir are required to pick up two sets of “Trip Kits” from the
IOCC. The Technical Research department at EgyptAir provides revision for all the
Jeppesen modifications every Friday. Consequently, one of the First Officer tasks is to
make sure that the two kits are revised and valid. This Trip Kit includes the departure,
destination, destination alternate, and airports along the route that may be used in case
of an emergency. It also includes all the airway charts for the route that will be used.
The airport charts include, but are not limited to, the Airport General Briefing, Noise
Abatement charts, STARs (Standard Terminal Arrival Routes), SIDs (Standard
Instrument Departure), Airport Diagrams, and Approach Plates.
Each aircraft contains its own Jeppesen copy in its library, including all its volumes.
The revision dates for these volumes should be checked every flight. These volumes
include five books. Four out of the five books contain the airport charts of all the
airports that are used for civil aviation in the whole world with all the airway charts
around the world. The other book is referred to as the Route Manual, which
supplements the other four.
ROUTE MANUAL
Airline transport pilots visit different airports, in different countries, in different
continents. There are general rules applied and accepted by the ICAO to be the
normal practices of pilots around the globe. However, due to geographical, political,
and economical aspects, some deviations from the general practices are required.
The Jeppesen Route Manual defines and describes the general rules enforced by the
ICAO. In addition, it incorporates also the deviations based on continents, countries
and even airports basis. In each section, there are thorough definitions and
explanations of the general guidelines (as per each topic), followed by different
deviations at the end.
In the context of exploring the Jeppesen route manual, each chapter will be defined.
Significant topics from each chapter will be pointed out.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-2
The Route Manual contains the following chapters:
1. Introduction
2. En-route
3. Radio Aids
4. Meteorology
5. Tables and codes
6. Air Traffic Control
7. Entry Requirement
8. Emergency
9. Airport Directory
10. Terminal
1. INTRODUCTION
The introduction chapter contains the basic definitions and abbreviations used in the
whole Jeppesen, along with the SID, STAR, Approach Plates symbols, and airway
charts symbols. It includes airport signs, Runway and Taxiway markings
recommended by the ICAO, and the deviation from it in the United States and
Europe. It includes also a section that highlights the major differences between
Jeppesen NavData Database and Jeppesen’s En-route, Area, SID, DP, STAR,
Approach, and Airport Charts.
IMPORTANCE:
This chapter contains the majority of the definition any pilot would need. Moreover,
any symbol or abbreviation on any chart can be found in this chapter.
2. EN-ROUTE
The en-route chapter contains different procedures and practices that are used along
the route. Examples of the en-route procedures contained in this chapter are:
 Long Distance Operational Control (Stockholm Radio):
In certain situations, flight crews need to connect to their operation or vice

versa. However, the distance between the base and the position of the airplane
make the communication impossible. A company called Stockholm Radio (a
subsidiary of Aviolinx) made the communication possible anywhere around
the globe by providing connections through HF frequencies. Stockholm Radio
divides the world into grids; each grid with an HF frequency (provided in the
IOCC and located in the bulletins book onboard each airplane). The flight
crew should identify the frequency of the grid they are flying in and call
Stockholm Radio. Stockholm Radio then connects the crew with their
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-3
designated call recipient via phone patches. This practice was widely used
since 1960, where there were limited VHF communication facilities all over
the world. Although nowadays it is not widely used, but in some cases
Stockholm Radio might be the only solution.
 Oceanic Long Range Navigation Information:
The oceanic long-range flights navigation procedures are provided in this sub
chapter.
 Different Procedures in different continents:
Deviation from the normal en-route procedures are set forth in this sub
chapter. For example, in Africa there are countries with no radar facilities (no
Secondary Surveillance Radar-SSR); in this chapter, the applicable procedures
when an airplane flies from a region with SSR to another with no radar
services are described. It also includes a listing of the countries with no SSR
services. This sub chapter also supplements pilots with frequencies for
position reporting that shall be used by aircraft flying in this region.
In addition, this sub chapter describes the HF procedures. It designates

different HF frequency for different regions in continents.
It also includes any specific route procedures for certain countries and certain
routes within a country.
IMPORTANCE:
Identifying the special procedures, if any, for the route being flown is one of the main
responsibilities of any pilot. Pilots also must identify the required position reports, if
any, along their route. Moreover, knowing all the available resources like Stockholm
Radio and knowing the tools to utilize it, is very important.
3. RADIO AIDS
The radio aids chapter contains all the necessary information concerning radio and
modern navigation aids including aids that are not widely used (for example, NDB or
MLS). It provides a legend with all the Navigation Aids, its identifiers, its usable
range and its frequencies.
Ranges of VHF frequencies and its effective range of transmission are also
supplemented in this chapter.
It also has a sub chapter, which describes the concept of Area Navigation (RNAV)
and Required Navigation Performance (RNP). RNP is different between airways in
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JEPPESEN 14-4
different continents. It is also different between different flight phases. In other words,
the RNP for an airway in Africa is different than the RNP for an airway in Europe,
and the RNP for an RNAV approach is different than the airway RNP.
IMPORTANCE:
Knowing the RNP of the different phases of flight and comparing it with the airplane
capabilities (it's ANP), is the duty of the pilots. The inability to meet the RNP should
be reported to ATC.
4. METEOROLOGY
The meteorology chapter contains any meteorological information that flight crew
may need. This chapter is divided into many sub chapters, example of those are:
 Definitions  all the important definitions supplementing the chapter

 General Provisions  objective of the meteorological services all over the
world, the quality assurances concepts that are dictated to the services
providers and the recommendations by the ICAO. It also includes the required
notification’s communication channels between the operators and the
providers in regard to any change in the services
 World Area Forecast System and Meteorology Offices  objective of these
forecasts and the offices that should be established in each region and their
outputs. This includes world Area Forecast offices, meteorology offices,
volcanic ash advisory centers, volcanic ash observatory centers, and tropical
cyclones advisory centers
 Meteorological Observation and Reports  routine reports that are published
in the aerodromes, with all its content and its units. It also describes its
frequency based on the agreements between the ATS (Air Traffic Services)
and the meteorological offices. Although its intervals may vary, but for
general guidance it shall be published every hour. These reports are basically
the reports known as ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service),
METAR (Meteorological Aerodrome Reports) and SPECI (Special
Meteorological Aerodrome Report)
 Aircraft Observation and Reports  in-flight weather reports. As the
meteorological observatories cannot identify some of the weather information
(especially the hazardous), the only way to identify these phenomena is by
pilot reports. Pilot reports are always crucial. These reports can be transmitted
by pilots through informing the air traffic controllers or by aircraft ground
communications systems on board of some aircrafts. The controllers should
then inform the meteorological offices of the pilot reports to enclose the
observation into their reports
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-5
 Forecasts  forecast reports such as TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts).

Items included in the TAF, its frequency and the triggers to amend any
forecasts
 SIGMET and AIRMET Information, Aerodrome Warnings, and Wind Shear
Warnings and Alerts  the hazardous weather information including
SIGMETs, AIRMETs, wind shear alerts, the criteria of issuing such a report,
its frequency and its time validity
 Aeronautical Climatological Information  the means of obtaining
climatological information for different areas
 Services for Operators and Flight Crew Members  the type of information
supplied to the operators, which is passed to the flight crewmembers. This
information includes the necessary pertinent preflight and in flight re-planning
meteorological information to be used by the operators for flight preparation
and used by flight crewmembers during the flight. This sub chapter also
includes the information that needs to be accessible in the flight deck. This
meteorological information includes, but are not limited to:
o Forecasts of the wind and temperatures of different levels including

maximum winds, tropopause level and temperature and finally the
SIGMETS if any
o METAR and SPECI
o TAF
o Forecasts for take-off and
o Other important hazardous weather information
 Annexes  the designs of all the meteorological reports described above and
the information included in the different reports
IMPORTANCE:
At any time a meteorological condition rises affecting the safety of the flight
negatively, pilots use this chapter to understand any of the weather reports and the
availability of any. All the information pilots’ need concerning meteorology is found
in this chapter. However, the decoding of the SNOWTAM is mainly meteorological
related and not located in this chapter. Instead it is located in the tables and codes
chapter not in the meteorology chapter.
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JEPPESEN 14-6
5. TABLES AND CODES

The tables and codes chapter contains all the conversion tables that might be used by
pilots. Countries all over the world use different units, for example, USA use statute
miles for visibility, while the majority of the countries use meters. USA also uses
altimeter setting in inches of mercury and temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, while
most of the world use Pascal’s for altimeter setting and degrees Celsius for
temperature.
This chapter also includes tables for sunrise and sunset times for different countries
and zones within the countries.
IMPORTANCE:
At any time pilots are flying to airports that use different units than what they used to
deal with, the tables and codes chapter can be used for conversions. Remember also
that this chapter contains the decoding of the SNOWTAM reports.
Moreover, the sunrise and sunset tables is very useful in cases of airports operating
daytime only, or from sunrise to sunset. Knowing the timing of the airport operation
from this information is misleading; pilots should know the exact timing that
corresponds to the sunrise and sunset times.
6. ATC
ATC chapter contains all International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
recommended practices and Procedures for international operations concerned with
flight operation. In addition, on a state-by-state basis, flight procedures unique to each
state, or different from the published ICAO rules and procedures, are included. Some
of the sub chapters are discussed below:
 Definitions  contain all the definitions that supplement the chapter

 Flight Procedures  the general approved flight procedures are included in
this sub chapter. However, there are special procedures for different countries
that deviate from the general rules; these deviations are listed out in the last
part with all the countries that contains any deviation, with the specific
deviation items.
These flight procedures are further classified into sub chapters for different
flight phases. Some of the sub chapters are:
o General Principles
o Departure Procedures
o Arrival and Approach Procedures
o En-Route
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-7
o
Holding Procedures (RNAV holding)
o
Noise Abatement Procedures
o
RNAV Procedures
o
Arrival and Non-Precision Approach Procedures
o
Precision Approach Procedures
o
Altimeter Setting Procedures
o
Simultaneous Operations on Parallel or Near-Parallel Instrument
Runways
o SSR Transponder Operating Procedures
 ICAO Rules of the Air – ANNEX 2  general rules including:
o Avoidance of Collisions  right of way and normal actions for head-
on collisions
o Flight Plans  suffixes for the equipment and detailed explanations
for different items in the flight plan
o Signals
o Time
o ATC services
o Unlawful Interference
o Interception
Other than the items stated previously, this chapter also includes the definitions and
the applied procedures for Visual Flight Rules and Instrument Flight Rules.
The following is appendixes contained in this annex:
 Appendix 1 - Signals  includes the following:

o Distress and urgency signals
o Signals used in case of interception
o Visual signals used to warn an unauthorized aircraft flying in, or
about to enter a restricted, prohibited or danger area
o Signals for aerodrome traffic
o Marshalling signals
o Standard emergency signals
 Appendix 2 – Interception of Civil Aircraft  the normal procedures and
the required pilot action in case of the aircraft being intercepted
 Appendix 3 – Tables of Cruising Levels  useable cruising levels based on
different magnetic tracks
 ICAO ATS Airspace Classifications (Annex 11)  ICAO general airspace
classification. Any deviation from approved airspace is included at the end of
the section for the countries with these deviations
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JEPPESEN 14-8
 Air Traffic Management (DOC 4444)  this sub chapter contains very useful
information on different aspects, including but not limited to:
o ATC clearances
o Altimeter setting procedures
o Radiotelephony Procedures for Air-Ground Voice Communication
Channel Changeover
o Phraseologies
 Appendix 2 – Flight Plan  ICAO Model Flight Plan form and any related
information regarding it, including its transmitting instructions and any
supplemental messages
 Appendix 4 – Air Traffic Incident report  incident report form that is needed
to be filed in case any air traffic incident took place
 Required Navigational Performance (RNP) – Area Navigation (RNAV)  the
application of the RNAV in daily operations
The rest of the ATC chapter discusses the specific procedures for Europe and specific
countries, which deviate from the general procedures approved by ICAO.
IMPORTANCE:
This chapter should be revised by pilots to know the general approved flight
procedures, as well as, any deviation from the general along their route.
7. ENTRY REQUIREMENTS
The entry requirements chapter contains the required documents to enter any country.
For example, the entry requirement for Egypt:
 Passport  “a crew member certificate is accepted in lieu of passport or visa”

 Visa  “required, except [for] passengers in direct transit
 Health A valid certificate of vaccination against yellow fever is required of
persons arriving from respective epidemic areas
For Aircraft Entry Requirements, Egyptian authorities need to be contacted. The entry
requirements differ based on different cases, like overflying or terminating a flight in
the Egyptian territory. The needed procedures are included in this chapter, as well as,
the contacts to get the required permissions.
IMPORTANCE:
Important to be checked whenever going to a new random destination with no regular

scheduled flights.
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JEPPESEN 14-9
8. EMERGENCY
The emergency chapter contains all the emergency procedures and the applicable
procedures in case of any emergency. The general required procedures by ICAO are
listed first, and then specific deviations for any countries are listed later. This section
is divided into the following chapters:
 Definitions  definitions supplementing the chapter

 Emergency Procedures  the general emergency procedures are outlined,
including priority, Distress Frequencies that shall be used in case of
emergency, transponder operations in case of emergency including the squawk
codes for different types of emergencies, and Distress and Urgency Signals
 Unlawful Interference  procedures required by pilots in case of any
unlawful interference (Hijacking). In case of hijacking, pilots are expected to
squawk 7500, the ATC will require to confirm with the pilot that the squawk
was not set by mistake, if the pilot is unable to reply the ATC, they shall
remain completely silent and don’t reply at all. The pilot should attempt to
keep the flight track and altitude according to the flight plan or the last
clearance. If the case requires a deviation from track, the pilot can attempt to
notify other traffic through the emergency frequency (if the situation allows)
and intend to descend 500 ft. if flying in an area where the separation is 1000
ft. (RVSM airspace) or 1000 ft. if flying in an area with a separation of 2000
ft. (non-RVSM airspace)
 Emergency Descent  emergency descent is a very time limited maneuver
and requires pilot’s immediate action. The required procedures that should be
applied by the pilots and the ATC are listed in this sub chapter. The immediate
action required from ATC is to safe guard the airplane that is performing the
maneuver and the other aircrafts concerned. On the other hand, the pilots
should adhere to the clearance given by ATC or adhere to the specific country
procedures if applicable (in the following table). If neither procedures are
applicable the pilot should either wait for a clearance, which shouldn’t take
time, or keep the aircraft from a collision courses by adhering to any TCAS
advisories
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JEPPESEN 14-10
The next illustration is example of the required procedures in case of emergency

descent while flying over the Middle East:
 Distress and Urgency Radio Telephony Communication Procedures  the

phraseology required in case of emergency. For example, as an indication of
an emergency (MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY), or urgency (PAN PAN
PAN). It is required from the pilot to pass the emergency message as soon as
possible, and on the frequency being used currently. If flying in an area where
there is no radar surveillance the pilot may use 121.5 or the applicable
emergency frequency. If no reply by ATC in the current used frequency, the
pilot may use the previous frequency used. This chapter also includes the
required procedures for other traffic in the vicinity of the distressed aircraft
 Communications Failure  communication failure required procedures
 Interception  interception means helping distressed aircrafts to land safely.
Usually the intercepting aircraft is military aircraft. Aircrafts are intercepted if
not complying with a clearance or not reading back the clearance (and no
communication failure squawk was used), which give an indication to ATC
that the aircraft might be a potential hazard to other traffic. Thus in order to
dictate certain actions to be done by the aircraft, an intercepting aircraft flies
nearby. The intercepted aircraft should adhere to the instructions dictated by
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JEPPESEN 14-11
the intercepting aircraft. These instructions may be accomplished using radio

communications, if applicable, or by visual signals. The guide for the visual
signals is supplemented in this sub chapter
 Search and Rescue  required actions by pilots in case of any emergency
ended up with a need for search and rescue
 In-flight Fuel Management  the criteria of pilot declaring shortage of fuel in
flight. The criteria for declaring emergency on fuel shortage is included, along
with the operational procedures required by pilots when estimating a shortage
in fuel
IMPORTANCE:
The emergency procedures of all the FIRs the flight will fly by, including the
departure and the destination airport, should be identified. This prepares pilots for any
emergency during their flights.
The following is an example of a communications failure procedure with a deviation

from the ICAO approved standard:
Ethiopia
In the radio communications failure procedures the expression “EAT’ will mean
either an EAT given by the appropriate ATC unit or the ETA over the holding
point, if the pilot has been told “No delay expected”.
If “Delay not determined” has been received and communication failure occurs
before an EAT is given, pilots shall not attempt to land, but should fly to another
aerodrome in accordance with the following procedures.
a. Arrivals from North, Northwest or West:

1. Above FL330- continue to VORDME ‘ADS’ maintaining last assigned
flight level and route. Establish ’ADS’ R-188 and at ’ADS’ 25 DME
start descent to FL330. Upon reaching FL330, proceed on track 061° to
Dire Dawa airport. At position N0851.0 E04025.5 (’DWA’ 97 DME),
start descent to FL150 and land visually
2. Below FL330-continue to VORDME‘ADS’ maintaining last assigned

flight level and route. Establish ’ADS’ R-188 and at ’ADS’ 25 DME
climb to FL330 and proceed to ’ADS’ 65 DME and turn left heading
061° to Dire Dawa airport. If unable to reach FL330 at ’ADS’ 65
DME, make a circling climb to the right between R-188 and R-198,
limiting DME 65-75. Upon reaching FL330, proceed on track 061° to
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-12
Dire Dawa airport. At position N0851.0 E04025.5 (’DWA’ 97 DME),

start descent to FL150 and land visually
3. At FL330 - continue to VORDME ’ADS’. Thereafter, establish ’ADS’

R-188 and at ’ADS’ 25 DME turn left and track 061° to Dire Dawa
airport. At position N0851.0 E04025.5 (’DWA’ 97 DME), start
descent to FL150 and land visually
b. Arrivals from South, Southeast or East:
1. Above FL330 - follow procedure in a.1) above

2. BelowFL330 continue to VORDME ‘ADS’ maintaining last assigned
flight level and route. Enter the holding. Thereafter, establish R-188
and follow procedure in a.2) above
9. AIRPORT DIRECTORY
In this section, all the important information about most of the airports in the world is
included, like:
 Legend and Explanation

 ACN Tables  ACN is the Aircraft Classification number. ACN is a system
introduced by the ICAO. This system is a number expressing the relative
effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standard sub-grade category.
The aircraft classification number is measured with respect to the center of
gravity (CG) position, which yields the critical loading on the critical gear.
Normally the aft most CG appropriate to the maximum gross apron (ramp)
mass is used to calculate the ACN. In exceptional cases, the forward most CG
position may result in the nose gear loading being more critical to classify the
pavement bearing strength for the aircraft with an All-up mass of more than
5,700kg. The airplane’s specific ACN is identified based on its type
 Decode Listings  most of the airports ICAO identifiers in different
continents
The last part of this section is basically the airport directory of most of the airports
divided into continents and countries.
IMPORTANCE:
Knowing if the airplane can make a landing on a specific surface is a pilot’s

responsibility. If the pilot failed to identify a variance between his/her aircraft ACN
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JEPPESEN 14-13
and the airport limitation could lead to an accident. Normally, it is insured that any
destination support the specific type of the operating aircraft. However, in case of
emergency, which dictates a landing in a new airport, the PCN should cover the ACN
to make a safe landing.
For example most of the newly hired pilots will work as first officers on the medium
range airplanes either Airbus 320/321 or Boeing 737-800. For example the
Boeing737-800 ACN is found in this table 13.1:
Table 14.1 B738 ACN
The following example is an abstract of Copenhagen airport (KASTRUP) from the

airport directory part:
Figure 14.1 KASTRUP A/P Directory
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JEPPESEN 14-14
10.TERMINAL
The terminal chapter contains most of the airport ICAO identifiers with their IATA
identifiers. The second sub-chapter is various tables for different descent angles and
vertical flight path.
EXERCISES
The next section is the application of the use of the Jeppesen, which is the main
objective of this chapter.
This will include the following:
 En-route example and symbols

 Case studies:
o Africa  CAI – ACC
o Europe  CAI - FRA
EN-ROUTE
These examples focus on the en-route charts, SID and its symbols.
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CASE STUDIES
Extent and Limitations:
 Disregards the type information

 The only explored charts will be the departure and destination aerodrome
disregarding the FIRs in between
 Departures from Cairo and arrival at destination will be covered, along with
the departure from the destination
In the route-training phase, the trainees will be asked to prepare for their flights. The
preparation of any flight should be done before the day of the flight.
TRIP KITS
It is the task of the first officer to get the correct trip kit for the flight. Their
responsibility to check the following:
 The charts updates  the update for the charts is issued ever week. The
following is an extract from Customer services bulletin, where it says that the
charts is updated weekly
“NavData Change Notices are directed at customers who receive Jeppesen
NavData for use in avionics equipment and flight planning systems, airline
operations, and other systems that provide aviation information. They are
published weekly on jeppesen.com under “Notices & Alerts” and in RSS feeds.
They include updates and corrections to data and procedures that are not yet
reflected in Jeppesen’s navigation databases.”
 The departure airport (in this case HECA)  the following should be known:
o ATC frequencies for start up
o Taxi charts and major taxiways
o Any deviation from ICAO general procedures, for example:
 Emergency
 Communication Failure
o Normal Departure procedures
o Noise Abatement Procedures
o Holding Patterns
 Destination airport charts and all the alternates including destination and en-
route alternates’ charts are included in the kits
The following discussion will be on what charts to look for when departing from any
airport:
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-23
The following is chart 10-9 and 10-9A, which is usually the first chart to look at.
Note the following info:

1. ATIS  122.6 *be aware that at
some airports there are two ATIS
Frequencies one for departures and
the other for arrivals
2. Ground Frequencies: for start up and
taxiing  121.9 (S) or 126.37 (N)
3. Preflight Frequency: for ATC
Clearance  120.1
4. Tower Frequency: T/O & LDG 
118.1
5. Hot spots: RWY incursion caution
spots  Red circle reading HS
6. Runway Length: Both in meters and
feet  13,120 for RWY 05C/23C
7. RVR equipment positions  the
cone next to the RWY length of 05C
8. CAT II approved RWYs: Low
visibility approaches
9. RWY width: in the table below for
each RWY  05C/23C 60m
10. Types of lighting on each runway:
in the table below
11. TXY names: on different TXY ways
12. Man made obstacles: obstacles
within the airport area
13. Variation: the 04°E in the upper
right
14. Take-off minimums: the table below
15. Run up areas
16. Control Tower location
17. Beacon location
Figure 14.2 HECA 10-9
The data shown above is usually the same for all airports. As an EgyptAir pilot, it is
important to know your base, usually Cairo Int`l (ICAO: HECA), as this is the airport
where you will likely operate in the most. As noted, in order to get an initial startup
clearance, pilots should contact Cairo PREFLIGHT on its designated frequency, and
then will be advised to contact GROUND for pushback and startup. Then, TOWER
frequency approaching the runway for T/O clearance. The next diagram is a close up
for the stand numbers and some other information.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-24
Figure 14.3 HECA 10-9A
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-25
DEPARTURES
Cairo international airport doesn’t have active SIDs. This means that the pilots are
expected to be radar vectored until reaching their intended course. In other airports
where SIDs are active and in use, the pilots know their route from the runway to their
route to destination.
DEVIATION FROM ICAO GENERAL PROCEDURES
HECA might deviate from the normal ICAO procedures for different phases of flight.
This deviation is outlined in each specific chapter. A quick way to check if any airport
deviates from normal, a pilot can enter the specific chapter and look for the name of
the country the airport is in at the end of each chapter. If the pilot found the name of
the country listed, this means that the country has its own procedures. The pilot is not
necessarily affected by this deviation, as the deviation is listed on a broader base
depending on the country, and then further specified to the airport. In other words,
Egypt is listed in the deviation list in any chapter, but the deviation might not apply
for HECA airport.
For example, if a pilot searched in the emergency chapter, they will find in the list at
the end of the chapter Egypt is one of the countries that have some deviations. The
next illustration shows the deviation in Egypt:
Note: that this deviation from ICAO procedures is

only for IFR operations, which means that the VFR
procedures are the same as the ICAO general
procedures.
The importance in this part that pilots will be
departing from Cairo every day, thus they should bear
in mind the communication failure procedures for the
airport.
Figure 14.4 HECA Communication Failure Procedures
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-26
NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
As discussed in the propulsion section in the Jet Characteristics chapter, the noise
pollution is reduced during takeoff and landing, through specific procedures. The
takeoff procedures are referred to as Noise Abatement Procedures or NADP. The
NADP consists of two parts, the first is the thrust reduction and the second is the
acceleration height. Pilots should be able to identify two altitudes; thrust reduction
altitude and acceleration height altitude. There are four types of General ICAO
NADP, which are:
1. NADP A:
a. Maintain Take-off power till 1,500ft, upon passing take-off power should be
reduced to climb power
b. At 3,000ft, pilots should start their acceleration phase to the final climb speed
and retract the flaps, while accelerating
2. NADP B:
a. Maintain Take-off power till 1,000ft, upon passing take-off power should be
3. NADP 1:
a. Maintain Take-off power till 800ft, upon passing take-off power should be
4. NADP 2:
a. Initiate flap/slat retraction at or above the prescribed minimum altitude (800 ft

above aerodrome elevation), but before reaching the prescribed maximum altitude
(3000 ft. above aerodrome elevation)
b. The thrust reduction is initiated at a point along the acceleration segment that
ensures satisfactory acceleration performance.
The mentioned procedures are the General ICAO procedures. The identification of the
four procedures is meant to ease the communication between ATC and pilots, and
enhance the comprehension of pilots to the correct NADP.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-27
Some airports deviate from the normal procedures and dictate other noise abatement
procedures, pilots should always stick to the procedures to avoid penalties if extra
noise detected in the vicinity of the airport.
It is extremely important for a pilot to identify the noise abatement procedures in the
airports they will be departing from. Given that HECA will always constitute half of
the departures, it is of great importance to identify whether they are ICAO procedures
or tailored procedures. In order to know that pilots should search in the ATC chapter
in the Jeppesen under the flight procedures section. If specific procedures apply, the
countries with the deviation will be listed at the end of the chapter. On the other hand,
noise abatement procedures for the airport may be identified in the charts of the
airport itself, under the airport briefing section in the beginning of the set of charts, or
in a separate noise abatement charts.
In HECA there is a separate chart for specific noise abatement procedures. This chart
is labeled (10-4):
As it can be concluded from

this chapter the thrust reduction
altitude will be at 1,800ft MSL,
and acceleration will be at
3,300ft MSL
Figure 14.5 HECA Noise Abatement Procedures
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-28
HOLDING PATTERNS
In most airports ATC designs a fix in the arrivals for holds, in case needed for delays.
These holds are included in the designated STAR. Always of great benefit to identify
the expected holding fixes, the inbound heading and the expected entry procedures,
this will always keep the pilots prepared, if a holding pattern is required.
The airport authorities of HECA identify certain holding fixes. These holding fixes
are identified in a separate chart labeled “CAIRO OUTER FIXES HOLDING
PROCEDURES” (10-10):
Always expect to hold over

ALTOX when coming from
North and CRS if coming
from the South
Figure 14.6 HECA Outer Fixes Holding Procedures
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-29
In the following part, the FIRs in-between will be discussed. In the context of the
previously mentioned, two examples will be given based on two flights EgyptAir
performs;
 Cairo to Frankfurt Main (CAI - FRA)

 Cairo to Accra Kototko (CAI – ACC)
CAI-FRA
This flight normally passes through multiple FIRs before reaching its destination.
However, this illustration will include only the Greek FIR, which is usually the first
FIR crossed.
Thus, special procedures for Greece and Germany will be discussed. In addition,
Frankfurt Main airport special procedures will be discussed. In this context and based
on the ATC chapter, the following is the ATC flight plan to Frankfurt:
Figure 14.7 CAIRO-FRANKFURT ATC FLIGHT PLAN
From the above flight plan the FIRs that the airplane will be crossing is identified,
including the estimated elapsed time till the airplane reaches this FIR. The elapsed
time till the airplane reaches the Greek FIR, denoted by LGGG which is the ICAO
identifier for the Greek FIR, is 53 minutes from T/O time as shown in the figure
above.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-30
GREECE FIR
When flying for the first time over any FIR, each and every chapter in the Jeppesen
concerning this specific FIR should be searched for deviation. In this example, only
some issues will be pointed out based on certain scenarios.
Sc. 1  Loss of GPS navigation
The first thing in the case of loss of GPS navigation, pilots will look for alternative
ground based navigation aids, for instance VOR. If the pilot looked through the flight
plan, it is identifiable that a waypoint with 3 characters only is most probably either a
VOR or NDB. In the flight plan, an identifiable 3 character waypoint is KOR. By
looking to the en-route chart you will find KOR is an NDB. In order to know more
information on this NDB, it is advisable to check the radio aids. This radio aid is
located in Greece, thus the search will be narrowed to Greece and the following can
be identified:
Figure 14.8 Greece Radio Aids
Sc. 2  Communication Failure
Figure 14.9 Emergency ICAO Deviations for Greece
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-31
In the event of a communication failure over Greece, pilots are expected to follow the
special procedures, or in case of no special procedures pilots should revert to the
general ICAO procedures. The above is an abstract from the Emergency chapter in the
Jeppesen, under Greece special procedures (Figure 14.9).
Note that Greece requires pilots to revert to the communication failure procedures of
Europe. The following is an abstract for European procedures for Communication
Failure:
Figure 14.10 Radio Communication Failure Procedures Europe
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-32
DESTINATION  FRA (EDDF)
Knowing the destination is the most important aspect of the process. It is expected
that the pilot revise all the expected procedures in the country and the airport,
including but not limited to, its noise abatement procedures, expected runway, the use
of APU, transponder operation, and taxi charts.
GERMANY FIR  NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
Noise abatement procedures are unique in Germany. That’s why it is pointed out first
in this section. In most airports you can find the noise abatement procedures for the
airport in the airport briefing section. Germany airports noise abatement procedures
are provided under the ATC section in the Jeppesen under Germany special
procedures. Below is an abstract of noise abatement procedures in Germany:
Figure 14.11 Germany Noise Abatement Procedures
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-33
In crowded airports like EDDF (ICAO code for Frankfurt Main), a set of charts for
the airport are included in the beginning which contain information referred to as
airport briefing. The airport briefing should be reviewed thoroughly by pilots before
intending to fly to the airport. It gives information of all the departures, arrivals,
approaches (expected SID from different waypoints or cardinals), De-icing
information, transponder operation, APU usage, communication procedures and noise
abatement. In the context of the airport briefing examples, the following is an
example the transponder operation abstracted from the airport briefing and of the
communication procedures when contacting Frankfurt approach:
1) TRANSPONDER OPERATION
Figure 14.12 Frankfurt Main Transponder Operation Procedures
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-34
2) COMMUNICATION PROCEDURES
Figure 14.13 Frankfurt Main Communication Procedures
STAR
Somewhere in the route to any destination before the descent, the pilots will have to
prepare for their STAR and approach. When flying to an airport with no STAR, pilots
can expect radar vectors from the en-route portion until intercepting the final
approach course. However, when flying to busy airports with many STARs, like
Frankfurt, pilots might not be able to identify the applicable STAR. Even if it’s the
first time to fly to the airport, pilots can easily identify the expected STAR. The
STAR is the route between the en-route structure and the approach phase. In other
words, it is the route that will take the airplane from the last waypoint in the flight
plan to the initial approach fix. Thus, the last waypoint in the flight plan is the
expected STAR starting point for the runway in use for landing.
For instance refer to the flight plan given above for the flight to Frankfurt, note that
the flight plan terminates at a waypoint called PSA. Most probably the expected
STAR will be PSA, but there are many STARs starting at PSA. To narrow this down,
pilots should search for the runway in use (from the ATIS), and identify the PSA
STAR for runway 25L (as per the flight plan), this STAR will be PSA25S chart
number 10-2G. The following is PSA25S:
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-35
Figure 14.14 Frankfurt Main RNAV Transitions
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-36
APPROACH
The next abstract is from the ILS Runway 25L at Frankfurt Main airport. Note the
missed approach procedures are highlighted in yellow. Some supplementary info is
underlined in red including transition level and altitude. Other info is labeled in the
abstract. The first section shows the briefing strip and the approach plan view*.
Figure 14.15 EDDF 11-5 Plan View
*The plan view is a graphical "To Scale" depiction of the approach procedure.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-37
Figure 14.16 EDDF 11-5 Profile View
The second part is the approach profile view, for further symbols see introduction
chapter legends.
AIRPORT DIAGRAM AND TAXI CHARTS
Same as the explanation in Cairo, the only thing worth mentioning is that pilots never
been to the airport before should identify the names of the major taxiways in the
airport to expect the clearance. This can be done by expecting the exit taxiway, and
identify the main taxiways in the airport.
SID
The SID is the route from the departure runway to the first way point in the route.
Pilots can identify the first waypoint and the departure runway to identify the correct
SID, or ask for the applicable SID from the clearance delivery. For example, the
runway for departure is 18 and the first waypoint is NOMBO, then the expected SID
is NOMBO6S.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-38
Figure 14.17 EDDF 10-3J SID
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-39
CAI-ACC
African operations are critical, as most of the African countries don’t have radar
services. Whenever pilots want to check radar services availability, they can search in
the en-route chapter in the Jeppesen under the “Africa” part. The unavailability of
radar services is supplemented by traffic position reports, as mentioned in the ATC
chapter. Below is an exact mapping of areas where the TIBA measures is applied:
Figure 14.18 IATA In-flight Broadcast Procedures
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-40
GHANA FIR
Ghana sticks to the ICAO general procedures, except in the items abstracted below.
One of the deviations is all flights above FL150 should be an IFR.
Figure 14.19 Rules and Procedures ICAO Deviations for Ghana
DGAA (ICAO code for Accra’s Kotoka airport)
Accra’s Kotoka Int’l is an EgyptAir destination in Ghana. Some airports like DGAA
have special engine failure procedures. Pilots should bear in mind these engine-out
procedures whenever taking off from the runway specified in the procedures. The
procedures are tailored for EgyptAir.
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-41
Figure 14.20 DGAA Special Engine Failure Procedure
DGAA – TAXI CHARTS
The ground chart in Kotoka includes some important notices for pilots landing at this
airports, find below an abstract of the airport diagram of Kotoka:
Figure 14.21 DGAA Airport Diagram
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-42
Kotoka’s airport diagram also includes departure procedures for traffic taking off the
airport:
Figure 14.22 DGAA 10-9
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-43
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-44
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-45
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-46
Chapter 14
JEPPESEN 14-47
CHAPTER 15
“OPERATIONS MANUAL”
INTRODUCTION
Most air carriers operate under a system of prioritized goals including safety and high
customer service standards. These goals can’t be achieved with a haphazard operation
management. Operation management in air carriers is very sophisticated and crucial,
as it has many dimensions, one of which is its legal nature. Maintaining unique
operation standards to allow standardization of operation is another important
purpose. This standardization allows any two-crew members to perform their duties
on common basis without knowing each other’s. The operation management
standards in Egypt Air are located in a manual called “Operation Manual”.
The Operations Manual describes the duties and responsibility for different jobs in the
company especially the operations department. It gives guideline for the operation as
a whole and narrow down to every single detail in the operation.
It is responsible for the safe and efficient movement of passengers and/or cargo that
ultimately generates the revenue for the airline. It coordinates the major components
such as aircraft, support equipment, cockpit and cabin crews (together known as the
“flight crew”), maintenance, and ground service personnel to provide smooth,
efficient and effective operation.
This chapter does not attempt to address detailed airmanship and flight maneuvering
topics; it only includes information in the context of the overall flight operation.
OBJECTIVE
This manual introduces the recommended and the guidelines that flight crew should
abide by in normal, abnormal procedures and methods of overall flight operation,
including flight techniques and flight management.
Chapter 15
OPERATIONS MANUAL 15-1
The following are the contents of the Operation Manual of Egypt Air (referred to as
OM-A) along with some crucial examples in every chapter:
CHAPTER 1
Organization and Responsibilities
 For safety and efficiency of flight operations, it requires that all personnel be
fully aware of the areas of their duties and responsibility of the different
supervisory pilots/managers, etc.
 A description of the administrative structure of the flight operations
department.
Examples
 Duties and Responsibilities of the Commander and First Officer

 Crew Regulations and Policies
 Egypt Air Identity Card Uniform
 Regulations for Wearing the Uniform
 Navigation Bag Contents
CHAPTER 2
Operational Control and Supervision
According to the Egyptian Civil Aviation Regulations ECARs Egypt Air must
establish and maintain a method of supervision of flight operations.
Methods for supervision assure:
1. The maintenance of high employee qualification

2. The maintenance of training standard and overview of the examination process
3. The maintenance of system and program for license and qualification validity
4. The maintenance of system of promulgation
5. Power of Authority
Examples
 License and Qualification Validity

 Safety Management System
Chapter 15
CHAPTER 3
Quality System
 This chapter describes the general principles of quality systems and quality
assurance that is applicable to both large and small operators
 The objective of this chapter is to ensure the development and implementation
of a quality assurance program that will benefit safety, the flying public, the
ECAA and Egypt as a whole
CHAPTER 4
Crew Composition
 This chapter prescribes the conditions of the minimum flight crew

 Designation of Commander
 Chain of Command for Flight Crews
 Flight crewmember's incapacitation
 Minimum Cabin Crew
CHAPTER 5
Qualification Requirements
 This chapter contains a description of the required license ratings,

 Qualifications(e.g. for routes and aerodromes), experience, courses, training,
checking and,
 Recency of experience for operational personnel to conduct their duties
Examples
 Commander Minimum Qualification Requirements

 Low Visibility Operations Prerequisite
 Recurrent Training and Checking
 Proficiency Check
 Line Check
Chapter 15
CHAPTER 6
Crew Health Precautions
 A crew member’s sickness/ illness, their feeling unwell, indisposed or the

impairment of their senses and reflexes by narcotics, drugs, have quite often
contributed to incidents and accidents
 Therefore, crew health is of the highest importance and has a direct impact
upon flight safety
Examples
 Alcohol and other Intoxicating Liquor

 Use of Medication, Drugs and other Treatments
 Sleeping Tablets
 Deep Diving
 Blood Donation
 Meal Precautions Prior to and During Flight
CHAPTER 7
Flight Time Limitations
 The aim of the flight time limit is the prevention of fatigue of flight crews
 The objective of this chapter is to ensure that crew members are adequately
rested, and the aircraft operations will therefore need to take into account
individual duty and rest periods, such as the length of cycles of duty and the
associated periods of time off and on cumulative duty hours with in specific
periods of time
Examples
 Scheduling Department
 Limitations on single flying duty periods, Cockpit Crew
 Extension of flying duty period by in- flight relief
 Extension of flying duty period by split duty
 Pilot in commands discretion to extend a flying duty period
Chapter 15
CHAPTER 8
Operating Procedures
This chapter prescribes the different operating procedures for the company; it is
divided into 13 subchapters
Definitions
Aerodrome
Operating Minima
FLIGHT
GROUND HANDLING FLIGHT ALL WEATHER
PREPARATION
INSTRUCTIONS PROCEDURES OPERATIONS
INSTRUCTIONS
EXTENDED RANGE USE OF THE MEL AND NON-REVENUE OXYGEN

OPERATION (ETOPS) CDL FLIGHTS REQUIREMENTS
IMPLEMENTATION EGYPT AIR RVSM

INTERCEPTION OF
COMMUNICATIONS OF 8.33 kHz OPERATIONAL
CIVIL AVIATION
CHANNEL PROCEDURES
Figure 15.1 Chapter 8 Hierarchies
8.0 DEFINITIONS AERODROME OPERATING MINIMA
General
The limits of usability of an aerodrome for
A. Take-off, expressed in terms of runway visual range and/or visibility and, if

necessary cloud conditions
B. Landing in precision approach and landing operation, expressed in terms of
visibility and/or runway visual range and decision altitude/height (DA/DH) as
appropriate to the category of the operation
C. Landing in non-precision approach and landing operation, expressed in terms
of visibility and/or runway visual range minimum descent altitude/height
(MDA, MDH) and if required cloud conditions (Ceiling)
Chapter 15
8.1 FLIGHT PREPERATION INSTRUCTIONS
General
 This chapter describes all preparation needed to achieve safety, legal and
economic flight
 A flight preparation is the plan of operations that an aircraft has to follow
while at an airport, in order to departure or land safely
 The preparation of an operational flight plan (OFP) considering all aspects
such as minimum flight altitudes, routing, weather forecasts for en-route,
destination and alternate airport, fuel planning, weight and balance, etc
8.2 GROUND HANDLING INSTRUCTIONS
Ground handling addresses the service requirements of an airliner between the time it
arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs for its next flight. Speed, efficiency,
and accuracy are critical in ground handling services in order to minimize the
turnaround time (the time during which the aircraft must remain parked at the gate)
8.3 FLIGHT PROCEDURES
Aviation has detailed regulations affecting all aspects of flight. The goal of these
regulations and of our airline is that flights will be operated in the safest way possible
Examples
 VFR/IFR Policy
 Ground Proximity Warning System Procedures
 Navigation Procedures
 Altimeter Setting Procedure
 Policy and Procedures for the In-flight Fuel Management
 Runway Braking Action Report
8.4 ALL WEATHER OPERATIONS
General
All weather operation means any take-off or landing operations in conditions where
visual reference is limited by weather conditions
Examples
 Low Visibility Operations - General Operating Rules

 Low Visibility Operations – Crew Procedures
Chapter 15
8.5 EXTENDED RANGE OPERATIONS WITH TWO-ENGINED AEROPLANES

(ETOPS)
General
ETOPS is an acronym for extended twin engine operations this rule allows twin-
engine aircrafts to fly long distance routes that were previously off-limits to twin-
engine aircraft
Examples
 Rules and Definitions for ETOPS
8.6 USE OF THE MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST(S) AND THE

CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LIST(S)
General
MEL is approved by the ECAA and permits the operation with specific inoperative
items of equipment for a period of time or a number of flights until repairs can be
accomplished
Examples
 The use of the MEL and CDL in daily operation

 Required regulation concerning the maintenance logs
8.11 EGYPTAIR AIRLINES EUR - RVSM OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
RVSM is the reduction of the standard vertical separation required between aircraft
flying between FL290 (29,000 ft) and FL410 (41,000 ft) inclusive, from 2,000 feet to
1,000 feet. This increases the capacity of the airspace
Examples
 Table of EUR RVSM Cruising Levels

 Flight Envelopes
 Flight Planning
Chapter 15
CHAPTER 9
Dangerous Goods and Weapons
 Dangerous goods are products/articles, which might be a risk during

transportation for the health or safety of the passengers and crew and the
safety of the airplane
 The transport of dangerous goods must be performed according to the IATA-
Dangerous Goods Regulations and/or the ICAO Technical instructions for the
Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods
Examples
 Dangerous Goods acceptable with the Approval of the Operator

 Dangerous Goods acceptable without the Approval of the Operator
 Provisions for Dangerous Goods Carried by Passengers or Crew
CHAPTER 10
Security
 Describes general policies with regards to security measures and security

related cases committed on board of a company airplane, either on ground or
in flight and how to deal with it
Examples
 Authority of the Commander

 Crime on Board
 Sabotage
 Hijacking
 Procedures for Locking the Flight Deck Door
CHAPTER 11
Handling of Accidents and Occurrences
 Describes the handling process of accidents, which is providing as

expeditiously as possible the maximum help/medical aid to all persons
involved regardless of whether they have already fallen victims to an accident,
or whether they are immediately threatened by one
 Keeping damages to property to a minimum, and preventing where possible
the re-occurrence of a similar accident or incident is another objective
Chapter 15
CHAPTER 12
Rules of the Air
 This chapter prescribes rules and procedures which must be complied during
different flight operations
CHAPTER 13
Leasing
 For the purpose of this manual a lease is understood to be a contractual

arrangement whereby the operator shall gain full:
 Operational.
 Technical, and
 Commercial.
CHAPTER 14
GSOP
Using the manufacturer’s procedures and checklists (FCOM) is the basis of crew
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for EgyptAir Airlines.
EgyptAir Airlines does not deviate from procedures and checklists provided by the
manufacturer. However, the manufacturers FCOM never addressed the specific
operational policies of each individual airline. Using FCOMs as such created an
unfavorable situation where many of the procedures in general operational areas were
left to the personal interpretation of each individual crew member.
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is simply defined as who does what and when,
during normal, abnormal and emergency situations. On the other hand, General
Standard Operating procedure (GSOP) is by definition, general in nature and must
reflect the airlines flight operational policy for all aircraft types.
It is also worth mentioning that there is a significant difference between Procedures

and Techniques. Techniques are simply the way that different individuals perform the
same procedure. For example, the Procedure requires a speed reduction to 250 knots
IAS below 10,000 ft during descent; this speed reduction is performed using different
Techniques (V/S, FLCH, Selected Speed, VNAV or Managed descent etc).
Chapter 15
The flight crew working together as One Team and the optimum use of all Available
Resources are the central concepts of the GSOP. Standard callouts contained in the
GSOP shall be written in parentheses (....) and in bold uppercase letters, part 4 of this
section shall also contain all standard callouts.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the GSOP is to provide EGYPTAIR AIRLINES flight crews with
well-defined General Standard Operating Procedures (GSOP) that can help the flight
crews to operate the aircraft safely
OM Part A
General Standard Operating Procedures contained in this section are not a

replacement to the policies and procedures of the OM Part A; they are a
reconstruction of the procedures in a chronological order to serve as a complement to
those policies with more focus on the human factor aspect of flight operations. GSOP
also addresses operational policies, which have not been addressed in the OM Part A.
Crew Resource Management (CRM) skills and procedures shall be an integral part of
the GSOP.
CRM procedures are designed to integrate CRM skills with the standard aircraft
normal and abnormal operation, and to provide a framework for crew training and
assessment. Through normal SOP procedures, crewmembers are provided with the
opportunity to practice specific CRM behaviors every time they fly. This will improve
crew co-ordination, communication, awareness, planning and decision-making.
The GSOP shall address the general areas of flight procedures for all aircraft types. In
this context, the GSOP shall contain:
PART 1 GENERAL POLICIES
PART 2 TASK SHARING
PART 3 FLIGHT PHASES
PART 4 STANDARD CALLOUTS
Chapter 15
CHAPTER 16
“AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING”
INTRODUCTION
Aeronautical decision-making is decision-making in a unique environment, aviation. It
is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine
the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. It is what a pilot
intends to do based on the latest information they have.
The importance of learning and understanding effective ADM skills cannot be

overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot
training methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents still
occur. Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor
remains the same: the human factor which leads to errors. It is estimated that
approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents are related to human factors and the
vast majority of these accidents occur during landing and takeoff.
ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management. To

understand ADM is to also understand how personal attitudes can influence decision-
making and how those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the flight deck. It
is important to understand the factors that cause humans to make decisions and how the
decision-making process not only works, but can be improved.
This chapter focuses on helping the pilot improve their ADM skills with the goal of
mitigating the risk factors associated with flight.
HISTORY OF ADM
For over 25 years, the importance of good pilot judgment, or aeronautical decision-
making (ADM), has been recognized as critical to the safe operation of aircraft, as well
as accident avoidance. The airline industry, motivated by the need to reduce accidents
caused by human factors, developed the first training programs based on improving
ADM. Crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews is focused on the
effective use of all available resources: human resources, hardware, and information
supporting ADM to facilitate crew cooperation and improve decision-making. The goal
of all flight crews is good ADM and the use of CRM is one way to make good
decisions.
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AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING 16-1
Research in this area prompted the aviation organizations to produce training directed
at improving the decision-making of pilots and led to current regulations that require
that decision-making be taught as part of the pilot training curriculum. ADM research,
development, and testing culminated in 1987 with the publication of six manuals
oriented to the decision-making needs of variously rated pilots. These manuals
provided multifaceted materials designed to reduce the number of decision related
accidents. The effectiveness of these materials was validated in independent studies
where student pilots received such training in conjunction with the standard flying
curriculum. When tested, the pilots who had received ADM training made fewer in-
flight errors than those who had not received ADM training. The differences were
statistically significant and ranged from about 10 to 50 percent fewer judgment errors.
In the operational environment, an operator flying about 400,000 hours annually
demonstrated a 54 percent reduction in accident rate after using these materials for
recurrent training.
Contrary to popular opinion, good judgment can be taught. Tradition held that good
judgment was a natural by-product of experience, but as pilots continued to log
accident-free flight hours, a corresponding increase of good judgment was assumed.
Building upon the foundation of conventional decision-making, ADM enhances the
process to decrease the probability of human error and increase the probability of a safe
flight. ADM provides a structured, systematic approach to analyzing changes that occur
during a flight and how these changes might affect a flight’s safe outcome. The ADM
process addresses all aspects of decision-making in the flight deck and identifies the
steps involved in good decision-making.
Steps for good decision-making are:
1. Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight
2. Learning behavior modification techniques
3. Learning how to recognize and cope with stress
4. Developing risk assessment skills
5. Using all resources
6. Evaluating the effectiveness of one’s ADM skills
Risk management is an important component of ADM. When a pilot follows good

decision-making practices, the inherent risk in a flight is reduced or even eliminated.
The ability to make good decisions is based upon direct or indirect experience and
education.
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Consider automotive seat belt use. In just two decades, seat belt use has become the
norm, placing those who do not wear seat belts outside the norm, but this group may
learn to wear a seat belt by either direct or indirect experience. For example, a driver
learns through direct experience about the value of wearing a seat belt when they are
involved in a car accident that leads to a personal injury. An indirect learning
experience occurs when a loved one is injured during a car accident because they failed
to wear a seat belt.
While poor decision-making in everyday life does not always lead to tragedy, the
margin for error in aviation is thin. Since ADM enhances management of an
aeronautical environment, all pilots should become familiar with and employ ADM.
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM)

During conventional aircraft training, pilots are introduced to the concept of crew
resource management as it applies to single pilot operations. SRM training helps the
pilot maintain situational awareness by managing the automation and associated aircraft
control and navigation tasks. This enables the pilot to accurately assess and manage risk
and make accurate and timely decisions. CRM is similar to SRM which makes it useful
when the pilot transitions to a multi crew environment.
HAZARD AND RISK

Two defining elements of ADM are hazard and risk. Hazard is a real or perceived
condition, event, or circumstance that a pilot encounters. When faced with a hazard, the
pilot makes an assessment of that hazard based upon various factors. The pilot assigns a
value to the potential impact of the hazard, which qualifies the pilot’s assessment of the
hazard—risk.
Therefore, risk is an assessment of the single or cumulative hazard facing a pilot;

however, different pilots see hazards differently. For example, the pilot arrives to
preflight and discovers a small, blunt type nick in the leading edge of the left engine`s
fan blades. Since the aircraft is parked on the tarmac, the nick was probably caused by
another aircraft’s jet blast blowing some type of debris into the engine. The nick is the
hazard (a present condition). The risk is engine failure caused by fan blade fracture if
the engine is operated with damaged fan blade
The seasoned pilot may see the nick as a low risk. He realizes this type of nick diffuses
stress over a large area, is located in the strongest portion of the fan, and based on
experience; he doesn’t expect it to propagate a crack which can lead to high risk
problems. He does not cancel his flight. The inexperienced pilot may see the nick as a
high risk factor because he is unsure of the affect the nick will have on the engine`s
operation and he has been told that damage to the fan could result in a catastrophic
failure. This assessment leads him to cancel the flight.
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HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES AND ANTIDOTES

Being fit to fly depends on more than just a pilot’s physical condition and recent
experience. For example, attitude will affect the quality of decisions. Attitude is a
motivational predisposition to respond to people, situations, or events in a given
manner. Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes that can interfere with the
ability to make sound decisions and exercise authority properly: anti-authority,
impulsivity, invulnerability, macho, and resignation. Refer to the figure below for more
illustration.
Hazardous attitudes contribute to poor pilot judgment but can be effectively

counteracted by redirecting the hazardous attitude so that correct action can be taken.
Recognition of hazardous thoughts is the first step towards neutralizing them. After
recognizing a thought as hazardous, the pilot should label it as hazardous, and then state
the corresponding antidote.
Antidotes should be memorized for each of the hazardous attitudes so they

automatically come to mind when needed.
Figure 16.1 The Five Hazardous Attitudes
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RISK
During each flight, flight crewmembers make many decisions under hazardous
conditions. To fly safely, pilots need to assess the degree of risk and determine the best
course of action to mitigate risk.
ASSESSING RISK
For a multi-crew environment, assessing risk is relatively simpler than a single crew
environment. This is due to the fact that a crewmember has someone to consult with. If
a fatigued pilot who is about to exceed their flight time limitation is asked if they are
too tired to continue flying, the answer may be no. Most pilots are goal oriented and
when asked to accept a flight, there is a tendency to deny personal limitations while
adding weight to issues not relevant to the mission.
Examining National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reports and other accident
research can help a pilot learn to assess risk more effectively. For example, in general
aviation, the accident rate during night VFR decreases by nearly 50 percent once a pilot
obtains 100 hours, and continues to decrease until the 1,000 hour level. The data
suggest that for the first 500 hours, pilots flying VFR at night might want to establish
higher personal limitations than are required by the regulations and, if applicable, apply
instrument flying skills in this environment.
Several risk assessment models are available to assist in the process of assessing risk.
The models, all taking slightly different approaches, seek a common goal of assessing
risk in an objective manner.
Two are illustrated below.
The most basic tool is the risk matrix. It assesses two items: the likelihood of an event
occurring and the consequence of that event.
Figure 16.2 Risk Assessment Matrix
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This risk matrix can be used for almost any operation by assigning likelihood and
consequence. In the case presented, the pilot assigned a likelihood of occasional and the
severity as catastrophic. As one can see, this falls in the high risk area.
LIKELIHOOD OF AN EVENT
Likelihood is nothing more than taking a situation and determining the probability of its
occurrence. It is rated as probable, occasional, remote, or improbable. For example, a
crew is flying from point A to point B (400 miles) in instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) conditions. The likelihood of encountering potential CAT II
conditions is the first question the crew needs to answer. The experiences of other pilots
coupled with the forecast, might cause the pilot to assign “occasional” to determine the
probability of encountering CAT II.
The following are guidelines for making assignments:
 Probable – an event will occur several times

 Occasional – an event will probably occur sometime
 Remote – an event is unlikely to occur but is possible
 Improbable – an event is highly unlikely to occur
SEVERITY OF AN EVENT
The next element is the severity or consequence of a pilot’s action(s). It can relate to
injury and/or damage. If the crew in the example above is not a CAT II certified crew,
what are the consequences of them encountering inadvertent CAT II conditions? In this
case, because the crew is not CAT II certified, the consequences are catastrophic. The
following are guidelines for this assignment.
 Catastrophic – results in fatalities, total loss

 Critical – severe injury, major damage
 Marginal – minor injury, minor damage
 Negligible – less than minor injury, less than minor system damage
Simply connecting the two factors as shown in the figure above indicates the risk is
high and the crew must either not fly, or fly only after finding ways to mitigate,
eliminate, or control the risk.
Although the matrix in the figure above provides a general viewpoint of a generic
situation, a more comprehensive program can be made that is tailored to a
crewmember`s flying. This program includes a wide array of aviation related activities
specific to the crewmember and assesses health, fatigue, weather, capabilities, etc. The
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scores are added and the overall score falls into various ranges, with the range
representative of actions that a crewmember imposes upon them.
MITIGATING RISK
Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After determining the level of risk, the
crewmember needs to mitigate the risk. For example, the crew flying from point A to
point B (400 miles) in IMC conditions expecting to encounter CAT II conditions has
several ways to reduce risk:
 Wait for the weather to improve to CAT I conditions

 Change the crew to a CAT II certified crew
 Delay the flight
 Cancel the flight
One of the best ways for pilots to mitigate risk is to use the IMSAFE checklist to
determine physical and mental readiness for flying:
1. Illness – Am I sick? Illness is an obvious pilot risk

2. Medication -- Am I taking any medicines that might affect my judgment or
make me drowsy?
3. Stress -- Am I under psychological pressure from the job? Do I have money,
health, or family problems? Stress causes concentration and performance
problems. While the regulations list medical conditions that require grounding,
stress is not among them. The pilot should consider the effects of stress on
performance
4. Alcohol -- Have I been drinking within 8 hours? Within 24 hours? As little as
one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying
skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible to disorientation and
hypoxia
5. Fatigue -- Am I tired and not adequately rested? Fatigue continues to be one of
the most insidious hazards to flight safety, as it may not be apparent to a pilot
until serious errors are made
6. Eating -- Have I eaten enough of the proper foods to keep adequately nourished
during the entire flight?
THE PAVE CHECKLIST

Another way to mitigate risk is to perceive hazards. By incorporating the PAVE
checklist into preflight planning, the pilot divides the risks of flight into four categories:
Pilot-in-command (PIC), Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures (PAVE) which
form part of a pilot’s decision-making process.
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Figure 16.3 Examples of a more Comprehensive Risk Assessment Program
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With the PAVE checklist, pilots have a simple way to remember each category to
examine for risk prior to each flight. Once a pilot identifies the risks of a flight, they
need to decide whether the risk or combination of risks can be managed safely and
successfully. If not, make the decision to cancel the flight. If the pilot decides to
continue with the flight, they should develop strategies to mitigate the risks. One way a
pilot can control the risks is to set personal minimums for items in each risk category.
These are limits unique to that individual pilot’s current level of experience and
proficiency.
For example, the aircraft may have a maximum demonstrated crosswind component of
35 knots listed in the aircraft flight manual (AFM), and the pilot has experience with 20
knots of direct crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 20 knots crosswind component
without additional training. Therefore, the 20 kt crosswind experience level is that
pilot’s personal limitation until additional training with a flight instructor provides the
pilot with additional experience for flying in crosswinds that exceed 20 knots.
One of the most important concepts that safe pilots understand is the difference
between what is “legal” in terms of the regulations, and what is “smart” or “safe” in
terms of pilot experience and proficiency.
P = PILOT
The pilot is one of the risk factors in a flight. The pilot must ask, “Am I ready for this
trip?” in terms of experience, recency, currency, physical and emotional condition. The
IMSAFE checklist provides the answers.
A = AIRCRAFT
What limitations will the aircraft impose upon the trip? Ask the following questions:
 Is the right aircraft for the flight?

 Is the aircraft properly equipped for the flight?
 Can this aircraft use the runways available for this trip with an adequate margin
of safety under the conditions to be flown?
 Can the aircraft carry the planned load?
 Can the aircraft operate at the altitudes needed for the trip?
 Does this aircraft have sufficient fuel capacity, with reserves for trip legs
planned?
 Does the fuel quantity delivered match the fuel quantity ordered?
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V = ENVIROMENT
Weather
Weather is a major environmental consideration. Earlier it was suggested pilots set their
own personal minimums, especially when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate the
weather for a particular flight, they should consider the following:
 What are the current ceiling and visibility? In mountainous terrain, consider
having higher minimums for ceiling and visibility, particularly if the terrain is
unfamiliar.
 Consider the possibility that the weather may be different than forecast. Have
alternative plans and be ready and willing to divert, should an unexpected
change occur.
 Consider the winds at the airports being used and the strength of the crosswind
component.
 Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast?
 If there are clouds, is there any icing, current or forecast? What is the
temperature/dew point spread and the current temperature at altitude? Can
descent be made safely all along the route?
Terrain
Evaluation of terrain is another important component of analyzing the flight

environment.
Airport
 What lights are available at the destination and alternate airports? VASI/PAPI
or ILS glideslope guidance? Is the terminal airport equipped with them? Are
they working?
 Check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS) for closed runways or airports. Look
for runway or beacon lights out, nearby towers, etc
 Evaluate the flight route wisely. An engine failure gives the nearby airports
supreme importance
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E = EXTERNAL PRESSURES
External pressures are influences external to the flight that create a sense of pressure to
complete a flight—often at the expense of safety. Factors that can be external pressures
include the following:
 A passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint

 The desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications
 The desire to impress someone. (Probably the two most dangerous words in
aviation are : “Watch this” )
 The desire to satisfy a personal goal ( “get-home-ities”, “get-there-ities” and
"lets-go-ities”)
 The pilot’s general goal-completion orientation
 Emotional pressure associated with acknowledging that skill and experience
levels may be lower than a pilot would like them to be. Pride can be a powerful
external factor!
MANAGING EXTERNAL PRESSURES

Management of external pressure is the single most important key to risk management
because it is the one risk factor category that can cause a pilot to ignore all the other
risk factors. External pressures put time-related pressure on the pilot and figure into a
majority of accidents.
The use of personal standard operating procedures (SOPs) is one way to manage
external pressures. The goal is to supply a release for the external pressures of a flight.
These procedures include but are not limited to:
 Manage passengers’ expectations. Make sure passengers know that they might
not arrive on a firm schedule, and if they must arrive by a certain time, they
should make alternative plans
 Eliminate pressure to return home, even on a casual day flight
The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for and accept delays. Remember
that people get delayed when traveling on airlines, driving a car, or taking a bus. The
pilot’s goal is to manage risk, not create hazards.
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Figure 15.4 The PAVE Checklist
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Studies of human behavior have tried to determine an individual’s predisposition to
taking risks and the level of an individual’s involvement in accidents. In 1951, a study
regarding injury-prone children was published by Elizabeth Mechem Fuller and Helen
B. Baune, of the University of Minnesota. The study was comprised of two separate
groups of second grade students. Fifty-five students were considered accident repeaters
and 48 students had no accidents. Both groups were from the same school of 600 and
their family demographics were similar.
The accident-free group showed a superior knowledge of safety, was considered

industrious and cooperative with others, but were not considered physically inclined.
The accident-repeater group had better gymnastic skills, was considered aggressive and
impulsive, demonstrated rebellious behavior when under stress, was poor losers, and
liked to be the center of attention. One interpretation of this data—an adult
predisposition to injury stems from childhood behavior and environment—leads to the
conclusion that any pilot group should be comprised only of pilots who are safety-
conscious, industrious, and cooperative.
Clearly, this is not only an inaccurate inference, it is impossible. Pilots are drawn from
the general population and exhibit all types of personality traits. Thus, it is important
that good decision-making skills be taught to all pilots.
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Historically, the term “pilot error” has been used to describe an accident in which an
action or decision made by the pilot was the cause or a contributing factor that led to
the accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s failure to make a correct decision
or take proper action. From a broader perspective, the phrase “human factors related”
more aptly describes these accidents. A single decision or event does not lead to an
accident, but a series of events and the resultant decisions together form a chain of
events leading to an outcome.
In his article “Accident-Prone Pilots,” Dr. Patrick R. Veillette uses the history of
“Captain Everyman” to demonstrate how aircraft accidents are caused more by a chain
of poor choices rather than one single poor choice. In the case of Captain Everyman,
after a gear-up landing accident, he became involved in another accident while taxiing a
Beech 58P Baron out of the ramp. Interrupted by a radio call from the dispatcher,
Everyman neglected to complete the fuel cross-feed check before taking off. Everyman,
who was flying solo, left the right-fuel selector in the cross-feed position. Once aloft
and cruising, he noticed a right roll tendency and corrected with aileron trim. He did not
realize that both engines were feeding off the left wing’s tank, making the wing lighter.
After two hours of flight, the right engine quit when Everyman was flying along a deep
canyon gorge. While he was trying to troubleshoot the cause of the right engine’s
failure, the left engine quit. Everyman landed the aircraft on a river sand bar but it sank
into ten feet of water.
Several years later Everyman flew a de Havilland Twin Otter to deliver supplies to a
remote location. When he returned to home base and landed, the aircraft veered sharply
to the left, departed the runway, and ran into a marsh 375 feet from the runway. The
airframe and engines sustained considerable damage. Upon inspecting the wreck,
accident investigators found the nose wheel steering tiller in the fully deflected
position, however, both the after takeoff and before landing checklists required the tiller
to be placed in the neutral position. Everyman had overlooked this item.
Now, is Everyman accident prone or just unlucky? Skipping details on a checklist

appears to be a common theme in the preceding accidents. While most pilots have made
similar mistakes, these errors were probably caught prior to a mishap due to extra
margin, good warning systems, a sharp copilot, or just good luck. What makes a pilot
less prone to accidents?
The successful pilot possesses the ability to concentrate, manage workloads, monitor
and perform several simultaneous tasks. Some of the latest psychological screenings
used in aviation test applicants for their ability to multitask, measuring both accuracy,
as well as the individual’s ability to focus attention on several subjects simultaneously.
The FAA oversaw an extensive research study on the similarities and dissimilarities of
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accident-free pilots and those who were not. The project surveyed over 4,000 pilots,
half of whom had “clean” records while the other half had been involved in an accident.
Five traits were discovered in pilots prone to having accidents. These pilots:
 Have disdain towards rules

 Have very high correlation between accidents on their flying records and safety
violations on their driving records
 Frequently fall into the “thrill and adventure seeking” personality category
 Are impulsive rather than methodical and disciplined both in their information
gathering and in the speed and selection of actions to be taken
 A disregard for or underutilization of outside sources of information, including
copilots, flight attendants, flight service personnel, flight instructors, and air
traffic controllers
THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS

An understanding of the decision-making process provides the pilot with a foundation
for developing ADM and CRM skills. While some situations, such as engine failure,
require an immediate pilot response using established procedures, there is usually time
during a flight to analyze any changes that occur, gather information, and assess risk
before reaching a decision.
Risk management and risk intervention is much more than the simple definitions of the
terms might suggest. Risk management and risk intervention are decision-making
processes designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and
determine the best course of action. These processes involve the identification of
hazards, followed by assessments of the risks, analysis of the controls, making control
decisions, using the controls, and monitoring the results.
The steps leading to this decision constitute a decision-making process. Many models
have been established as a structured framework for problem-solving and decision-
making, and the most popular is the DECIDE model. They provide assistance in
organizing the decision process. All these models have been identified as helpful to
pilots in organizing critical decisions.
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THE DECIDE MODEL
Using the acronym “DECIDE,” the six-step process DECIDE Model is a continuous
loop process that provides the pilot with a logical way of making decisions as shown in
the figure below. DECIDE means to Detect, Estimate, Choose a course of action,
Identify solutions, Do the necessary actions, and Evaluate the effects of the actions.
First, consider a recent accident involving a Piper Apache (PA-23). The aircraft was
substantially damaged during impact with terrain at a local airport in Alabama. The
certificated airline transport pilot (ATP) received minor injuries and the certificated
private pilot was not injured. The private pilot was receiving a checkride from the ATP
(who was also a designated examiner) for a commercial pilot certificate with a multi-
engine rating. After performing airwork at altitude, they returned to the airport and the
private pilot performed a single-engine approach to a full stop landing. He then taxied
back for takeoff, performed a short field takeoff, and then joined the traffic pattern to
return for another landing. During the approach for the second landing, the ATP
simulated a right engine failure by reducing power on the right engine to zero thrust.
This caused the aircraft to yaw right.
The procedure to identify the failed engine is a two-step process. First, bring power to
maximum controllable on both engines. Because the left engine is the only engine
delivering thrust, the yaw increases to the right, which necessitates application of
additional left rudder application. The failed engine is the side that requires no rudder
pressure, in this case the right engine. Second, having identified the failed right engine,
the procedure is to feather the right engine and adjust power to maintain descent angle
to a landing.
However, in this case the pilot feathered the left engine because he assumed the engine
failure was a left engine failure. During twin-engine training, the left engine out is
emphasized more than the right engine because the left engine on most light twins is the
critical engine. This is due to multiengine airplanes being subject to P-factor, as are
single-engine airplanes. The descending propeller blade of each engine will produce
greater thrust than the ascending blade when the airplane is operated under power and
at positive angles of attack. The descending propeller blade of the right engine is also a
greater distance from the center of gravity, and therefore has a longer moment arm than
the descending propeller blade of the left engine. As a result, failure of the left engine
will result in the most asymmetrical thrust (adverse yaw) because the right engine will
be providing the remaining thrust. Many twins are designed with a counter-rotating
right engine. With this design, the degree of asymmetrical thrust is the same with either
engine inoperative. Neither engine is more critical than the other.
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Figure 16.5 The DECIDE model has been recognized worldwide. Its application is illustrated in A while
automatic/naturalistic decision-making is shown in B.
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Since the pilot never executed the first step of identifying which engine failed, he
feathered the left engine and set the right engine at zero thrust. This essentially
restricted the aircraft to a controlled glide. Upon realizing that he was not going to
make the runway, the pilot increased power to both engines causing an enormous yaw
to the left (the left propeller was feathered) whereupon the aircraft started to turn left. In
desperation, the instructor closed both throttles and the aircraft hit the ground and was
substantially damaged.
This case is interesting because it highlights two particular issues. First, taking action
without forethought can be just as dangerous as taking no action at all. In this case, the
pilot’s actions were incorrect; yet, there was sufficient time to take the necessary steps
to analyze the simulated emergency. The second and more subtle issue is that decisions
made under pressure are sometimes executed based upon limited experience and the
actions taken may be incorrect, incomplete, or insufficient to handle the situation.
DETECT (THE PROBLEM)
Problem detection is the first step in the decision-making process. It begins with
recognizing a change occurred or an expected change did not occur. A problem is
perceived first by the senses and then it is distinguished through insight and experience.
These same abilities, as well as an objective analysis of all available information, are
used to determine the nature and severity of the problem. One critical error made during
the decision-making process is incorrectly detecting the problem. In the example above,
the change that occurred was a yaw.
ESTIMATE (THE NEED TO REACT)
In the engine-out example, the aircraft yawed right, the pilot was on final approach, and
the problem warranted a prompt solution. In many cases, overreaction and fixation
excludes a safe outcome. For example, what if the cabin door of a Mooney suddenly
opened in flight while the aircraft climbed through 1,500 feet on a clear sunny day? The
sudden opening would be alarming, but the perceived hazard the open door presents is
quickly and effectively assessed as minor. In fact, the door’s opening would not impact
safe flight and can almost be disregarded. Most likely, a pilot would return to the
airport to secure the door after landing.
The pilot flying on a clear day faced with this minor problem may rank the open cabin
door as a low risk. What about the pilot on an IFR climb out in IMC conditions with
light intermittent turbulence in rain who is receiving an amended clearance from air
traffic control (ATC)? The open cabin door now becomes a higher risk factor. The
problem has not changed, but the perception of risk a pilot assigns it changes because
of the multitude of ongoing tasks and the environment. Experience, discipline,
awareness, and knowledge will influence how a pilot ranks a problem.
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CHOOSE (A COURSE OF ACTION)
After the problem has been identified and its impact estimated, the pilot must determine
the desirable outcome and choose a course of action. In the case of the multiengine
pilot given the simulated failed engine, the desired objective is to safely land the
airplane.
IDENTIFY (SOLUTIONS)
The pilot formulates a plan that will take him or her to the objective. Sometimes, there
may be only one course of action available. In the case of the engine failure, already at
500 feet or below, the pilot solves the problem by identifying one or more solutions that
lead to a successful outcome. It is important for the pilot not to become fixated on the
process to the exclusion of making a decision.
DO (THE NECESSARY ACTION)
Once pathways to resolution are identified, the pilot selects the most suitable one for
the situation. The multiengine pilot given the simulated failed engine must now safely
land the aircraft.
EVALUATE (THE EFFECT OF THE ACTION)
Finally, after implementing a solution, evaluate the decision to see if it was correct. If
the action taken does not provide the desired results, the process may have to be
repeated.
DECISION-MAKING IN A DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT

The common approach to decision-making has been through the use of analytical
models such as the DECIDE model. Good decisions result when pilots gather all
available information, review it, analyze the options, rate the options, select a course of
action, and evaluate that course of action for correctness.
In some situations, there isn’t always time to make decisions based on analytical
decision-making skills. This type of decision-making is called automatic decision-
making or naturalized decision-making which is illustrated in the figure above.
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AUTOMATIC DECISION-MAKING
In an emergency situation, a pilot might not survive if he or she rigorously applied

analytical models to every decision made; there is not enough time to go through all the
options. But under these circumstances does he or she find the best possible solution to
every problem?
For the past several decades, research into how people actually make decisions has
revealed that when pressed for time, experts faced with a task loaded with uncertainty,
first assess whether the situation strikes them as familiar. Rather than comparing the
pros and cons of different approaches, they quickly imagine how one or a few possible
courses of action in such situations will play out. Experts take the first workable option
they can find. While it may not be the best of all possible choices, it often yields
remarkably good results.
The terms naturalistic and automatic decision-making have been coined to describe this
type of decision-making. The ability to make automatic decisions holds true for a range
of experts from fire fighters to chess players. It appears the expert’s ability hinges on
the recognition of patterns and consistencies that clarify options in complex situations.
Experts appear to make provisional sense of a situation, without actually reaching a
decision, by launching experience-based actions that in turn trigger creative revisions.
This is a reflexive type of decision-making anchored in training and experience and is

most often used in times of emergencies when there is no time to practice analytical
decision-making. Naturalistic or automatic decision-making improves with training and
experience, and a pilot will find himself or herself using a combination of decision-
making tools that correlate with individual experience and training.
OPERATIONAL PITFALLS
Although more experienced pilots are likely to make more automatic decisions, there
are tendencies or operational pitfalls that come with the development of pilot
experience. These are classic behavioral traps into which pilots have been known to
fall. More experienced pilots (as a rule) try to complete a flight as planned, please
passengers, and meet schedules. The desire to meet these goals can have an adverse
effect on safety and contribute to an unrealistic assessment of piloting skills. All
experienced pilots have fallen prey to, or have been tempted by, one or more of these
tendencies in their flying careers. These dangerous tendencies or behavior patterns,
which must be identified and eliminated, include the operational pitfalls shown in the
figure below.
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STRESS MANAGEMENT
Everyone is stressed to some degree almost all of the time. A certain amount of stress is
good since it keeps a person alert and prevents complacency. Effects of stress are
cumulative and, if the pilot does not cope with them in an appropriate way, they can
eventually add up to an intolerable burden. Performance generally increases with the
onset of stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress levels exceed a
person’s ability to cope. The ability to make effective decisions during flight can be
impaired by stress.
Factors referred to as stressors can increase a pilot’s risk of error in the flight deck as
shown in figure. Remember the cabin door that suddenly opened in flight on the
Mooney climbing through 1,500 feet on a clear sunny day? It may startle the pilot, but
the stress would wane when it became apparent the situation was not a serious hazard.
Yet, if the cabin door opened in IMC conditions, the stress level makes significant
impact on the pilot’s ability to cope with simple tasks. The key to stress management is
to stop, think, and analyze before jumping to a conclusion. There is usually time to
think before drawing unnecessary conclusions.
Another example that can take place during commercial flights is pressurization failure.
Most modern jets are designed to alarm the pilots when the cabin altitude has exceeded
a specified limit. This can happen during a slow decompression or a rapid
decompression. A slow decompression usually occurs when the pressurization system
is unable to pressurize the aircraft and the air slowly seeps out increasing the cabin
altitude slowly. A rapid decompression occurs usually due to a structural damage that
causes the air to quickly escape out of the aircraft. Both types will cause the same
warning to the pilots. The latter will necessitate an emergency descent; however the
former could be controlled using manual procedures. It is a common error, especially
while training for this maneuver in a simulator, to be tempted to execute an emergency
descent upon hearing the cabin altitude alarm, while in fact, all the pilots need to do is t
o manually control the pressurization and descend slowly. This is also due to
mismanagement of stress. Always remember to STOP, THINK AND ANALYZE
before jumping to a conclusion.
There are several techniques to help manage the accumulation of life stresses and
prevent stress overload. For example, to help reduce stress levels, set aside time for
relaxation each day or maintain a program of physical fitness. To prevent stress
overload, learn to manage time more effectively to avoid pressures imposed by getting
behind schedule and not meeting deadlines.
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Figure 16.6 Typical Operational Pitfalls Requiring Pilot Awareness
Chapter 16
Figure 16.7 System Stressors
USE OF RESOURCES
To make informed decisions during flight operations, a pilot must also become aware
of the resources found inside and outside the flight deck. Since useful tools and sources
of information may not always be readily apparent, learning to recognize these
resources is an essential part of ADM training. Resources must not only be identified,
but a pilot must also develop the skills to evaluate whether there is time to use a
particular resource and the impact its use will have upon the safety of flight. For
example, the assistance of ATC may be very useful if a pilot becomes lost, but in an
emergency situation, there may be no time available to contact ATC.
INTERNAL RESOURCES
Internal resources vary between a multi-crew and a single crew environment. Pilots in a
single crew environment are taught that passengers in the right seat could be a valuable
internal resource where they can assist in tasks like watching for traffic or reading
checklist items. In multi-crew environments, however, a passenger’s role in the
decision making process is different. Consider a flight where a passenger becomes
dizzy. The PIC could ask the cabin crew to look for a doctor on board among the
passengers. A professional opinion from a doctor about the condition of the sick
passenger will aid the PIC in the decision making process whether to land at the nearest
airport or if the flight could be continued.
Another useful internal resource in a multi-crew environment is the cabin crew

members. In high workload abnormal conditions, the PIC can delegate the task of
speaking to the passengers to the cabin crew.
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It is necessary for a pilot to have a thorough understanding of all the equipment and
systems in the aircraft being flown. Lack of knowledge is the difference between
making a wise decision or poor one that leads to a tragic error.
Checklists are essential flight deck internal resources. They are used to verify the
aircraft instruments and systems are checked, set, and operating properly, as well as
ensuring the proper procedures are performed if there is a system malfunction or in-
flight emergency. Pilots under training can be reminded that pilots at all levels of
experience refer to checklists, and that the more advanced the aircraft is, the more
crucial checklists become. Therefore, checklists and the ability to manage high
workload are considered one of the most valuable internal resources a pilot has.
EXTERNAL RESOURCES
Air traffic controllers and flight service specialists are the best external resources
during flight. In order to promote the safe, orderly flow of air traffic around airports
and, along flight routes, the ATC provides pilots with traffic advisories, radar vectors,
and assistance in emergency situations. Although it is the PIC’s responsibility to make
the flight as safe as possible, a pilot with a problem can request assistance from ATC.
For example, if a pilot needs to level off, be given a vector, or decrease speed, ATC
assists and becomes integrated as part of the crew. The services provided by ATC can
not only decrease pilot workload, but also help pilots make informed in-flight
decisions.
Other external resources may include flight service stations which provide different
services in different countries. However, they generally provide en-route flight advisory
services, issue airport advisories including weather information and Notices to Airmen
(NOTAMS).
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and
conditions within the five fundamental risk elements (flight, pilot, aircraft,
environment, and type of operation that comprise any given aviation situation) that
affect safety before, during, and after the flight. Monitoring radio communications for
traffic, weather discussion, and ATC communication can enhance situational awareness
by helping the pilot develop a mental picture of what is happening.
Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding of the relative significance

of all flight related factors and their future impact on the flight. When a pilot
understands what is going on and has an overview of the total operation, he or she is
not fixated on one perceived significant factor. Not only is it important for a pilot to
know the aircraft’s geographical location, it is also important he or she understand what
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is happening. For instance, while flying to Istanbul Ataturk Int’l, the pilot should know
why he or she is being vectored and be able to anticipate spatial location. A pilot who is
simply making turns without understanding why has added an additional burden to his
or her management in the event of an emergency. To maintain situational awareness, all
of the skills involved in ADM are used.
OBSTACLES TO MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause a pilot to fixate on a single perceived
important item and reduce an overall situational awareness of the flight. A contributing
factor in many accidents is a distraction that diverts the pilot’s attention from
monitoring the instruments or scanning outside the aircraft. Many flight deck
distractions begin as a minor problem, such as a gauge that is not reading correctly, but
result in accidents as the pilot diverts attention to the perceived problem and neglects to
properly control the aircraft.
WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT
Effective workload management ensures essential operations are accomplished by

planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload.
As experience is gained, a pilot learns to recognize future workload requirements and

can prepare for high workload periods during times of low workload. Reviewing the
appropriate chart and setting radio frequencies well in advance of when they are needed
helps reduce workload as the flight nears the airport. In addition, a pilot should listen to
ATIS early to get a good idea of what weather and traffic conditions to expect.
Checklists should be performed well in advance so there is time to focus on traffic and
ATC instructions. These procedures are especially important prior to entering a high-
density traffic area.
Recognizing a work overload situation is also an important component of managing

workload. The first effect of high workload is that the pilot may be working harder but
accomplishing less. As workload increases, attention cannot be devoted to several tasks
at one time, and the pilot may begin to focus on one item. When a pilot becomes task
saturated, there is no awareness of input from various sources, so decisions may be
made on incomplete information and the possibility of error increases.
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Figure 16.8 Balancing Workloads Can Be a Difficult Task
Figure 16.9 The pilot has a certain capacity of doing work and handling tasks. However, there is a point
where the tasking exceeds the pilot’s capability. When this happens, tasks are either not done properly or
some are not done at all.
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When a work overload situation exists, a pilot needs to stop, think, slow down, and
prioritize. It is important to understand how to decrease workload. Placing a situation in
the proper perspective, remaining calm, and thinking rationally are key elements in
reducing stress and increasing the capacity to fly safely. This ability depends upon
experience, discipline, and training.
MANAGING RISKS
The ability to manage risk begins with preparation. Here are some things pilots can do
to manage overall risk:
 Assess the flight’s risk based upon experience. Use some form of risk
assessment. For example, coming to land the winds are reported with a 30 kt X-
wind component. It is within the aircraft’s limitations but the pilot has low
experience in high speed wind X-wind landing and the maximum X-wind
landing was in a 15 kt X-wind with an instructor. It is probably a good idea to
go-around
 Brief you cabin crew thoroughly about the conditions of the flight
 Adhere strictly to the sterile cockpit rule. A cockpit that is ascent of any
unnecessary conversation at certain critical phases of flight that is dictated by
the airline operations manual
 Keep the passengers informed during times when the workload is low
AUTOMATION
Modern airliners are highly automated aircrafts with an integrated advanced avionics
system consisting of a primary flight display (PFD), a navigation display (ND)
including an instrument-certified Global Positioning System (GPS) with traffic and
terrain graphics, and a fully integrated autopilot. This type of aircraft is commonly
known as an advanced avionics aircraft.
Automation is the single most important advance in aviation technologies. Electronic

flight displays (EFDs) have made vast improvements in how information is displayed
and what information is available to the pilots. Pilots can access electronic databases
that contain all of the information traditionally contained in multiple handbooks,
reducing clutter in the flight deck.
Although automation has made flying safer, automated systems can make some errors
more evident, and sometimes hide other errors or make them less evident. There are
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concerns about the effect of automation on pilots. In a study published in 1995, the
British Airline Pilots Association officially voiced its concern that “Airline pilots
increasingly lack ‘basic flying skills’ as a result of reliance on automation.”
This reliance on automation translates into a lack of basic flying skills that may affect
the pilot’s ability to cope with an in-flight emergency, such as sudden mechanical
failure. The worry that pilots are becoming too reliant on automated systems and are
not being encouraged or trained to fly manually has grown with the increase in the
number of fully automated flight decks.
As automated flight decks began entering everyday line operations, instructors and
check airmen grew concerned about some of the unanticipated side effects. Despite the
promise of reducing human mistakes, the flight inspectors reported the automation
actually created much larger errors at times. In the terminal environment, the workload
in an automated flight deck actually seemed higher than in the older analog flight
decks. At other times, the automation seemed to lull the flight crews into complacency.
Over time, concern surfaced that the manual flying skills of the automated flight crews
deteriorated due to over-reliance on computers. The flight crew managers said they
worried that pilots would have less “stick-and-rudder” proficiency when those skills
were needed to manually resume direct control of the aircraft.
A major study was conducted to evaluate the performance of two groups of pilots. The
control group was composed of pilots who flew an older version of a common twin-jet
airliner equipped with analog instrumentation and the experimental group was
composed of pilots who flew the same aircraft, but newer models equipped with an
electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) and a flight management system (FMS). The
pilots were evaluated in maintaining aircraft parameters such as heading, altitude,
airspeed, glideslope, and localizer deviations, as well as pilot control inputs. These
were recorded during a variety of normal, abnormal, and emergency maneuvers during
4 hours of simulator sessions.
RESULTS OF THE STUDY
When pilots who had flown EFIS for several years were required to fly various
maneuvers manually, the aircraft parameters and flight control inputs clearly showed
some erosion of flying skills. During normal maneuvers such as turns to headings
without a flight director, the EFIS group exhibited somewhat greater deviations than the
analog group. Most of the time, the deviations were within the practical test standards
(PTS), but the pilots definitely did not keep on the localizer and glideslope as smoothly
as the analog group.
The differences in hand-flying skills between the two groups became more significant
during abnormal maneuvers such as slam-dunks. When given close crossing
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restrictions, the analog crews were more adept at the mental math and usually
maneuvered the aircraft in a smoother manner to make the restriction. On the other
hand, the EFIS crews tended to go “heads down” and tried to solve the crossing
restriction on the FMS.
Another situation used in the simulator experiment reflected real world changes in
approach that are common and can be assigned on short notice. Once again, the analog
crews transitioned more easily to the parallel runway’s localizer, whereas the EFIS
crews had a much more difficult time, with the pilot going head down for a significant
amount of time trying to program the new approach into the FMS.
While a pilot’s lack of familiarity with the EFIS is often an issue, the approach would
have been made easier by disengaging the automated system and manually flying the
approach. At the time of this study, the general guidelines in the industry were to let the
automated system do as much of the flying as possible. That view has since changed
and it is recommended that pilots use their best judgment when choosing which level of
automation will most efficiently do the task considering the workload and situational
awareness.
Emergency maneuvers clearly broadened the difference in manual flying skills between
the two groups. In general, the analog pilots tended to fly raw data, so when they were
given an emergency such as an engine failure and were instructed to fly the maneuver
without a flight director, they performed it expertly. By contrast, SOP for EFIS
operations at the time was to use the flight director. When EFIS crews had their flight
directors disabled, their eye scan again began a more erratic searching pattern and their
manual flying subsequently suffered.
Those who reviewed the data saw that the EFIS pilots who better managed the
automation also had better flying skills. While the data did not reveal whether those
skills preceded or followed automation, it did indicate that automation management
needed to be improved. Recommended “best practices” and procedures have remedied
some of the earlier problems with automation.
Pilots need to maintain their flight skills and ability to maneuver aircraft manually
within the standards set forth in the PTS. It is recommended that pilots of automated
aircraft occasionally disengage the automation and manually fly the aircraft to maintain
stick-and-rudder proficiency. It is imperative pilots understand that the EFD adds to the
overall quality of the flight experience, but it can also lead to catastrophe if not utilized
properly.
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Figure 16.10 PFD and ND of a B737NG
EQUIPMENT USE
AUTOPILOT SYSTEMS
An autopilot can greatly reduce workload. As a result, the pilot is free to focus his or
her attention on other flight deck duties. This can improve situational awareness and
reduce the possibility of a CFIT accident. While the addition of an autopilot may
certainly be considered a risk control measure, the real challenge comes in determining
the impact of an inoperative unit. If the autopilot is known to be inoperative prior to
departure, this may factor into the evaluation of other risks.
For example, the pilot may be planning for a VOR approach down to minimums on a
dark night into an unfamiliar airport. In such a case, the pilot may have been relying
heavily on a functioning autopilot capable of flying a coupled approach. This would
free the pilot to monitor aircraft performance. A malfunctioning autopilot could be the
single factor that takes this from a medium to a serious risk. On the other hand, if the
autopilot were to fail at a critical (high workload) portion of this same flight, the pilot
must be prepared to take action. Instead of simply being an inconvenience, this could
quickly turn into an emergency if not properly handled. The best way to ensure a pilot
is prepared for such an event is to carefully study the issue prior to departure and
determine well in advance how an autopilot failure is to be handled.
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FAMILIARITY
As previously discussed, pilot familiarity with all equipment is critical in optimizing

both safety and efficiency. If a pilot is unfamiliar with any aircraft systems, this will
add to workload and may contribute to a loss of situational awareness. This level of
proficiency is critical and should be looked upon as a requirement, not unlike carrying
an adequate supply of fuel. As a result, pilots should not look upon unfamiliarity with
the aircraft and its systems as a risk control measure, but instead as a hazard with high
risk potential. Discipline is key to success.
RESPECT FOR ONBOARD SYSTEMS
Automation can assist the pilot in many ways, but a thorough understanding of the
system(s) in use is essential to gaining the benefits it can offer. Understanding leads to
respect which is achieved through discipline and the mastery of the onboard systems.
GETTING BEYOND ROTE WORKMANSHIP
The key to working effectively with automation is getting beyond the sequential
process of executing an action. If a pilot has to analyze what key to push next, or
always uses the same sequence of keystrokes when others are available, he or she may
be trapped in a rote process. This mechanical process indicates a shallow understanding
of the system. Again, the desire is to become competent and know what to do without
having to think about, “what keystroke is next.” Operating the system with competency
and comprehension benefits a pilot when situations become more diverse and tasks
increase.
MANAGING AIRCRAFT AUTOMATION
Before any pilot can master aircraft automation, he or she must first know how to fly
the aircraft. An advanced avionics safety issue identified by the FAA concerns pilots
who apparently develop an unwarranted over-reliance in their avionics and the aircraft,
believing that the equipment will compensate for pilot shortcomings. Related to the
over-reliance is the role of ADM, which is probably the most significant factor in the
accident record of high performance aircraft used for cross country flight.
Pilot skills for normal and emergency operations hinge not only on mechanical
manipulation of the stick and rudder, but also include the mental mastery of the EFD.
Three key flight management skills are needed to fly the advanced avionics safely:
information, automation, and risk.
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INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
For the newly transitioning pilot, the PFD, ND, and GPS/FMS navigator screens seem
to offer too much information presented in colorful menus and submenus. In fact, the
pilot may be drowning in information but unable to find a specific piece of information.
It might be helpful to remember these systems are similar to computers which store
some folders on a desktop and some within a hierarchy.
The first critical information management skill for flying with advanced avionics is to
understand the system at a conceptual level. Remembering how the system is organized
helps the pilot manage the available information. It is important to understanding that
learning knob-and-dial procedures is not enough. Learning more about how advanced
avionics systems work leads to better memory for procedures and allows pilots to solve
problems they have not seen before.
There are also limits to understanding. It is generally impossible to understand all of the
behaviors of a complex avionics system. Knowing to expect surprises and to
continually learn new things is more effective than attempting to memorize mechanical
manipulation of the knobs. Simulation software and books on the specific system used
are of great value.
The second critical information management skill is stop, look, and read. Pilots new to
advanced avionics often become fixated on the knobs and try to memorize each and
every sequence of button pushes, pulls, and turns. A far better strategy for accessing
and managing the information available in advanced avionics computers is to stop,
look, and read. Reading before pushing, pulling, or twisting can often save a pilot some
trouble.
Once behind the display screens on an advanced avionics aircraft, the pilot’s goal is to
meter, manage, and prioritize the information flow to accomplish specific tasks. Pilots
transitioning to advanced avionics will find it helpful to corral the information flow.
This is possible through such tactics as configuring the aspects of the PFD and ND
screens according to personal preferences. For example, most systems offer map
orientation options that include “north up,” or “track up,”. Another tactic is to decide,
when possible, how much (or how little) information to display. Pilots can also tailor
the information displayed to suit the needs of a specific flight.
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Information flow can also be managed for a specific operation. The pilot has the ability
to prioritize information for a timely display of exactly the information needed for any
given flight operation. Examples of managing information display for a specific
operation include:
 Program map scale settings for en route versus terminal area operation
 Utilize the terrain awareness page on the ND for a night or IMC flight in or near
the mountains
 Use the nearest airports inset on the ND at night or over inhospitable terrain.
ENHANCED SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
An advanced avionics aircraft offers increased safety with enhanced situational

awareness. Although some aircraft flight manuals (AFM) explicitly prohibit using the
moving map, topography, terrain awareness, traffic, and weather data link displays as
the primary data source, these tools nonetheless give the pilot unprecedented
information for enhanced situational awareness. Without a well-planned information
management strategy, these tools also make it easy for an unwary pilot to slide into the
complacent role of “passenger in command”.
Consider the pilot whose navigational information management strategy consists solely
of following the magenta line on the moving map. He or she can easily fly into
geographic or regulatory disaster, if the straight-line GPS course goes through high
terrain or prohibited airspace, or if the moving map display fails.
A good strategy for maintaining situational awareness information management should

include practices that help ensure that awareness is enhanced by the use of automation,
not diminished. Two basic procedures are to always double-check the system and
verbal callouts. At a minimum, ensure the presentation makes sense. Was the correct
destination fed into the navigation system? Callouts are an excellent way to maintain
situational awareness as well as manage information.
Other ways to maintain situational awareness include:
 Perform verification check of all programming. Before departure, check all

information programmed while on the ground
 Check the flight routing. Before departure, ensure all routing matches the
planned flight route. Enter the planned route and legs, to include headings and
leg length, on a paper log. Use this log to evaluate what has been programmed.
If the two do not match, do not assume the computer data is correct, double
check the computer entry
 Verify waypoints
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 Make use of all onboard navigation equipment. For example, use VOR to
backup GPS and vice versa
 Match the use of the automated system with pilot proficiency. Stay within
personal limitations
 Be ready to verify computer data entries. For example, incorrect keystrokes

could lead to loss of situational awareness because the pilot may not recognize
errors made during a high workload period
AUTOMATION MANAGEMENT
Advanced avionics offer multiple levels of automation, from strictly manual flight to
highly automated flight. No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight
situations, but in order to avoid potentially dangerous distractions when flying with
advanced avionics, the pilot must know how to manage the course deviation indicator
(CDI), the navigation source, and the autopilot. It is important for a pilot to know the
peculiarities of the particular automated system being used. This ensures the pilot
knows what to expect, how to monitor for proper operation, and promptly take
appropriate action if the system does not perform as expected.
For example, at the most basic level, managing the autopilot means knowing at all
times which modes are engaged and which modes are armed to engage. The pilot needs
to verify that armed functions (e.g., NAV route tracking or glideslope capture) engage
at the appropriate time. Automation management is another good place to practice the
callout technique, especially after arming the system to make a change in course or
altitude.
In advanced avionics aircraft, proper automation management also requires a thorough

understanding of how the autopilot interacts with the other systems. For example, with
some autopilots, changing the navigation source on the e-HSI from GPS to LOC or
VOR while the autopilot is engaged in NAV (course tracking mode) will cause the
autopilot’s NAV mode to disengage.
The autopilot’s lateral control will default to ROL (wing level) until the pilot takes
action to reengage the NAV mode to track the desired navigation source.
Chapter 16
RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk management is the last of the three flight management skills needed for mastery of
the glass flight deck aircraft. The enhanced situational awareness and automation
capabilities offered by a glass flight deck airplane vastly expand its safety and utility.
At the same time, there is some risk that lighter workloads could lead to complacency.
Humans are characteristically poor monitors of automated systems. When asked to

passively monitor an automated system for faults, abnormalities, or other infrequent
events, humans perform poorly. The more reliable the system, the poorer the human
performance. For example, the pilot only monitors a backup alert system, rather than
the situation that the alert system is designed to safeguard. It is a paradox of automation
that technically advanced avionics can both increase and decrease pilot awareness.
It is important to remember that electronic flight displays do not replace basic flight
knowledge and skills. They are a tool for improving flight safety. Risk increases when
the pilot believes the gadgets will compensate for lack of skill and knowledge. It is
especially important to recognize there are limits to what the electronic systems in any
jet airliner can do. Being PIC requires sound ADM which sometimes means saying
“no” to a flight.
Risk is also increased when the pilot fails to monitor the systems. By failing to monitor
the systems and failing to check the results of the processes, the pilot becomes detached
from the aircraft operation and slides into the complacent role of “passenger in
command”. Complacency led to tragedy in a 1995 aircraft accident.
In Colombia, an American Airlines B757-200 aircraft crewed with two pilots struck the
face of the Andes Mountains. Examination of their FMS revealed they entered a
waypoint into the FMS incorrectly by one degree resulting in a flight path taking them
to a point 60 NM off their intended course. The pilots were equipped with the proper
charts, their route was posted on the charts, and they had a paper navigation log
indicating the direction of each leg. They had all the tools to manage and monitor their
flight, but instead allowed the automation to fly and manage itself. The system did
exactly what it was programmed to do; it flew on a programmed course into a mountain
resulting in multiple deaths. The pilots simply failed to manage the system and
inherently created their own hazard. Although this hazard was self-induced, what is
notable is the risk the pilots created through their own inattention. By failing to evaluate
each turn made at the direction of automation, the pilots maximized risk instead of
minimizing it. In this case, a totally avoidable accident becomes a tragedy through
simple pilot error and complacency.
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For the newly hired pilot transitioning to automated systems, it is helpful to note that all
human activity involving technical devices entails some element of risk. Knowledge,
experience, and mission requirements tilt the odds in favor of safe and successful
flights. The advanced avionics aircraft offers many new capabilities and simplifies the
basic flying tasks, but only if the pilot is properly trained and all the equipment is
working as advertised.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter focused on helping the pilots improve their ADM skills with the goal of
mitigating the risk factors associated with flight in automated aircrafts. In the end, the
discussion is not so much about aircrafts, but about the people who fly them.
Chapter 16
APPENDIX
Deferred Defect Log
No.: ……………………….
Airlines
Originated from D M Y MCC
A/C Type Station Tech. log Cabin log Related log page No./Item Def. date Control No.
A/C Reg. SU- Maint. log JCN
Deferred Defect Rectification

ATA (4 digits): A
……………………………………………………………….. .....…...................................................................................
………………………………………………………………. .........................……............................................................
……………………………………………………………….. ................................……......................................................
………………………………………………………………. Ref. No.: RII? Yes No
B
REF. (MEL/CDL/AMM/SRM...): ........................................................................................
Required Action: .......................................................................................

Operation (O) Repetitive Yes No ........................................................................................
Maintenance (M) Repetitive Yes No
Ref. No.: RII? Yes No
If Operation, it should be denoted, If Maintenance, be sure of being executed
Deferral Category: Rect. Due (date/Flt. Hrs.) Item P/N off S/N off P/N on S/N on Pos Tot. Mhr
Deferral Reason:
Required Item Description:……………………..………………………….………..
P/N:………………………………… Voucher No.:…………..………

I hereby certify that the Maintenance specified above has been carried out in
I hereby certify that the above defect is deferred in accordance with the accordance with Manufacturer’s documents, Egyptian Civil Aviation Regulations and
mentioned reference and does not affect the safe operation of the aircraft. Maintenance Control Manual (MCM).
Eng. Sign & Stamp:
Extension No. Extension To (Date/ Fhr) Eng. Sign & Stamp Item Eng. Sign & Stamp Insp Sign & Stamp (for RII) Station Rec. Date
Note: Only one deferred defect is to be entered, all entries in capital letters
Issue date: Oct.. 2009 Form 407
A-1
Ser.
( )
A/C Cabin Log
Airlines
A/C Type: A/C Reg.: SU. Flt No. MS: From: To: Date:
DEFECT ACTION TAKEN Certification

Eng. Signature & Stamp
Item: ATA: JCN: Item: Trans. To deferral log 407 414 Page No.:
……………………………….
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. Insp. Sign & Stamp (for RII)
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. ………………….……………
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. Date:……..……….… Stn:………..….
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. C.A. Tech Name & Sign

……………...……….……………….
Reported by: CDC CA Eng tn:…….……... Name & Sign: Reference: RII? Yes No
Date:………….… Stn...………..
……………………………….
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. Insp. Sign & Stamp (for RII)
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. Date:………….…Stn...………..
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. C.A. Tech Name & Sign

…………………….……………….
Reported by: CDC CA Eng Stn:………….. Name & Sign: Reference: RII? Yes No
Date:………….… Stn...………..
……………………………….
………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………….… Insp. Sign & Stamp (for RII)
………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………….… …………….…………………

………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. Date:………….… Stn...………..
………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………….. C.A. Tech Name & Sign

…………………….……………….
Reported by: CDC CA Eng Stn:…….……. Name & Sign: Reference: RII? Yes No
Date:………….… Stn...………..
Reason for Removal Codes: Rem
Item No. Description P/N off S/N off P/N on S/N on Qty Pos Total MHr
Code
01 Defect 02 Time Control
03 Task Card 04 Trouble-Shooting
05 Modification 06 Robbing
07 Loan/Pool return 08 Others
A/C Supervisor (Sign & Stamp):
I hereby certify that the maintenance specified above has been carried out in accordance with Manufacturer’s documents, Egyptian Civil Aviation Regulations and
………………………………...……….…………...
Maintenance Control Manual (MCM)
Date:……………..…….……….
Issue date : Oct. 2009 Form 413
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7
A-8
A-9
A-10
A-11
A-12
OFP LAYOUT
Basic data A332 REL

P7
Routing
information P8
Dep. ATC P8
clearance
P9
Weights &
procedures
Fuel Statistics P 10
Fuel data
P 11-13
A-13
1 LIDO Operational Flight Plan explanation

OFP LAYOUT
P 14
Tankering
information
P 16
Alternate section
P 17
Operational impacts
P 18
Times section
P 18
Handling agent
P 19
MEL/CDL
P 19
Crew notes/
signature
A-14
2
LIDO Operational Flight Plan explanation
OFP LAYOUT
FLIGHT LOG
P 20-22
DIFF
A-15
3
OFP LAYOUT
ETOPS/ETP
p. 23, 24
A-16
4
Wind/Temperature
p. 25
A-17
5
OFP LAYOUT
ATC FLIGHT PLAN
p. 26
A-18
6
Basic data
ICAO/IATA code of departure airport,

Name of departure airport. 5 letter
name code may be displayed in case of
In-flight calculation.
ICAO/IATA code of destination airport. In case of In-
Scheduled departure date of flight shows ICAO code for In-flight Destination.
the flight, UTC.
Format: DDMMMYY
Aircraft ICAO code.
Airline’s ICAO Code + Aircraft registration.
flight number
(Operational suffix REL: released at
may be added Time (UTC) and Date of
“MSR7011A”) OFP calculation.
Format: HHmm DDMMMYY
03JAN10 A332 REL
c
18:00 E G3
Calculated take-off time Label self explanatory
Format: DDHH
OFP Number: WX PROG 0318 0400 0406

Format Label WX PROG + day and time of
standard OFP number/ RCL Number/ETOPS Number used weather prognosis (UTC).
Possible format as follows: e.g. 1312 1318 1400
OFP 4/2/1
OFP with RCL calculation and ETOPS : Or Statistical weather
4: Many OFP’s has been calculated, OFP no.4 has been selected e.g.
2: Many OFP’s with reclearance has been calculated, OFP with RCL WX PROG JAN AVG
NO.2 has been selected. WX PROG JAN 85%
1: Indicator for OFP calculation with ETOPS. WX PROG JAN-MAR AVG
In case no ETOPS has been calculated, 0 will be displayed.
WX PROG ISA NO WIND
OFP 10/0/1 OFP No 10 with ETOPS calculation (no RCL):

OFP Number/ RCL Number (which in this case is zero)/ETOPS indicator.
A-19
7
Routing Information Section
Company route name - e.g. DXBCAI001
OR
Optimization policy, Possibilities are:
E/MFT; ETOPS flight using Minimum Fuel Track
E/MFT/R; ETOPS flight using Minimum Fuel Track considering route Restriction
“MFT” could be replaced by:
MTT (Minimum Time Track) ,
MDT (Minimum Distance Track) and
MCT (Minimum Cost Track)
OR
INFLT in case of in-flight calculation or
NAT A (B, C etc.) in case of North Atlantic Track planned or
DEFRTE in case of dispatch defined routing
Threshold Elevation in feet of the

planned Destination Airport’s
runway
Routing description of the planned route. The route starts with the ICAO code of the
departure airport followed by planned runway identifier then Routing from ATC flight
plan Item 15, with speed/level changes and ends with the ICAO code of the destination
airport followed by runway identifier.
For in-flight calculations the routing starts at in-flight re-planning point and ends with
the ICAO code of the in-flight destination.
Departure ATC clearance

Cleared via FPL
OR, in case of deviation
Cleared via ….
A-20
8
Weights and procedures Section
28.1 HESH
258
20500
122100
162000
29000
201100
21200
171000
10000
Weights and Procedures Section label legend

STD DOI standard dry operating index
CREW Crew configuration cockpit/cabin
PAX Persons on board
CGO CARGO
STD DOW Standard Dry Operating weight
ZFW (Structure Max zero fuel weight) and planned ZFW
TOF Take off fuel
TOW Take off weight (Structure maximum takeoff weight) and planned
TRIP Trip fuel
LAW Landing weight (structure maximum landing weight) and planned
FREM Fuel remaining
TKOF ALTN Take off ALTN
TTL POB Total persons on board
Cruise system Examples:
CRZ SYS CI25 Cost Index
CRZ SYS M.82 Mach number
CRZ SYS LRC Long range cruise
CRZ SYS VRBL Variable
Notes:
Label VRBL is shown also when the flight is planned with more then one different CI,
resp. Mach number. If the flight goes through a fixed mach Airspace, but only one CI is
planned, this CI is shown.
Total ground distance. Format: NM
Total air distance. Format: NM
Average wind component for routing from origin to destination, or (INFLT Recleared
Destination) Format: knots + Label M (head wind) or P (Tailwind)
Average temperature deviation from ISA component for routing from origin to
destination. Or (INFLT Recleared Destination)
Format: degree + Label M (minus) or P (plus)
Average wind direction/speed for routing from origin to (in-flight) destination.
Format: Degree/knots,
Great Circle distance. Format: NM

Considered Fuel bias(degradation) of the Aircraft (Performance correction) in
percentage. Format: Percent + Label M (minus) or P (plus), ##.#.
Calculated Average Fuel Flow for routing from origin to (in-flight) destination
Format: kgs/ hr.
A-21
9
Fuel Statistics
If no statistical data are available the shown layout is:
Note: This feature is postponed until further notice, After building up sufficient (2 years)
statistical data.
A-22
10
Fuel Data
Destination airport’s ICAO code followed by trip fuel & time,

Includes DEP fuel from planned RWY following a published DEP
procedure, Or distance fuel/PAD for transition to ENR+ Climb to
TOC +CRZ(including step CLIMB/DESCENT) to TOD+DESCENT to
initial APP +full APP procedure, to planned arrival RWY.
The applied Contingency Fuel Policy
followed ICAO code(XXXX) in case of
contingency policy is 3%+ERA. (EN
1st Destination Alternate Airport’s ICAO code; OR ROUTE ALTERNATE)
NIL If no Alternate is planned. It includes missed APP Other policies:
from planned DEST RWY following a published DEP -CONT 20 MIN
procedure or distance fuel/PAD to transition to ENR + -CONT STAT90 Will not be displayed
climb to TOC (including step CLIMB/DESCENT)+ -CONT STAT95 until building sufficient
descent from TOD to initial APP following procedure or -CONT STAT99 2 years database
destination PAD to cover full approach procedure to -MIN CONT
Planned LDG RWY.
Planned holding fuel and time over alternate

at 1500’ or (at destination if no alternate
required) or 2 hours for isolated airport
only to be shown for ETOPS/ETP

flights, even if no additional
ETOPS/ETP fuel is required
Planned reclearance fuel & time, Only to be shown for

RECLEARANCE flights, even if no RECLEARANCE ADD
fuel is required
Sum of planned MEL additional + extra fuels endurance, calculated as MEL Fuel/ Avg. Fuel Flow.
Note: it is shown only if it’s planned.
Planned Additional Minimum Diversion Fuel & time.

Note: it is always shown even if it is not planned. Minimum Diversion Fuel is the same as Min
Reserve Fuel (Alternate Fuel + Final Reserve Fuel)
A-23
11
Fuel Data (continued)
Planned Minimum required Takeoff Fuel is the sum of all fuel

figures above = TRIP + CONT + ALTN + FINRES + ETOPS/ETP +
RECLEARANCE ADD + MEL + FOD ADD
Planned Holding Additional fuel over
destination at 1500” followed by time.
Labels for planned Additional/Extra fuel

and time for conditions:
-ATC: Air Traffic Control
-WXX: Weather conditions
-OPN: Operational reasons.
Notes: each type of additional/extra fuel
has to be shown on a separate row, but
only if it’s planned. If Fuel on Board (e.g.
from the previous fueling of the aircraft)
is more than the planned Block fuel for
the flight, the difference must be added
to the Additional Fuel with reason OPN.
Planned tankering additional fuel and time is

calculated as value of fuel/AVG fuel flow.
Planned Takeoff Fuel is the sum of all fuel figures above

031900 = MINIMUM T/OFF FUEL + HOLD + ATC + WXX + OPN + TANKERING
Followed by: Planned corresponding endurance of all fuel figures above
0535 = MINIMUM T/OFF FUEL + HOLD + ATC + WXX + OPN + TANKERING
Departure Airport’s ICAO Code followed by planned taxi out fuel and time
A-24
12
Fuel Data (continued)
LABEL LEGEND
Planned Block Fuel is the sum of all fuel values above Note: In in-flight case
BLOCK FUEL BLOCK FUEL is the planned required fuel to the in-flight destination Airport.
This could be less then the remaining fuel on board at the time of calculation
PIC EXTRA Extra fuel requested by PILOT-IN-COMMAND
TOTAL FUEL Dots for manual entry by crew equals summation of block fuel and PIC.
possible amount of extra fuel and limiting reason

TOW: Take off weight limited
POSS EXTRA
LDG: landing weight limited
TCAP: tank capacity limited
ATC: Air Traffic Control

WXR-DES: Weather at destination airport
EXTRA FUEL REASON: WXR-ERT: Significant En-route weather
FPC: Flight Plan Calculations.
TEC: Technical
Other: Other reasons.
A-25
13
Tankering information
This section contains information about the calculated Tankering savings/losses. The shown Tankering information is
depending on the dispatcher’s input and calculated results.
-Following fields are displayed whenever Tankering is recommended and the Additional Tankering Fuel is based
on next leg.
Appears whenever Savings calculated for planned amount of Tankering fuel.

Tankering fuel has been planned for Appears whenever Tankering fuel has been planned for reason “Price”
reason “Price” & savings are higher or and savings are higher or equal to defined minimum savings.
equal to defined minimum savings. If saving are below defined minimum savings, field remains empty.
Other tankering reasons are:
VOLUME
Planned Tankering fuel. Tankering limits are:
HANDLING Format: kg, #### -BASED ON NEXT LEG
-DISPATCH DEFINED
BUSINESS
-BASED ON MALTOW MINUS 1%
(Maximum allowable take off weight)
785 HECA/CAI 05R
Following data is related to the next leg of the aircraft.

Note: The next leg flight has to be calculated prior to the current flight.
Example Description
MSR785 Flight number
HECA/CAI 05R -EDDF/FRA 25R codes of departure & destination airports/ planned runway
ICAO/IATA codes of destination alternate airport and planned Arrival

ALTN EDFH/HHN 21
runway.
ZFW: 150500 Estimated Zero Fuel Weight
Planned Take Off Fuel
PLNTOF: 48100
(calculated as BLOCK FUEL - TAXI).Format: kg, ####
TAXI: 700 Planned Taxi out fuel.
POSS EXTRA: 12300LDG possible extra fuel +limitation remark (LDG/TKF/TCAP).
OR
Loss in USD per one tone Tankering Fuel
- Following fields are displayed whenever no tankering is recommended due to tankering reasons as
described above and no tankering additional fuel is planned.
A-26
14
Alternate section
If no Alternate is planned the shown layout is:
Label to be shown even though no alternate is calculated, HOLD/ALTN 2500 is based on two cases:-
1- Hold over DEST for 45 minute at 1500 ft.
2- Two hours cruise fuel over isolated airport.
Destination alternate airport’s ICAO code / RWY
Final Reserve Fuel:

(Holding Fuel) on board planned as an additional fuel reserve awaiting the clearance for landing at the first
destination alternate. Value as resulting for the best optimized alternate airport according to the selected alternate
optimization policy. (Same value as figured in fuel data section)
Format: kg, ####
Ground distance for the routing Average track wind component for routing
from destination airport to from destination airport to destination
destination Alternate airports alternate.
Format: NM Format: knots + Label M (head wind) or P
(tail wind), 3 digits with leading zeros.
Average magnetic track for the Planned Trip Time for routing from destination
routing from destination airport to airport to destination alternate
destination Alternate airport. Format: HHmm
Format: ### degrees with leading
zeros
Planned Initial cruise flight level for Planned Trip fuel for routing from destination
routing from destination airport to airport to destination alternate
destination alternate Format: kg, ####
Format: feet/100 with leading zeros.
ATS route description for the routing from

destination airport to destination alternate airport
(xxx mentioned as example to demonstrate line break).
A-27
15
Operational impacts
This section provides TRIP Fuel and Time figures as difference to the main flight plan values for
different adjustments defined in the Mini-OFP Frame. All inserted adjustments will be presented in
the same sequence on the OFP. If one calculation is not possible (e.g. due to performance/weight
limitations), the label NOT AVAILABLE is shown, but the requested adjustment is shown anyway.
Trip Fuel Trip Time

difference to main difference to main
flight plan flight plan
Entered increased/decreased TOW change
Format: kg, ####
Entered FL change
- one FL above Trip Time
Trip Fuel difference
-one FL below or difference to
to main flight plan
- two FLs below) main flight plan
Label Cruise Procedure

-Cost Index 100, Trip Time
-Long range Cruise, Trip Fuel difference difference to
-Cost Index 10 to main flight plan main flight plan
A-28
16
Times Section
For SKED times only the SKED OUT and SKED IN times shall be shown on OFP (description below).
OMDB / HECA
ESTIMATED SCHEDULE
OMDB / HECA Departure airport / Destination airport ICAO code

(Off Block Time) Estimated Time of Departure
Scheduled Time of
/UTC In case of In-flight OFP the Estimated
Departure /UTC
Time of Departure corresponds to the time in
field “TIME” within In-flight Assistance frame.
Takeoff time = Estimated Time of

Departure/UTC + Taxi Out Time In case of In-
flight calculation this is the time in field “TIME”
within In-flight Assistance frame.
Touch Down Time = Estimated Time of

Departure /UTC + Taxi Out Time + Planned
Trip Time to (In-flight) Destination
Note: In case of In-flight OFP the Estimated
Time of Departure corresponds to the time in
field “TIME” within In-flight
OnblockTime= Estimated Time of Arrival /UTC

Calculated as MSR (as above) + Taxi Out Time
+ Planned Trip Time to (In-flight) Destination + Scheduled Time of
Taxi In Time Note: In case of In-flight OFP the Arrival /UTC
Estimated Time of Departure corresponds to
the time in field “TIME” within In-flight
Assistance frame and Taxi Out Time=0.
Difference between
Difference between ESTIMATED IN –
SKED IN and
ESTIMATED OUT
SKED OUT
Calculated Take-Off Time /UTC
Handling Agent Name/ Frequency section
This section provides a list of Handling Agent & frequency if they are available sorted for Departure,
Destination and Destination Alternate airports. More than one frequency per Airport is possible.
A-29
17
MEL/CDL Section
This section contains a list of all in LIDO Operations Control available MEL/CDL
Items for the planned Aircraft. Those data is shown as it is received via interface.
CAT/MEL/CDL item number MEL item description
Crew Notes/Signature
1335
Validity of OFP. Calculated. STD + 6 hours.

First and last names of the dispatcher who has calculated the flight plan. If the flight plan is calculated
automatically by Lido “A.O.S.” would show.
A-30
18
FLIGHT LOG
Information about the Information about

routing position with the routing position
the most critical with the maximum
MORA. shear rate
This section contains the waypoints of Flight altitude, at which the first
that part of the flight, which is crossing oceanic segment is entered
oceanic airspaces, including oceanic Label FL followed by the flight altitude
area entry and exit points. After the last of the first segment when crossing the
displayed waypoint the flight altitude, at oceanic area. It refers to the cruise FL
which the first oceanic segment is if the crossing of the oceanic area is
entered, is presented. during the climb phase of the flight.
Block is not shown when flight is not
crossing any oceanic airspace.
Label “MAX OCEANIC ENTRY FLxxx” has

to be displayed. Mach speed planned for the first
xxx: shall return the maximum height in FL, segment of the oceanic area. It refers
which the aircraft considering its weight is to the cruise Mach number if the
able to reach at entry of the oceanic area. crossing of the oceanic area is during
To be displayed always in hundred of feet, the climb phase of the flight
rounded to nearest whole FL
(e.g. 37800 -> 380)
Note: the provided FL is a segment value
related to the segment from the first to the
second routing position within the oceanic area. SELCAL of the aircraft
If the flight is not passing any oceanic area,
entire row shall not be displayed.
A-31
19
Flight LOG (continued)
Airway/SID/STAR/NAT Track from previous to current True Air Speed in knots for the segment to the next
T712 displayed waypoint (Value for True Air Speed is Available
routing position
AWY TAS 480 only between Initial TOC and Final TOD. Not available
Not shown if the current waypoint is ETOPS/ETP also for waypoints on Step Climb/Step Descent.)
DCT
relevant position or Airspace Boundary Format: Knots.
Average Ground Speed for the segment to

waypoint name
49N050W – for coordinate waypoints
the next displayed waypoint. Not provided at
GS 390
Initial Top of Climb (TOC) and Final Top of Descent Destination airport
(TOD) will be displayed as “T O C” resp. “T O D”. Format: Knots.
POSITION TUDAX ETOPS/ETP relevant positions are shown as
described in ETOPS section (e.g. ETOPS ENTRY1,
ETP1-1, ETOPS EXIT1) Wind Direction and Speed at current displayed
Note. The size of this field is limited to 11 characters. waypoint.
Longer waypoint names will be cut. WIND 271/092 Format: Direction displayed as 3 characters,
degrees, with leading zeros. Speed displayed as 3
characters in knots, with leading zeros.
Waypoint ARINC (AERONAUTICAL
IDENT TUDAX RADIO,INCORPORATED) code.
4950N – for coordinate waypoints Track wind component for segment to next
Latitude and Longitude of the current position. displayed waypoint.
Format: Not provided at Destination airport
COMP M091
Latitude as Format: M(head wind) or P (tail wind)
CDDMM.T designator, in knots, 3 characters with
LAT N2544.7
C is the respective designator for N/S
leading zeros.
DD – Degrees
MM – Minutes Shear Rate on segment to next routing
T – Tenth of Minutes position.
Longitude of the current position Note: Value for True Air Speed is Available
Format: only between Initial TOC and Final TOD. Not
Longitude as SHR 1 available also for waypoints on Step
CDDDMM.T Climb/Step Descent
LONG E05316.9
C is the respective designator for W/N/E/S Format: up to 2 characters, right adjusted,
DDD – Degrees
MM – Minutes
without leading zeros, in (m/s)/1000ft as
T – Tenth of Minutes calculated by optimizer
EET 0001 Trip Time from previous to current routing position Outside air temperature for segment to the
next displayed waypoint. Not provided for
Total Elapsed Trip Time from Take Off to current
TTLT 0022
routing position
Departure and Destination airports.
OAT M49
Format:
ETO … ESTIMATE TIME OVER 2 characters, with leading zero + designator
To be filled by crew
ATO … ACTUAL TIME OVER M(when negative) or P(when positive)
Flight Level to be reached at current waypoint. Not to Deviation of the Outside Air Temperature
be displayed in case of first or last routing position. In
FL 360 (OAT) for the segment to the next displayed
case of In-flight, FL of first position has to be
displayed.
waypoint to the ISA temperature (ISA Temp).
TDV = OAT – ISA Temp
TDV P07
Minimum safe altitude on segment to next displayed Not provided for Departure and Destination
waypoint. airport.
MORA 20 It’s shown only if the next routing position is a real Format: 2 character with leading zeros +
waypoint. It’s not shown at destination airport designator
Format: In hundred of feet even within a metric area.
Tropopause height at current displayed waypoint.
Ground distance from previous to current routing Not provided for Departure and Destination airports.
TRP 3248
DIS 6 position Format: In hundred of feet even within a metric
Format: NM area.
Initial Magnetic Track. Estimated Fuel on Board

IMT 274 Magnetic Track from current displayed waypoint. Calculated as BLOCK FUEL – TAXI – used TRIP
Not provided at Destination airport fuel to current position
EFOB 23.9
Note. For the first routing position (departure airport)
Initial True Track
EFOB = T/OFF FUEL
True Track from current displayed waypoint.
ITT 276 Format: tons ##.# with leading zeros
Not provided at Destination airport
Format: Degrees, with leading zero. AFOB … Actual Fuel On Board to be filled by crew
Remaining ground distance to destination Used Trip Fuel from Take Off to current routing
RDIS 1244
Format: NM position.
PBRN 04.6
Note: it is 00.0 for the first position
Mach Number at the current displayed waypoint Format: tons ##.# with leading zeros
MN .82 Mach Number * 100.
Not provided at Departure and Destination airports DIFF … Difference between actual fuel on board and EFOB
A-32
20
Flight LOG (continued)
BAHRAIN FIR Airspace name
-OBBB Airspace ICAO code, identified with “–“ at the beginning
N2546.0 Latitude of the current position
E05303.7 Longitude of the current position

Trip Time from previous to current routing position followed revised
0000
time filled by crew
Total Elapsed Trip Time from Take Off to current
0023
routing position followed by revised time filled by crew
1 Ground distance from previous to current routing position

1232 Remaining ground distance to destination
A-33
21
OFP LAYOUT
ETOPS/ETP
When an ETOPS or PET3/4 (Point of Equal Time for 3&4 engines aircrafts) scenario has been inserted but the
calculation resulted in NO ETOPS required, entire section shows:
When an ETOPS scenario has been inserted, the table contains ETOPS ENTRY points, EXIT points and
ETPs as planned. For each ETOPS position (ENTRY/EXIT/ETP) only the most critical case (one engine out (1X);
decompression (DC) or one engine out with decompression (DX)) per SA-pair (suitable airport pair) is shown.
When the flight presents multiple ETOPS areas, all ETOPS ENTRY, ETPs (if applicable) and EXIT points are shown
according to their sequence.
If there is only one Suitable Airport per ETOPS Area planned, only ETOPS ENTRY and EXIT information is displayed.
FLIGHT FROM WEST BOUND TO EAST BOUND
A-34
22
ETOPS/ETP
(ETOPS RULE TIME: 180MIN) Applied ETOPS rule time in minutes. Note: Not to be shown for PET3/4 scenario
N5037.2 W03455.1 Latitude/Longitude of the most critical position for ETOPS/ETP calculation shall be displayed.
ETOPS ENTRY1 EINN The ETOPS entry followed by the sequence number of the ETOPS area(only if the number of ETOPS areas is
N4949.6 W04235.3 more than 1) & ICAO code of SA, & Latitude and longitude of the current ETOPS, ETP or EXIT position
ELTME
0304 Trip time from routing origin to current ETOPS/ETP position.
TIME
0254 Trip time from current ETOPS/ETP position to the critical suitable airport
DIST
ISA Ground distance from current ETOPS/ETP position to the critical suitable airport, with
1265 information about average temperature deviation to ISA
M02
MORA
W/C Minimum off route altitude in hundred of feet, for routing from ETOPS/ETP position to the
033 suitable airport, followed by average wind component
M007
ICE
1.5 Icing fuel, part of CFUEL, planned for anti-icing, this amount of fuel is included into CFUEL.
CFUEL
14.7 (Critical) fuel required for routing from current ETOPS/ETP position to its most critical suitable airport.
FOB Fuel on board at ETP T/O FUEL planned for the flight - used trip fuel from departure until current ETOPS/ETP
17.5 position
Flight case for the respective ETOPS/ETP position.

DX DX - one engine out with decompression OR
DC DC - decompression OR
1X 1X - one engine out
same explanation as previous ETOPS/ETP point to the respective Suitable Airport pair.
list of all planned Suitable Airports

CYYT 06:48 03:03 Suitable Airport's ICAO code & its suitability period
WX MIN: 600-3219 WX minima for SA: Vertical visibility (DH; ceiling) in feet - Horizontal visibility (RVR; VIS) in meter
Weather forecast for the suitable airport for SA: Vertical visibility (DH; ceiling) in feet - Horizontal
FCST WX: 2000-9999
visibility (RVR; VIS) in meter A-35
23
Wind/Temperature
Wind information for waypoints between Initial Top of Climb and Final Top of Descent (Cruise
part of flight) contains data for:
Two Flight Levels above planned FL

One Flight Level above planned FL
Planned flight level
One Flight Level below planned FL
Two Flight Levels below planned FL
Climb block shall contain data for

FL100 / FL150 / FL200 / FL310 / FL350
Descent block shall contain data for Climb/TOC/TOD

FL390/FL350 / FL310 / FL200 / FL100 / Descent phase;
Or, Waypoint or
artificial wpt.
360 FL
Wind Direction/Speed at the
271/092
waypoint in Knots.
Outside Air Temperature.
-49
designator “-“ or “+”
A-36
24
ATC Flight plan
ITEM 13: DEPARTURE AERODROME AND TIME
For ATS Flight Plan legend, Please refer to JEPPESEEN manual

ATC section Appendix 2 – Flight Plan “Pages 458-463”
A-37
25
A332 REL
A-38
26
LIDO Operational Flight Plan explanation - Appendix 1 OFP – MSR7011 DXB/CAI
A-39
27
FLIGHT LOG
---------
MOST CRITICAL MORA 08000 FEET AT KITOT///MXSH 02 AT KITOT

--------------------------------------------------------------------
AWY FL IMT MN WIND OAT EFOB PBRN
POSITION LAT EET ETO MORA ITT TAS COMP TDV
IDENT LONG TTLT ATO DIS RDIS GS SHR TRP AFOB DIFF
--------------------------------------------------------------------
275 28.9 00.0
DUBAI INTL N2515.2 ... 24 277 P002
OMDB E05521.9 0000 ... 1364 270 .... ....
EMIRATES UIR
-OMAE N2518.6 0007 ...
E05449.9 0007 ... 31 1333
RANBI2D 163 303 .81 093/014 M05 26.9 02.0

RANBI N2519.1 0001 ... 20 305 P013 P16
RANBI E05445.0 0008 ... 5 1328 412 507 .... ....
T712 203 283 .81 092/011 M23 26.5 02.4

NABOP N2526.1 0001 ... 20 285 M009 P18
NABOP E05434.1 0009 ... 12 1316 454 506 .... ....
T712 341 274 .81 255/024 M38 24.9 04.0

TUDAX N2544.7 0010 ... 20 276 M022 P16
TUDAX E05316.9 0019 ... 72 1244 455 538 .... ....
T712 359 277 .81 244/025 M41 24.6 04.2

BALUS N2545.9 0001 ... 20 279 M021 P15
BALUS E05304.4 0020 ... 11 1232 445 538 .... ....
BAHRAIN UIR
-OBBB N2546.0 0001 ...
E05303.7 0021 ... 1 1232
N929 400 277 .81 217/026 M51 24.1 04.8

T O C N2551.1 0004 ... 20 279 474 M012 P05
E05228.0 0025 ... 33 1199 537 1 537 .... ....
N929 400 296 .82 217/026 M51 24.1 04.8

NOBLA N2551.2 0000 ... 20 298 474 M006 P05
NOBLA E05227.7 0025 ... 0 1199 468 1 536 .... ....
N929 400 296 .82 224/030 M51 23.7 05.1

BOSIX N2606.6 0004 ... 20 298 476 M009 P06
BOSIX E05155.9 0029 ... 33 1166 468 1 501 .... ....
N929 400 295 .82 225/030 M51 23.6 05.2

KANOG N2610.6 0001 ... 20 297 476 M011 P06
KANOG E05147.5 0030 ... 9 1158 464 1 488 .... ....
N929 400 292 .82 228/033 M51 23.4 05.5

TOBLI N2621.6 0003 ... 20 294 476 M014 P06
TOBLI E05123.0 0033 ... 25 1133 461 1 453 .... ....
AWY FL IMT MN WIND OAT EFOB PBRN

IDENT LONG TTLT ATO DIS RDIS GS SHR TRP AFOB ABRN
--------------------------------------------------------------------
A-40
28
N929 400 289 .82 231/035 M51 23.1 05.8
SIKTA N2632.5 0004 ... 21 291 476 M019 P06
SIKTA E05055.9 0037 ... 27 1106 455 1 422 .... ....
N929 400 266 .82 234/037 M51 22.6 06.2

RULEX N2645.5 0005 ... 22 268 476 M032 P06
RULEX E05017.8 0042 ... 37 1070 445 1 406 .... ....
N929 400 265 .82 235/038 M51 22.3 06.5

DANAG N2644.6 0003 ... 31 268 476 M034 P06
DANAG E04948.9 0045 ... 26 1044 442 1 396 .... ....
N929 400 277 .82 235/042 M51 21.2 07.7

SILNO N2640.4 0014 ... 35 280 476 M030 P06
SILNO E04757.8 0059 ... 100 944 445 0 400 .... ....
A791 400 277 .82 235/042 M51 20.9 07.9

KUTEM N2644.0 0002 ... 35 280 476 M030 P06
KUTEM E04735.4 0101 ... 20 924 449 0 379 .... ....
A791 400 277 .82 235/042 M51 20.8 08.0

LUGAL N2645.6 0002 ... 36 280 476 M030 P06
LUGAL E04725.5 0103 ... 9 915 445 0 375 .... ....
A791 400 277 .82 235/042 M51 20.2 08.7

SIBLI N2655.0 0007 ... 40 280 476 M030 P06
SIBLI E04623.6 0110 ... 56 859 445 1 414 .... ....
A791 400 276 .82 234/042 M51 19.7 09.2

ANTER N2702.2 0006 ... 41 279 476 M030 P06
ANTER E04534.0 0116 ... 45 814 438 1 412 .... ....
JEDDAH FIR
-OEJD N2702.2 0000 ...
E04534.0 0116 ... 0 814
A791 400 274 .82 234/042 M51 19.6 09.2

BOPAN N2703.2 0001 ... 41 277 476 M031 P06
BPN E04526.7 0117 ... 7 807 445 1 410 .... ....
A791 400 274 .82 235/043 M51 19.2 09.7

ALKIR N2708.0 0005 ... 41 277 476 M032 P06
ALKIR E04443.7 0122 ... 39 769 443 1 417 .... ....
A791 400 274 .82 235/044 M51 19.0 09.9

PASIT N2710.2 0003 ... 46 277 476 M034 P06
PASIT E04422.9 0125 ... 19 750 442 1 437 .... ....
A791 400 273 .82 237/046 M51 18.5 10.3

.... ....
A-41
29
NALBU N2714.3 0005 ... 54 276 476 M036 P06
NALBU E04342.1 0130 ... 37 713 440 1 469
.... ....
AWY FL IMT MN WIND OAT

EFOB PBRN
IDENT LONG TTLT ATO DIS RDIS GS SHR TRP
AFOB ABRN
-------------------------------------------------------------
A791 400 273 .82 239/046 M51
17.8 11.1
LOSEL N2721.6 0009 ... 69 276 476 M037 P06
LOSEL E04225.8 0139 ... 68 645 438 1 535
.... ....
A791 400 299 .82 241/044 M51

17.3 11.6
HAIL N2725.5 0006 ... 69 302 476 M025 P06
HIL E04141.0 0145 ... 40 605 450 1 531
.... ....
T540 400 305 .82 253/044 M51

16.2 12.7
SINGO N2818.1 0013 ... 54 309 476 M029 P05
SINGO E04004.9 0158 ... 100 505 447 2 529
.... ....
T540 400 266 .82 260/049 M45

15.3 13.5
ENABI N2906.7 0010 ... 80 270 480 M050 P12
ENABI E03855.8 0208 ... 78 427 428 2 527
.... ....
A-42
30
CAIRO FIR
-HECC N2902.1 0030 ...
E03451.6 0238 ... 214 213
UL550 360 265 .81 280/053 M45 12.8 16.1

KITOT N2902.1 0001 ... 77 269 478 M053 P11
KITOT E03450.8 0239 ... 1 212 427 2 523 .... ....
UL550 360 285 .81 280/054 M45 12.7 16.2

NUWEIBAA N2901.9 0001 ... 73 289 478 M058 P11
NWB E03440.3 0240 ... 9 203 421 524 .... ....
A791 360 285 .81 282/060 M32 11.7 17.2

T O D N2926.8 0011 ... 73 289 M057 P13
E03313.9 0251 ... 80 123 398 526 .... ....
A791 249 281 .82 291/049 M05 11.6 17.3

SISIK N2936.0 0005 ... 53 285 M034 P15
SISIK E03241.0 0256 ... 30 93 350 528 .... ....
A791 106 303 .82 251/016 P21 11.4 17.4

MENLI N2947.0 0007 ... 41 307 M001 P20
MENLI E03152.1 0303 ... 44 49 274 529 .... ....
A411 031 046 .82 112/004 P20 11.3 17.6

CAIRO N3005.5 0007 ... 36 049 M002 P08
CVO E03123.3 0310 ... 31 18 198 529 .... ....
DCT 046 11.0 17.8

CAIRO INTL N3006.7 0006 ... 049
HECA E03124.8 0316 ... 18
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
A-43
31
A-44
32
-----------------------------------------------------------------
ICAO FLIGHT PLAN
----------------
FF OMDBZPZX OMDBZAZX OMDBZTZX

EDDFDLHE
(FPL-MSR7011-IS
-A332/H-SDEGHIJPRXWYZ/SD
-OMDB1200
-N0474F400 RANBI T712 BALUS N929 SILNO A791 HIL T540
ENABI/N0479F360 UL550 NWB A791 MENLI A411 CVO DCT
-HECA0306 HEBA
-EET/OMAE0007 OBBB0021 OEJD0116 HECC0238 REG/SUGCK SEL/QRBC
OPR/MSR
DOF/100620 RMK/TCAS AGCS NAV/D1E2A1 RNP10 DAT/SV)
A-45
33

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AIRLINE BASIC

Second revised edition, 2000

Copyright  1997 and 2000 by

All rights reserved, including the right to

Captain Fakhry Tawadros First Officer Ahmed Badr

EgyptAir Training Center Engineers.

Captain Ahmed El Nadi

General Manager Flight Training

This book is produced by EgyptAir’s Flight Training Department, Cairo, Egypt

Copyright © EgyptAir Airlines, 2013 All Rights Reserved.

ABC THIRD EDITION © 2013 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

EGYPTAIR Airlines is the main subsidiary of EGYPTAIR Holding. Throughout 81

DATA WORTH KNOWING

Industry Benchmarks YR. 2009/2010 YR.2010/2011 Change YR .2011/2012 Change

“Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge”. U.S. Department of Transportation

Dickinson Dave. “Top Ten Developments in Aviation H istory”. Listosaur. 8/19/2011.

“How Did We Learn to Fly Like the Birds?”. NASA.

“Take-off considerations”. Fly Safe. 3/11/2013

“B737-500 Flight Crew Operating Manual”. The Boeing Company.

“B737-800 Flight Crew Operating Manual”. The Boeing Company.

“A318/A319/A320/A321 Flight Crew Operating Manual”. Airbus

“Basic Route Manual”. Jeppesen. The Boeing Company.

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD ATLAS

Figure 1.1 Six Panel Map

Figure 1.2 Titan

Also the following related statistics are found in Atlas:

Figure 1.3 Atlas

GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

APPLICABILIY OF USE IN A COCKPIT

 What is the name of this Island, sea or city?

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AVIATION CHARTS AND ATLAS

FIRs VS. POLITICAL BORDERS

THAILAND AND CAMBODIA

BAHRAIN AND SAUDI ARABIA

BELIEFS & TRADITION

Also for the benefit of aviation industry several

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION

Figure 2.1 ICAO

Telephone: +20 2 2267 4840

Fax: +20 2 2267 4843

INTERNATIONAL AIRLINE TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION

Figure 2.2 IATA

This refers to passenger/cargo agents and equipment manufacturers, IATA acts as a

THE GENERAL PUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF AIRLINES PILOT

Figure 2.3 IFALPA

Telephone: +44 1932 571711

Fax: +44 1932 570920

EGYPTIAN CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY (ECAA)

Figure 2.4 ECAA

NATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL AUTHORITY

Figure 2.5 National Meteorological Authority

- Temperature and humidity observation, recording and the broadcasting.

Telephone: 2849860 / 2849859

Fax: 2849857 // E-mail: ma@idsc.gov.eg

EGYPTIAN AIRLINE PILOT`S ASSOCIATION (EGALPA)

Figure 2.6 EGALPA

(See IFALPA organizational chart)

Telephone/Fax: (202) 2660232

EGYPTIAN CIVILIAN PILOT SYNDICATE (EGYCPS)

Figure 2.7 EGYCPS

 Organize member’s efforts towards the development of the profession, and to

 Cooperation with internal and external organizations, the General Union of

 employed. Seeking employment opportunities for members of the syndicate both