Chap 01 Basic Concepts

Outline

• Introduction
• System Units
• Charge and Current
• Voltage
• Power and Energy
• Circuit Elements

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 2

 Introduction
• Electrical Engineering (defined broadly to include
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering) is
concerned with systems that produce, transmit, and
measure electric signals.
• Examples of such systems: Communication systems,
Computer systems, Control systems, Power systems,
and Signal-processing systems.
• All branches of Electrical Engineering have electric
circuits in common.
• Definition of an electric circuit
An interconnection of electrical elements.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 3

 A Simple Electric Circuit

Connecting wires
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 4
 A Complicated Circuit:
Radio Receiver

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 5

 System of Units
, and one derived unit

Charge coulomb C
SI: International System of Units

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 6

 Units in Circuit

Term Unit Symbol

Charge Coulomb C
Current Ampere A
Voltage Volt V
Power Watt W
Energy Joule J
Resistance Ohm Ω
Capacitance Farad F
Inductance Henry H

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 7

 Charge

• The concept of electric charge is the basis for

describing all electrical phenomena.
• Definition: Charge is an electrical property of
the atomic particles of which matter consists,
measured in coulombs (C).
• The charge e of an electron is negative with
magnitude being 1.602×10-19C.
• In 1 C charge, there are 6.24×1018 electrons.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 8

 Charge (cont.)

• Characteristics of electric charge

– It is bipolar.
– It exists in discrete quantities.
– Electrical effects are attributed to both the
separation of charge and charges in motion.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 9

 Charge (cont.)

• Law of conservation of charge: Charge can

neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred.
• The separation of charge creates an electric
force or voltage (v).
• The motion of charge creates an electric fluid
or current (i).

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 10

 Current
Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 11

 Current (cont.)
• Definition: Electric current is the time rate of
change of charge, measured in amperes (A) and
expressed as
i = current in amperes (A),
dq
i q = charge in coulombs (C)
dt t = time in seconds (s)
• Note that, 1 ampere=1 coulomb/second (1A = 1C/s)
• The charge transferred between time t1 and t2 is
t2
Q   idt
t1

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 12

 Current (cont.)

• Although current is made up of discrete

moving electrons, we consider i to be a
continuous variable as there are so many of
them.
• Conventionally, the current is always assumed
to be the rate of flow of positive charge.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 13

 Current (cont.)

• A direct current (dc): A current that remains

constant with time.
• An alternating current (ac): A current that
varies sinusoidally with time.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 14

 Andre-Maria Ampere (1775-1836)

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 15

 Two Common Types of Current

Two Common types of current:

(a) Direct current (dc).
(b) Alternating current (ac).

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 16

 Conventional Current Flow
Conventional current flow:
(a) Positive current flow.
(b) Negative current flow.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 17

 Example 1.1

• How much charge is represented by 4,600

electrons?

– Each electron has -1.602×10-19 C.

– 4600 electrons will have

-1.602×10-19 × 4600 = -7.369×10-16 C

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 18

 Example 1.2

• The total charge entering a terminal is

q=5tsin4πt mC. Calculate the current at t=0.5 s.

q  5t sin 4 t mC
dq d
i  (5t sin 4 t ) mC/s
dt dt
 (5sin 4 t  20 t cos 4 t ) mA
At t  0.5 s,
i  5sin 2  10 cos 2  0  10  31.41 mA
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 19
 Example 1.3

• What is the total charge entering a terminal

between t=1 s and t=2 s if the current passing
the terminal is i=(3t2-t) A?

t2 2 2
Q   idt   idt   (3t  t )dt2
t1 t 1 1
2
 3 t  2
 1
  t    (8  2)   1    5.5 C
 2 1  2

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 20

 Voltage

• Definition: Voltage is the energy required to

move a unit charge through an element,
measured in volts (V).
• The voltage between two points a and b in an
electric circuit is expressed as
dw v = voltage in volts (V),
vab  w = energy in joules (J)
dq q = charge in coulombs (C)
• Note: Net charge (sum of positive and negative
charges) is always zero for any element in a circuit.
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 21
 Voltage (cont.)

• A dc voltage is a voltage that remains constant

with time (as produced by a battery).
• An ac voltage is a voltage that varies
sinusoidally with time (as produced by a
generator).

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 22

 Polarity of Voltage
Polarity of voltage vab.

vab  vba

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 23

 Equivalent Representations of
the Same Voltage
Two equivalent representations of the same voltage vab:
(a) point a is 9 V above point b,
(b) Point b is -9 V above point a.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 24

 Alessandro Antonio Volta
(1745-1827)

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 25

 Power and Energy

• Often useful to express output of a system in

terms of power or energy when electrical
energy is converted into e.g. heat or
mechanical work.
• All practical devices have limitations on the
amount of power they can handle.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 26

 Definition of Power

• Definition: Power is the time rate of

expending or absorbing energy, expressed as:

dw p = power in watts (W),

p w = energy in joules (J)
dt t = time in seconds (s)

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 27

 Definition of Power (cont.)

• Power is associated with the flow of charge:

follows from the definition of voltage and
current

dw dw dq
p    vi
dt dq dt
p = power in watts (W),
v = voltage in volts (V)
i = current in amperes (A)

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 28

 Reference Polarity and Reference
Direction
• Polarity reference for voltage (v)
• Reference direction for current (i)
• Assignment of reference polarity for v and
reference direction for i is entirely arbitrary or
random.
• The trick is to use the correct sign for v and i in
the relevant equations.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 29

 Passive Sign Convention
• Definition: Whenever the reference direction for the
current in an element is in the direction of the
reference voltage drop across the element, use a
positive sign in any expression that relates the voltage
to the current. Otherwise, use a negative sign.

Absorbing power Supplying power

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 30

 Example of Absorbing Power
Two cases of an element with an absorbing power of 12 W:
(a) P = 4×3 = 12 W, (b) p = 4×3 = 12 W.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 31

Power and Passive Sign Convention

• Use a positive (+) sign if current is in direction

of voltage drop.
– For example, p=vi, if the power is positive (p>0),
power is being delivered to the circuit inside the
box (e.g. heater).
• Use a negative (-) sign if current not in
direction of voltage drop.
– For example, p=-vi, if the power is negative (p<0),
power is being extracted from the circuit inside the
box (e.g. battery).

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 32

 Example of Supplying Power
Two cases of an element with a supplying power of 12 W:
(a) P = －4×3 = －12 W, (b) p =－4×3 = －12 W.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 33

Law of Conservation of Energy
• Law of conservation of energy: The total
amount of energy in an isolated system
remains constant over time (is said to be
conserved over time).
• The algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any
time instant, must be zero.

p0
• Total power supplied to a circuit must balance
the total power absorbed.
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 34
 Definition of Energy

• Definition of energy: Energy is the capacity

to do work, measured in joules (J).
• The energy absorbed or supplied by an
element from time t0 to t is
t t
w   pdt   vidt
t0 t0

• The electric power utility companies measures

energy in watt-hours (Wh).
1Wh = 3600J
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 35
 1884 Exhibition

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 36

 Ideal Basic Circuit Element

• Attributes:
– Has only 2 terminals.
– Is described mathematically in terms of i and/or v.
– Cannot be subdivided into other elements.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 37

 Circuit Elements

• There are 5 ideal basic circuit elements:

– Voltage sources
– Current sources
– Resistors (R)
– Capacitors (C)
– Inductors (L)

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 38

Passive and Active Circuit Elements
• Passive Circuit Elements cannot generate
electric energy.
– Resistors (R) require only algebraic equations.
– Capacitors (C) and inductors (L) require the
solution of integral and differential equations and
will be dealt in Chapter 6.
• Active Circuit Elements can generate electric
energy.
– Independent/Dependent voltage sources.
– Independent/Dependent current sources.
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 39
 Voltage and Current Sources

• Definition: An electric source is a device that

can convert nonelectric energy to electric
energy and vice versa.
• Examples: A discharging battery converts
chemical energy to electrical energy. Vice
versa for a battery being charged.
• A generator converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 40

Voltage and Current Sources (cont.)

• A motor converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy.
• Note: These sources can either deliver or
absorb electric power, generally either
maintaining voltage or current.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 41

 Ideal Sources

• An ideal voltage source is a circuit element

that maintains a prescribed voltage across its
terminals regardless of the current flowing in
those terminals.
• An ideal current source is a circuit element
that maintains a prescribed current through its
terminals regardless of the voltage across those
terminals.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 42

 Independent and Dependent
Sources
• An independent source establishes a voltage
or current in a circuit without relying on
voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit.
• A dependent (or controlled) source
establishes a voltage or current whose value
depends on the value of a voltage or current
elsewhere in the circuit.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 43

Symbols for Independent Sources
Independent voltage sources. Independent current source.
(a) used for constant or time-varying voltage,
(b) used for constant voltage (dc).

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 44

 Symbols for Dependent Sources

(a) Dependent voltage source, (b) Dependent current source.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 45

 Ideal Dependent Sources

• Examples of ideal dependent sources

– Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
– Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
– Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
– Current-controlled current source (CCCS)

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 46

 An Example of CCVS
The source on the right-hand side is a current-controlled
voltage source.

Chap 01 Basic Concepts 47

 Example 1.7
• Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by
each element.

p1  20( 5)  100 W

p2  12(5)  60 W
p3  8(6)  48 W
p4  8( 0.2 I )  8( 0.2  5)  8 W
p1  p2  p3  p4  100  60  48  8  0
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 48
 Appendix
Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is the constant flow of electric charge.
This is typically in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through
semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams.
In direct current, the electric charges flow in the same direction, distinguishing it
from alternating current (AC).
Various definitions
Within electrical engineering, the term DC is a synonym for "constant". For
example, the voltage across a DC voltage source is constant as is the current
through a DC current source. The DC solution of an electric circuit is the solution
where all voltages and currents are constant. It can be shown that any voltage or
current waveform can be decomposed into a sum of a DC component and a time-
varying component. The DC component is defined to be the average value of the
voltage or current over all time. The average value of the time-varying component
is zero.
Although DC stands for "Direct Current", DC sometimes refers to "constant
polarity." With this definition, DC voltages can vary in time, such as the raw output
of a rectifier or the fluctuating voice signal on a telephone line.
Some forms of DC (such as that produced by a voltage regulator) have almost no
variations in voltage, but may still have variations in output power and current.
Chap 01 Basic Concepts 49