Functional equations

Bojan Joveski
Private Yahya Kemal College
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia

April 5, 2009
Contents

0.1 Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1 Basic methods for solving functional equations 4

2 Problems with Solutions 6

2.1 Some introductory problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 The Cauchy functional equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Proof of Cauchy Equation over rationals . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Functional Equations solved by Cauchy Equation . . . . . 10
2.3 Getting partials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1
0.1 Foreword
A functional equation is an equation whose variables are ranging over functions.
Hence, we are seeking all possible functions satisfying the equation. Functional
equations are part of Algebra, and they are often part of mathematical compe-
titions.
This booklet consist of 2 sections: The first one is expaining the basic meth-
ods for solving functional equations, while the second one contains few problems
with solutions. Also, it the second section, there are several subsections which
explain several types of functional equations.

Definitions
• function - A function is a rule (algorithm) that maps every element of the
Domain to exactly one element in the Range.
• Injectivity (a.k.a one-to-one ) - Let f be a function whose domain is a set
A. The function f is injective when for all a and b in A, if f (a) = f (b),
then a = b; (i.e. f (a) = f (b) implies a = b.)
• Surjectivity - (a.k.a onto) - function f is said to be surjective, if its values
span its whole range; i.e. for ∀y ∈ Range, ∃x such that f (x) = y .
• Bijectivity - A function if bijective if it is injective and surjective at the
same time.
• Even function - A function is said to be even if for ∀x ∈ Domain,
f (−x) = f (x).
• Odd function - A function is said to be odd if for ∀x ∈ Domain,
f (−x) = −f (x).
• Additivity - A function is said to be aditive if for ∀x, y ∈ Domain,
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y).
• Multiplicativity - A function is said to be multiplicative if for ∀x, y ∈
Domain f (x · y) = f (x) · f (y).
• Increasing function

List of symbols and notations

• N the set of natural numbers
• N0 the union of the set of natural numbers and number 0
• Z the set of integer numbers
• Q the set of rational numbers
• R the set of real numbers

2
• R+ the set of positive real numbers
• R− the set of negative real numbers
• R∗ the set of real numbers, excluding number 0

• f ◦ g(x) = f (g(x))
• f (n) (x) = f (f (...f (x)...))
| {z }
ntimes

• f : A → B - the domain of function f is A and the range is B

• x := y replace x by y

3
Chapter 1

Basic methods for solving

functional equations

Substituting the values for variables.

The most common first attempt is to substitute the unknowns with some con-
stants (eg. 0 or 1), after that (if possible) some expressions which will make
some part of the equation to become constant. For example if f (x + y) appears
in the equations and if we have found f (0) then we plug y = −x. Substitutions
become less obvious as the difficulty of the problems increases.

Mathematical induction
This method relies on using the value f (1) to find all f (n) for n ∈ N. After
that we find find f ( n1 ) and f ( m
n ) for rationals. This method is used in problems
where the function is defined on Q (together with evenness, oddness) and is very
useful, especially with easier problems. More about this on the section ”Cauchy
equation”.

Injectivity/surjectivity
Investigating for injectivity or surjectivity of functions involved in the equaiton.
In many of the problems these facts are not dificult to establish and can be of
great importance.

Monotonicity and Continuity

Investigating the monotonicity and continuity of a function. Continuity is usu-
ally given as additional condition and as the monotonicity it usually serves for
reducing the problem to Cauchys equation. If this is not the case, the problem
is on the other side of dificulty line.

4
Contradiction
Assuming that the function at some point is greater or smaller then the value
of the function for which we want to prove that is the solution. Most often
it is used as continuation of the method of mathematical induction and in the
problems in which the range is bounded from either side.

Substituting the function

This method is often used to simplify the given equation and is seldom of crucial
importance.

5
Chapter 2

Problems with Solutions

2.1 Some introductory problems

2.1.1 Problems
1. Find all functions f : R → R such that f (3x + 2) = 5x
2x+5
2. Find all functions f : R → R such that f ( 3x−6 ) = 2x

3. Find all functions f : R∗ → R such that f (x) + 2f ( x1 ) = x

4. Find all functions f : R → R such that x2 f (x) + f (1 − x) = 2x

5. Find all functions f : R → R such that f 2 (x) + f (x)f (y) = x2 + xy
6. Find all functions f : R → R such that f 2 (x + y) = f 2 (x) + f 2 (y)

2.1.2 Solutions
1. Find all functions f : R → R such that f (3x + 2) = 5x
SOLUTION:
• In this kind of exercises, the main idea is to replace x by some value
such that 3x + 2 will become x. The easiest way to do this is to solve
the equation 3x + 2 = a for x and then replace x in (0). Namely if
we put x = a−23 in (0) we have:

a−2 a−2
f (3 + 2) = 5
3 3
5a−10
f (a) = 3

5a−10
• So, f (a) = 3 ∀a ∈ R

6
 2x+5
2. Find all functions f : R → R such that f ( 3x−6 ) = 2x
SOLUTION:
2x+5 6a+5
• Solving 3x−6 = a for x gives x = 3a−2 Substituting in (0) we have

6a + 5
f (a) = 2 ·
3a − 2
12x+10
• After verifying the solution, we get that f (x) = 3x−2 is the only
solution.

3. Find all functions f : R∗ → R such that f (x) + 2f ( x1 ) = x

SOLUTION:
• The idea in this kind of questions is to get rid of the f ( x1 ). We can
do that by substituting x in order to make f ( x1 ) in the form of f (x).
Then we will get few equations and after solving the system, we can
easily get f (x) . So, plugging x = x1 gives:

1 1 1
f ( ) + 2f ( 1 ) =
x x
x

1 1
f ( ) + 2f (x) =
x x
• So, now the last equality and the first make a system of two equations
with two unknowns (f (x) and f ( x1 )). Multiplying the last equation
by 2 and subtracting from(0), we get:
2
−3f (x) = x −
x
2 x
f (x) = 3x − 3

• After verifying in (0), we see that our solution is O.K.

4. Find all functions f : R → R such that x2 f (x) + f (1 − x) = 2x
SOLUTION:
• Plugging x = 1 − x gives

(1 − x)2 f (1 − x) + f (x) = 2(1 − x)

(x2 − 2x + 1)f (1 − x) + f (x) = −2x + 2

• Multiplying (0) by −(x2 − 2x + 1) and subtracting it from the last

equation, we get:

f (x) − x2 (x2 − 2x + 1)f (x) = −2x + 2 − (x2 − 2x + 1)2x

7
 2x3 +2x2 −2
f (x) = x4 −2x3 +x2 −1

• All we have to do now, is to verify the solution in (0)

5. Find all functions f : R → R such that f 2 (x) + f (x)f (y) = x2 + xy
SOLUTION:
• In this kind of questions, when we have more than one unknown, we
can substitute each of the unknowns by any reals in order to get some
properties and solve the function.
• So, Plugging x = y = 1 in (0) gives: 2f 2 (1) = 2 , so f (1) = 1 or
f (1) = −1
• Plugging x = 1 in (0) gives: 1 + f (1)f (y) = 1 + y
y
f (y) =
f (1)

So f (y) = y or f (y) = −y .
• After verifying the solutions in (0), we see that both f (x) = x and
f (x) = −x are solutions.
6. Find all functions f : R → R such that f 2 (x + y) = f 2 (x) + f 2 (y)
SOLUTION:

• Plugging x = y = 0 in (0) gives f 2 (0) = 2f 2 (0), i.e f (0) = 0

• Plugging y = −x in (0) gives

f 2 (x − x) = f 2 (x) + f 2 (−x)

f 2 (0) = f 2 (x) + f 2 (−x)

0 = f 2 (x) + f 2 (−x)
• Since the sum of two squares is equal to zero iff both of the squares
are equal to zero, we have that: f 2 (x) = 0, i.e.
f (x) = 0

• Verifying f (x) = 0 in (0) tells us that our solution is O.K.

2.2 The Cauchy functional equation

1
The famous Cauchy functional equation is

f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) (2.1)

1 Augustin Louis Cauchy (21 August 1789 23 May 1857), a French mathematician

8
2.2.1 Proof of Cauchy Equation over rationals
This funciton is easy to prove if f : Q → Q. The soluton is f (x) = f (1)·x, where
f (1) is a constant. However, if we want to expand the function to f : R → R,
we can get infinitely many piecewise solutions besides f (x) = f (1)x. But if
we have another condition, like continuity or monotonicity, we can prove that
f (x) = f (1)x for ∀x ∈ R . Before we prove Cauchy when f : Q → Q, let analyze
the function.
• If in (2.1) we put x = y = 0 we get f (0 + 0) = f (0) + f (0), i.e f (0) = 0
• If in (2.1) we replace y by −x, we get: f (x − x) = f (x) + f (−x),
f (−x) = −f (x) ,this means that f is odd
• In (2.1) replace y by x, we get: f (x + x) = f (x) + f (x) = 2f (x), i.e.

f (2x) = 2f (x)

In (2.1) y := 2x, we get: f (x + 2x) = f (x) + f (2x) = f (x) + 2f (x) = 3f (x)

,i.e.
f (3x) = 3f (x)
We can notice that f (nx) = nf (x). This can be proven by induction.
We have that the assumption is true for n = 1, 2. Now assume that for
n = k, f (kx) = kf (x), k ∈ N, x ∈ Q
To prove for n = k + 1, in (2.1) y := nx we get:

f (x + kx) = f (kx) + f (x) = kf (x) + f (x) = (k + 1)f (x)

f ((k + 1)x) = (k + 1)f (x)

Thus the induction is complete, and

f (nx) = nf (x) , ∀n ∈ N, x ∈ Q (2.2)

We will use (2.2) in order to prove Cauchy over rationals.

• In (2.2) x := 1, we get f (n) = nf (1) ,∀n ∈ N
1
• In (2.2) x := n, we get f (n · n1 ) = nf ( n1 ) i.e.

f ( n1 ) = 1
n f (1)

1 1 1 n
• In (2.2) x := m, we get f (n · m) = nf ( m )= m f (1) i.e.

f (x) = xf (1) , ∀x ∈ Q+

• All we have to do now is to expand the solution to Q− . We know that f

is odd, so
f (−x) = −f (x) = −xf (1)

9
 • Now we have to verify our solution. By plugging f (x) = xf (1) into (2.1)
we get
LHS = (x + y)f (1) = xf (1) + yf (1) = RHS

So the solution is f (x) = xf (1) ∀x ∈ Q, where f (1) is a given

number.

2.2.2 Functional Equations solved by Cauchy Equation

1. Find all functions f : Q → Q such that f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) + 2xy
SOLUTION:

• By analyzing the problem, we can notice that f (x) = x2 is a solution.

So we can define function g(x) such that f (x) = x2 + g(x)
If we use the previous substutution in (0), we will have:

(x + y)2 + g(x + y) = x2 + g(x) + y 2 + g(y) + 2xy

g(x + y) = g(x) + g(y)

• Now we can notice that g is in fact the Cauchy functional equation,
and its solution is g(x) = xg(1)
So, the solution for f is
f (x) = x2 + xg(1) , where g(1) is a given number.

2. Find all functions f : Q → Q such that f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) + xy(x + y)

SOLUTION:
3
• By analyzing the problem, we can notice that f (x) = x3 is a solution.
3
So we can define function g(x) such that f (x) = x3 + g(x)
If we use the previous substutution in (0), we will have:

(x + y)3 x3 y3
+ g(x + y) = + g(x) + + g(y) + xy(x + y)
3 3 3
g(x + y) = g(x) + g(y)
• Now we can notice that g is in fact the Cauchy functional equation,
and its solution is g(x) = xg(1)
So, the solution for f is f (x) = x3
3 + xg(1) , where g(1) is a given
number.

3. Find all functions f : Q → Q such that f (x3 + y 3 ) = x2 f (x) + yf (y 2 )

SOLUTION:
• In (0) y = 0 gives: f (x3 ) = x2 f (x)

10
 • In (0) x = 0 gives: f (y 3 ) = yf (y 2 )
• Substituting the last two equatilies into (0) we get:

f (x3 + y 3 ) = f (x3 ) + (y 3 )
√ √
• If we put a = 3 x, b = 3 y (a and b span all real numbers2 , the last
equation becomes:

f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b)

which is the Cauchy functional equation. Its solution is

f (a) = af (1) ∀a ∈ Q, where f (1) is a given number.

2.3 Getting partials

In a competition every point counts. That’s why we have to learn how to get
some partial points, even if we don’t know the topic well or the problem proves
to be very difficult. Very often, points are awarded for finding the solutions,
finding the zero of the function, proving that the function is even, odd, injec-
tive, surjective, additive, multiplicative... Another nice thing about functional
equations is the fact that we can restrict the domain of the function, hence
simplifying the problem (very often, especially if we have additivity, it is much
easier to prove f : Q → Q than f : R → R).

2 We have to be very careful when making this kind of substitution, since we may not

always get solutions for x,y; i.e. the new variables may not cover the whole domain (eg. If
a = x2 , then for a < 0, x ∈
/ R, i.e. a doesn’t span the whole domain)

11
Bibliography

[1] Arsenovic Milos, Vladimir Dragovic - Funkcionalne jednacine,

Beograd,1999
[2] Vladimir Baltic - Funkcionalne Jednacine - Dodatna u Matematickoj Gim-
naziji , Beograd
[3] Marko Radovanovic - Functional Equations , The IMO Compendium Group

[4] Definitions http://mathworld.wolfram.com/

[5] Mathematical Excalibur Volume 8, Number 1 February 2003 March 2003

12