INCLINED BEDDING

(2A)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term fold is used in geology when one or a stack of originally flat and planar
surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of plastic deformation.
Sedimentary folds are those due to slumping of sedimentary material before it is lithified.
Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain sized folds. They occur
singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes, on a variety of
scales.

Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be
formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a
propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the
effects of a high-level igneous intrusion.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
To plot ground profile and rock formations from geological map – inclined beddings.

3.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to plot subsurface profile.
b) Students should able to understand the geological structure in subsurface
c) Students should able to understand a history of the geological area.
4.0 THEORY
A geological map is one, which shows in the first place, the occurrence and
distribution of the rocks at the surface of the ground. Conventional sign may show certain facts
of observation about them. The geological map allows the geological structure of the country to
be inferred.

Beds of rocks are bounded by bedding surfaces, which may be horizontal, tilted or
bent in any form or direction. A series of beds which have been laid down regularly one on the
other, and which may be treated as a whole, form a conformable series. It follows that the lower
beds are the older. In such a series of bedding surfaces are parallel. Each bedding surface is
usually common to two beds of rock, being the top of one and the bottom of the one next above.
In the simplest case, these surfaces are planes: bedding planes.
5.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

i. Geological map (Appendix A)

ii. Graph Paper

iii. 30cm ruler

6.0 PROCEDURE

1. Plot the cross-section with the horizontal and vertical scales accordingly to the scale
of the geological map on a piece of graph paper or blank sheet. Refer Figure 1.1. The
vertical scale is normally exaggerated to improve visibility of the profile.
2. Draw a line to join the line of cross-section on the map, says A - B.
3. Using a blank piece of paper, mark the points of intersection accordingly between the
lines with the contours respective to its heights.
4. Transfer the points to the cross-section profile respective to the heights of the
contours.
5. Join the points to form the profile of the ground elevation.

7.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

 Highlights the rock boundary to focus for determination of strike line.

 Select two pints within the marked boundary of similar heights.
 Draw the line between the two points to indicate the first strike line. Its value
corresponding to two value of the contour.
 Select another point (of ascending @ descending contour value).
 Draw a line that touches the parallel the select point to the first strike line.
 Measure the distance (say, d1) cut at right angles to the parallel lines.
 Determine the angle of dip of the fold.
 Similarly, repeat similar procedure to the other wings of the fold.
 Identify the thickness of the outcrop.
8.0 QUESTIONS
Explain types of fold (with the aid of diagram) and discuss how this structure
occurred.

Type of fold :

Monocline
Monoclines may be formed in several different ways:

i. By differential compaction over an underlying structure, particularly a large fault

at the edge of a basin due to the greater compatibility of the basin fill, the amplitude of
the fold will die out gradually upwards.
ii. By mild reactivation of an earlier extensional fault during a phase of inversion
causing folding in the overlying sequence.
iii. As a form of fault propagation fold during upward propagation of an extensional
fault in basement into an overlying cover sequence.
iv. As a form of fault propagation fold during upward propagation of a reverse fault
in basement into an overlying cover sequence.
Anticline

In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and

has its oldest beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or crest
is the location where the curvature is greatest, and the limbs are the sides of the fold that
dip away from the hinge. Anticlines can be recognized and differentiated from antiforms
by a sequence of rock layers that become progressively older toward the center of the
fold. Therefore, if age relationships between various rock strata are unknown, the term
antiform should be used.

The progressing age of the rock strata towards the core and uplifted center, are the
trademark indications for evidence of anticlines on a geologic map. These formations
occur because anticlinal ridges typically develop above thrust faults during crustal
deformations. The uplifted core of the fold causes compression of strata that
preferentially erodes to a deeper stratigraphic level relative to the topographically lower
flanks. Motion along the fault including both shortening and extension of tectonic plates,
usually also deforms strata near the fault. This can result in an asymmetrical or
overturned fold
Syncline
In structural geology, a syncline is a fold, with younger layers closer to the center
of the structure. A synclinorium is a large syncline with superimposed smaller folds.
Synclines are typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (ex. A trough); but
synclines that point upwards can be found when strata have been overturned and folded.
On a geologic map, synclines are recognized by a sequence of rock layers that grow
progressively younger, followed by the youngest layer at the fold's center or hinge, and
by a reverse sequence of the same rock layers on the opposite side of the hinge. If the
fold pattern is circular or elongate circular the structure is a basin. A notable syncline is
Wyoming's Powder River Basin. Folds typically form during crustal deformation as the
result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building.
Dome
In structural geology, a dome is a deformational feature consisting of
symmetrically-dipping anticlines; their general outline on a geologic map is circular or
oval. The strata in a dome are upward in the center; if the top of a dome is eroded off, the
result will be a series of concentric strata that grow progressively older from the outside-
in, with the oldest rocks exposed at the center.
Many geologic domes are too large to be appreciated from the surface, and are
apparent only in maps. Localized domes may be formed when magma forms a shallow
intrusion warping the overlying strata. Salt domes are formed above a diapiric intrusion
of low density evaporite rocks.
Basin
A structural basin is a large-scale structural formation of rock strata formed by
tectonic warping of previously flat lying strata. Structural basins are geological
depressions, and are the inverse of domes. Some elongated structural basins are also
known as synclines. Structural basins may also be sedimentary basins, which are
aggregations of sediment that filled up a depression or accumulated in an area; however,
many structural basins were formed by tectonic events long after the sedimentary layers
were deposited.

Basins appear on a geologic map as roughly circular or elliptical, with concentric

layers. Because the strata dip toward the center, the exposed strata in a basin are
progressively younger from outside-in, with the youngest rocks in the center. Basins are
often large in areal extent, often hundreds of kilometers across. Structural basins are
often important sources of coal, petroleum, and groundwater.
9.0 CONCLUSION

The map also showed layer anticlines and synclines where upward fold is an anticline and
downward is syncline. Anticline is an up-arched or convex upward fold with oldest rock layers in its
core, whereas a syncline is down-arched or concave upward fold in which the youngest rock layer in its
core. Curved upward from origin structure when we saw from x – y cross section.

Therefore, based on the ground profile and rock formations, there is occurring of inclined
bedding which bent in any from and direction. The bedding of shale forming a shape seems like a cane.
On the shale, there is bedding of sandstone (represented by yellow colour). Sandstone is the youngest
among three of these rocks. Clay stone is the oldest among the rocks because it is located and covering
the lowest area or position of the contour.
Boundary Dip Direction Strike Dip Angle Conversion

CB

BA

AB

BC

CB