SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 1999-01-0200

The Influence of Injection Parameters on

Diesel Spray Characteristics
Jean Arrègle, José V. Pastor and Santiago Ruiz
CMT. Departamento de Máquinas y Motores Térmicos,
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia

Reprinted From: Technology for Diesel Fuel Injection and Sprays

(SP-1415)

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The Influence of Injection Parameters
on Diesel Spray Characteristics
Jean Arrègle, José V. Pastor and Santiago Ruiz
Copyright © 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
This paper has the objective of characterising the macro
and microscopic behaviour of Diesel sprays generated by
a common-rail system and quantifying the influence of
injection parameters and boundary conditions through a
broad experimental study. The main purpose of this
research is to validate and extend the different correla-
tions available in the literature to the case of sprays gen-
erated by common-rail systems, i.e. at high injection
pressures with small nozzle holes. The sprays are char-
acterised in an environment which simulates the in-cylin-
der air density existing in the real engine when the
injection starts. However, it should be pointed out that
isothermal conditions at room temperature are consid-
ered and very little evaporation occurs. A wide parametric
study has generated evidence needed to quantify the
influence of the common-rail pressure, nozzle hole diam-
eter and environment gas density on the spray tip pene-
tration, spray cone angle and geometric volume of the
spray, as well as the spatial and temporal evolution of
drop size distribution. A theoretical analysis is made, and
the results obtained are compared with the experiments
of both this study and with those of the bibliography.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the fuel injection process in a Diesel engine is
the preparation of a fuel-air mixture to achieve a clean
and efficient combustion process. This process is influ-
enced by both spray behaviour and air movement in the
combustion chamber. The spray characteristics are
clearly influenced by several parameters which can be
classified into two groups:
• Parameters of the Diesel injection system.
• Parameters of the environment where the spray is
injected.
This paper deals with the problem of quantifying and pre-
dicting the spray behaviour as a function of the parame-
ters governing the injection process. Parameters studied
1
1999-01-0200
CMT. Departamento de Máquinas y Motores Térmicos,
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
were environment gas density as a representative
parameter external to the system, and nozzle hole diam-
eter and injection pressure as influential system parame-
ters. Results obtained are divided into two groups:
• Global spray (macroscopic) features: spray tip pene-
tration, cone angle and air entrained by the spray.
• Internal dynamics of the spray (microscopic fea-
tures): velocities and diameters distributions.
BACKGROUND
Several experimental and theoretical works have been
performed on free gaseous and Diesel sprays. Most of
them conclude with empirical or semiempirical laws to
predict the penetration and the spray cone angle as a
function of several parameters. The experimental results
of these works are quite diverse (and sometimes contra-
dictory) depending on the experiments themselves and
the authors. In this way the work of Hay and Jones [2]
includes a critical revision on the correlations available in
the literature proposed for Diesel sprays and concludes
that the best ones are those proposed by Dent [1] and
Wakuri et al. [16]. Dent’s correlation is based on the the-
ory of the gaseous injection, whilst Wakuri proposes a
penetration law which depends on the spray cone angle
cone. Later, Hiroyasu and Arai [4] proposed a different
penetration law in two steps: before and after the break-
up time.
All these experimental correlations involve the same
parameters ( ∆P , φo, ρa , t ) with more or less the same
weights. Therefore, it seems clear that for a given nozzle
hole, the parameters with more influence upon the spray
penetration are the environment gas density, the injection
pressure (or initial velocity of the spray) and the time from
the start of injection, due to the unsteadiness of the phe-
nomenon.
Such expressions can be obtained on the basis of dimen-
sional analysis with the following variables:
• Environment gas density ( ρa ).
 • Time ( t ) from the start of injection. hardware and software. The flash is located in front of the
• Instantaneous momentum flux ( M & ) through the camera with a set of diffusers to ensure homogeneous
0
hole. This parameter brings together the injection illumination. The system is synchronised with the com-
pressure and the nozzle diameter effects. mon-rail by means of a TTL external signal.
& is given by:
For a simple rectangular injection rate, M 0 PHASE DOPPLER ANEMOMETRY – The emitting
optics of the PDA system is a modular 1-component TSI
π system with 40 MHz Bragg cell and a fibre optics LDA
& =m
M & f ⋅U0 = ρ f ⋅ ⋅ φ0 ⋅ U 0
2 2
0
4 probe, operating with a 4W water cooled Ar+ laser
(1)
source. Collecting optics and electronics are those of a
Applying the π Vashy-Buckingham theorem: standard Dantec 1-component system. PDA measure-
ments were performed without temporal gating. Similarly
−1/ 4 & 1/ 4 ⋅ t 1/ 2
S (t ) ∝ ρa ⋅M 0
to the image acquisition system, an electronic pulse gen-
(2)
erated by the common-rail system was used as a trigger
& given by (1), applying
Introducing the expression of M for the system. The PDA optics were mounted vertically
0
the Bernouilli equation through the nozzle hole and on on an X-Y-Z table which permits measurement at any
the assumption of no cavitation, the spray tip penetration point in the spray.
is given by:
INJECTION SYSTEM – A non-conventional common-rail
−1/ 4
ρa ⋅ φ0
1/ 4 1/ 2 1/ 2
S (t ) ∝ ⋅ ∆P ⋅t system was used to generate Diesel sprays. It consists of
(3) a research system designed to work in the injection rig
Hence, the dependencies found are those proposed by and includes a high pressure volumetric pump driven by
Hiroyasu [4], Wakuri [16] and Dent [1] (in this last case a motor. Appropriate software to govern the electronic
without the fuel evaporation term). system is used.
The nozzles used are of the DLLA mini-sac type by
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES Bosch with a wall thickness of 1 mm but only 1 hole in the
same position as one of the orifices in the standard 5-
The sprays are characterised in an environment which hole nozzle.
simulates the in-cylinder air density existing in the real
engine when the injection starts. However, it should be
pointed out that isothermal conditions are considered
and no evaporation is present.

HIGH DENSITY GAS INJECTION RIG – The test rig was

developed trying to achieve three main objectives: To
reproduce the same air density of the engine at the end
of compression, to allow the observation and optical
access compatible with PDA measurements, and to per-
mit the use of Diesel injection systems.
Among the different gases available, SF 6 was chosen
Figure 1. Schematic drawing (non scale model) of
because of its high molecular weight and its viscosity,
nozzles tested.
very similar to that of the air. At room temperature, SF 6
allows experiments at a density of 30 kg/m3 with a rela-
tively low pressure of less than 0.5 MPa. In addition, SF6 EXPERIMENTAL MATRIX
is an inert gas, avoiding corrosive effects on the rig, and
its optical properties are very similar to those of air. A 2 The values of the different test parameters considered in
m/s laminar flow of pressurised gas parallel to the spray this work for spray visualisation are summarised in the
axis ensures the scavenging of the fuel between 2 con- following table:
secutive injection shots, without disturbing the spray
behaviour. Details about the high density gas injection rig Table 1. Experimental conditions.
are given in references [10] [5] and [6].
tin [ms] φ 0 [mm] ρa [kg/m3] Pin [MPa]
IMAGE ACQUISITION SYSTEM – For the acquisition of 0.11 10/20/30 30/50/70/90/110
spray images, the “AVL 513D Engine Videoscope” sys- 1.5
tem has been used. It consists of a colour CCD camera 0.19 10/20/30 30/50/70/90/110
(PULNIX TMC-9700), a digital acquisition card, a strobo- 0.27 10/20/30 30/50/70/90/110
scopic Xe flashlamp illumination system, and control

2
Images were taken at steps of 40 microseconds during
the whole injection period. A minimum of 10 images per
instant were used for the analysis presented here.
For each case, PDA measurements were performed at
different points on the spray axis. Figure 2 shows an out-
line of the PDA measurement points location within the
spray.
Validation rate is very dependent on the measurement
point position within the spray, but lies always between 15
and 60 %.
Dots represent the experimental measurements and
solid lines are statistical fits of the experimental data to
an expression similar to that mentioned above and
assuming a rectangular injection rate. For a nozzle hole
diameter of 0.19 mm and an injection pressure of 30
MPa, the real penetration at the injection beginning is
smaller than the statistical fit. However, in the case of
injection pressure of 110 MPa, where the injection rate
was closer to the rectangular one, the agreement
between instantaneous data and fitted results for spray
tip penetration is good even at the injection beginning.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

In the theoretical analysis described previously, it is

assumed that injection rate shape is perfectly rectangu-
lar. However, in real cases as ours, needle lifting process
is not instantaneous and, as a consequence, injection
rate is not rectangular and its shape changes for different
injection conditions. This can be due to two different
causes:

Figure 3. Effect of the system hydrodynamics on the

injection rate.

Figure 2. PDA measurement points on the spray.

• The dynamic behaviour of the common-rail system

depends on the injection pressure.
• The variation of the effective section as a function of
needle position depends on the size of the orifices.
Figures 3 and 4 show the measured injection rate used
for the statistical data fits, together with a theoretical rect-
angular curve. It can be noted that the increase in the
injection pressure for a given nozzle (fig. 3) implies higher
slopes during needle raising.
Figure 4. Effect of the system geometry on the injection
Figure 4 shows that for a given injection pressure, injec- rate.
tion rate shape for smaller hole nozzles is closer to the
rectangular one, i.e., the plateau of the curve it reached Similarly, the geometric effects of the pressure system
earlier. are depicted in figure 6. For a given injection pressure
As expected, both effects influence the spray penetration (70 MPa) the spray penetration for a nozzle diameter of
curve at the start of the injection where the rate has not a 0.11 mm matches perfectly the statistical fit, whilst dis-
rectangular shape, and so, the instantaneous momentum crepancies at the start of injection are higher in the case
flux through the hole is smaller than the theoretical one. of 0.19 mm hole diameter, as could be expected from the
Figure 5 shows the influence of the hydrodynamic behav- shape of the injection rate curve.
iour of the injection system in the spray tip penetration.

3
 In this paper, spray cone angle has been calculated from
the images obtained with the CCD camera with a pur-
pose-made software to obtain characteristic parameters
of the spray. On the basis of the results obtained when
the cone angle reaches a constant value (corresponding
to the maximum needle lift), the following correlation have
been obtained:

θ
tan  ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρ a
a b c
 2
(4)
with:

Table 2. Values of the exponents of the correlation for

Figure 5. Effect of the system hydrodynamics on spray spray cone angle.
tip penetration.
Exponent Fit Confidence interval
a 0.508 [0.467 , 0.549]
b 0.00943 [-0.00967 , 0.0284]
c 0.335 [0.308 , 0.362]
R – Squared = 85.82 %

In general terms, experimental results available in the lit-

erature show that the spray cone angle does not depend
on the nozzle diameter. Our correlation however shows a
very important influence of this parameter. In the experi-
ments performed the injector wall thickness ( l 0 ) was
constant, so that indirectly the actual variable considered
was l 0 φ 0 which is a representative parameter of the
nozzle injector geometry. Influence of l 0 φ 0 is in agree-
Figure 6. Effect of the system geometry on spray tip ment with the results by Reitz and Bracco [13] and Ruiz
penetration. and Chigier [14], who found that spray cone angle
decreases when l 0 φ0 increases.
The impossibility of obtaining similar injection rates for
Figure 7 shows an example of the values measured and
the different test conditions makes more difficult the anal-
expected with the correlation. Constant values of the
ysis of their effects upon the Diesel spray behaviour.
spray cone angle are obtained after a given time corre-
sponding to the needle raising period or, equivalently, to
SPRAY CONE ANGLE – The spray cone angle reflects
the period of change of the nozzle internal geometry. It
directly the atomisation and air entrainment processes
evidences the importance of the instantaneous nozzle
downstream the nozzle hole. Hence, it will be closely
internal geometry.
linked to the global spray behaviour and particularly to its
penetration.
According to theoretical considerations [11] and experi-
mental evidence [4] [12] [17] [10], the spray cone angle is
essentially a function of the environment gas density for
complete atomisation spray regime. Desantes et al. [6]
found no evidence on the influence of the fuel density
and viscosity on the spray cone angle, which however is
very influenced by the nozzle geometry. Tomohisa et al
[15] showed, on the basis of experimental tests with
seven different nozzles, a very important dependence of
the spray cone angle with the needle lift, i.e. when nozzle
geometry is changing. After this period, spray cone angle
tends to a constant value.
All these experimental works showed no dependence of
spray cone angle with the injection pressure. Figure 7. Spray cone angle values measured and
expected with the statistical correlation.
4
Values in table 2 show no significant influence of the
injection pressure upon the spray cone angle. Table 4. Values of the exponents of eq. (6) for spray
tip penetration.
Regarding gas density dependence, the exponent of our
correlation c = 0.3, is in agreement with the experimental Exponent Fit Confidence interval
value found by Ruiz and Chigier [14], and theoretically
a 0.608 [0.588 , 0.629]
deduced by Mayer [8] from studies of liquid atomisation.
b 0.283 [0.274 , 0.293]
SPRAY TIP PENETRATION – As a first step in the anal- c -0.242 [-0.255 , -0.230]
ysis of penetrations laws, the experimental results have
been fitted to the expression: d 0.523 [0.513 , 0.533]
R – Squared = 97.96 %
S ( t ) ∝ φ0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρa ⋅ t
a b c d
(5)
which provided the following values for the exponents: The R – Squared value suggests again good confidence
in the correlation obtained, though with a value slightly
smaller. Nevertheless, the exponents now obtained con-
Table 3. Values of the exponents for spray tip
sidering the dependence of penetration with the spray
penetration correlation.
cone angle agree almost perfectly with those obtained
Exponent Fit Confidence interval from the dimensional analysis. This result confirms that,
for a given angle, the penetration of Diesel sprays is a
a 0.370 [0.350 , 0.388]
process similar to that of gaseous jets.
b 0.262 [0.253 , 0.271]
So, the main difficulties in the prediction of the spray tip
c -0.406 [-0.417 , -0.395] penetration lie on the consideration of the opening angle
d 0.568 [0.558 , 0.577] of the spray, which is a function of the orifice geometry,
and thus particularly difficult to predict.
R – Squared = 98.22 %
Figure 8 shows a comparison of the experimental results
and the curves obtained from this last correlation.
Results demonstrate that all the parameters included in
correlation play an important role. Despite the differences
in the injection rate shape for the different injection condi-
tions, the R – Squared value suggests high confidence
on the correlation results from the point of view of statis-
tics.
The exponents affecting each test parameter are quite
different from those provided by the dimensional analy-
sis. However, it must be noted that the dimensional anal-
ysis did not take into account the variations of the spray
cone angle between the different sprays, which can be
significant as commented below.
To account for such variations on the spray cone angle,
Wakuri et al [16] propose a spray tip penetration correla-
tion which includes it as an additional variable. To vali-
Figure 8. Spray tip penetration curve with the spray
date such correlation, our experimental measurements of
cone correlation.
spray tip penetration have been fitted again including also
the spray cone angle as:
SPRAY VOLUME – Spray volume was calculated by inte-
−0.5 grating the spray contours obtained in the images on the
θ
S ( t ) ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρ a ⋅ tan  assumption of axial symmetry for the spray. It reflects the
a b c d
⋅t
 2 mass of air entrained by the spray and the global fuel/air
(6)
concentration. Results were fitted to the following law:
The results obtained in this case were:
V (t ) ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρ a ⋅ t
a b c d
(7)
being:

5

Table 5. Values of the exponents of the spray volume
correlation.
Exponent Fit Confidence interval
a 1.672 [1.608 , 1.735]
b 0.950 [0.916 , 0.984]
c -0.299 [-0.345 , -0.253]
d 1.379 [1.334 , 1.423]
R – Squared = 94.46 %
Values in the table show significant influence of hole
diameter and injection pressure.
Figure 9 shows one example of the values measured and
the statistical fits. In this figure the variables are: f 0 [mm],
Pin [MPa], air density [kg/m3].
Figure 9. Spray volume measured and calculated with
statistical adjustment.
The values of the exponent fitted for each variable are in
agreement with the trends found by Minami et al. [9] and
Kuniyoshi et al. [7]. Their experiments considered the
influence of injection pressure and nozzle hole diameter
(in the case of [9], they reached an extremely high injec-
tion pressure of 280 MPa for a 0.19 mm hole nozzle) and
showed an increase in the spray volume with the nozzle
hole diameter for a given instant. They also noted an
increase in the spray volume with the injection pressure,
but they did not quantify this trend. On the other hand,
Kuniyoshi et al. [7] measured the spray volume from
spray tip penetration and visible spray cone angle and
defined an “equivalent spray volume”. In their experi-
ments they changed the back-pressure “P o” and found
that spray volume becomes smaller as Po increases. In
our experiments Po is included in the gas density (ra) and
an increase of Po means a ra increase. This trend is justi-
fied by the large rate of decrease in spray tip penetration
(S) compared to the increase in spray volume.
DROP SIZE EVOLUTION – Drop size in the Diesel spray
depends on atomisation and coalescence processes,
which are functions principally of local environment
6
velocity and concentration fuel conditions. Due to the
unsteady nature of the Diesel sprays, the variations in
local conditions make the characteristic diameter of the
drops to experience a strong temporal and spatial evolu-
tion. Moreover, changes in the injection conditions (air
density ra and injection pressure Pin) provoke variations
in the local velocity and cone conditions, which influence
the drop size distributions.
Results shown in this paper correspond to measure-
ments of the diameter distribution along the whole injec-
tion period. For each measurement point of figure 2 only
the drops at the spray front have been considered for the
analysis.
A statistical analysis of the PDA data permits to evidence
the dependence of the local characteristic drop diameter
(represented by SMD in this paper) as a function of the
following parameters:
Injection conditions: nozzle hole diameter, injection pres-
sure and rig gas density.
Measurement point position x on the spray axis.
Droplets instantaneous velocity u at each point.
Time t after the considered droplets left the injector (“age”
of the drops or residence time in the injection chamber).
The last three parameters are related through the spray
dynamics. As a function of the droplets penetration law
into the spray, for a given position x and instant there will
be a given velocity and an “age” t.
The penetration x of the droplets inside the spray as a
function of the injection conditions and the time from the
start of injection is given, according to the theory of gas-
eous sprays, by the following law:
0.5 0.25 −0.25 0.5
x( t ) ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρa ⋅t
(8)
Deriving expression (8) the instantaneous droplet velocity
is given by:
0.5 −0.5 −1
u( t ) ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρ a ⋅x
(9)
Direct statistical analysis of the PDA results at different
positions x provides the following correlation
−0 . 2
SMD ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρa ⋅ x
0.1 0 .2 0 .4
(10)
This result reproduces the effect of every injection
parameter upon the SMD of the droplets at a given posi-
tion x and time t from the start of the injection.
However, for a better comprehension of the atomisation/
coalescence process, it can be better to analyse the spa-
tial and temporal evolution of the droplets size as a func-
tion of the local conditions inside the spray, particularly
the droplet velocity u.
Combining expression (10) with (9), the following relation
can be obtained:
 −0.4
SMD ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρ a ⋅ u
0.5 0 0
(11)
It can be noted that, for a given nozzle, SMD depends
only on the local velocity u, but not directly on the injec-
tion pressure and gas density. It seems clear that both
parameters control the spray dynamics, and hence, the
droplets velocity u. However, if we consider two areas of
two different sprays where the droplets have the same
velocity, independently of the injection conditions, the
size of the droplets on both sprays is quite similar.
Figure 10 shows measured SMD vs the theoretical drop-
lets velocity given by eq.(9).
Figure 10. Spray SMD vs theoretical droplets velocity.
Another way to analyse the results about spatial and tem-
poral variation of the droplets size is to combine eq. (10)
and (8), which provides the following expression:
0.3 −0.1 0.1 0 .2
SMD ∝ φ 0 ⋅ Pin ⋅ ρa ⋅ t
(12)
This is the most interesting expression for engine
researchers. It shows the evolution of SMD as a function
of the time spent since the injection of the considered
droplets. In the case of the injection in an engine, this
“age” t of the droplets corresponds to the interval during
which the droplets are in contact with the hot air inside
the cylinder. This is therefore the expression to be con-
sidered when the evaporation process is present.
Figure 11 shows dependence of the spray SMD with the
droplets age t for different injection pressure values.
Equation (12) and figure 11 show that an injection pres-
sure increase has a small effect (exponent -0.1 in the fit)
on the size of the droplets with the same age. A decrease
in the nozzle hole diameter seems to be more interesting
in order to decrease SMD (exponent 0.3).
7
Figure 11. SMD of the front drops vs droplets age.
CONCLUSIONS
The influence of the main injection parameters upon the
micro and macroscopic behaviour of Diesel sprays gen-
erated by a common-rail injection system has been char-
acterised and quantified.
Regarding macroscopic spray characteristics, the results
obtained have been used to confirm various correlations
available in the literature and to extend them to current
injection conditions with small nozzle hole diameters and
high injection pressure values. Some important conclu-
sions must be highlighted:
1. Despite the small variations present in the shape of
the injection rate curves considered, the influence of
each test parameter has been clearly evidenced in
this work.
2. For a given spray cone angle, both a simple dimen-
sional analysis and the expressions found in the liter-
ature allow a reasonably fair prediction of the
penetration law of real sprays so. Accurate measure-
ment of the spray cone angles is crucial.
3. For a given nozzle geometry, the spray cone angle
seems to be independent of the injection pressure
but changes significantly with the gas density.
4. The difficulty in the analysis of the global behaviour
of Diesel sprays lies in the strong dependence of the
cone angle upon the nozzle hole geometry. This fact
makes doubtful the generalisation of the results here
drawn to other types of nozzles.
The results concerning the spatial and temporal evolution
of the droplets size allow drawing some clear conclu-
sions:
 1. For a given nozzle, the size of the droplets at the 16. Wakuri, Y., Fujii M., Amitani, T. and Tsuneya, R. “Studies of
spray depends directly on the local conditions of the penetration of a fuel spray in a Diesel engine”. Bull.
J.S.M.E. 3(9), pp 123-130, 1960.
velocity. Variations of the injection conditions (injec-
17. Wu, K.J.; Su, C.C.; Steinberger, R.L.; Santavicca, D.A. &
tion pressure Pin and gas density ra) seem to affect Bracco, F.V. “Measurements of the spray cone angle of
the drop size only through the variation of the local atomising jets”. J. Fluids Eng. WA/FE-10. 1983.
flow conditions within the spray.
2. Considering droplets with the same “age” t (and NOMENCLATURE
hence with the same residence time in contact with
the hot air inside the engine cylinder), the influence a , b, c, d , n : Empirical constants [-]
of the injection pressure and the nozzle hole diame- l 0 : nozzle wall thickness [m]
ter upon the droplets size has been quantified.
& f : injection rate [kg/s]
m
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS M& 0 : instantaneous momentum flux [kg·m/s2]
∆P : pressure drop [Pa]
The authors acknowledge that part of the research work
has been performed in the frame of the Joule project Pin : injection pressure [Pa]
JOF3-CT97-0028 and wish to thank PSA Peugeot-Cit- P0 : back-pressure [Pa]
roën for supporting the experimental work and for per- S : spray tip penetration [m]
mission to publish this study. t : time from to the start of injection [s]
t b : break-up time [s]
REFERENCES
U 0 : initial exit flow velocity [m/s]
1. Dent, J.C., “A basis for the comparison of various experi- V : spray volume [m3]
mental methods for studying spray penetration”, SAE paper
710571, 1971. ρ a : gas density [kg/m3]
2. Hay, N., P.L. Jones, “Comparison of the various correla-
tions for spray penetration”, SAE paper 720776, 1976. ρ f : fuel density [kg/m3]
3. Hiroyasu, H., Kadota, T. “Fuel droplet size distribution in φ 0 : Nozzle hole diameter [m]
Diesel combustion chamber.”, SAE Paper 740715, 1974.
4. Hiroyasu, H., M. Arai, “Structures of fuel sprays in Diesel θ : spray cone angle [deg]
engines”, SAE paper 900475, 1990.
5. J.M. Desantes, J. Arrègle, J.V. Pastor, “Characterization of
local fuel concentration and internal dynamics in D.I. diesel
sprays.”, SAE Paper 970797, 1997.
6. J.M. Desantes, J. Arrègle, J.V. Pastor, “Influence of the fuel
characteristics on the injection process in a D.I. Diesel
engine.”, SAE Paper 980802, 1998.
7. Kuniyoshi, H., Tanable, H., Takeshi Sato, G., Fujimoto, H.
“Investigation on the characteristics of Diesel fuel spray.”,
SAE Paper 800968, 1981.
8. Mayer, E. “Theory of liquid atomisation in high velocity air
streams.” ARS J, 31, 1783-1785. 1961. C
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