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Water is probably Man's most vital commodity; its optimum utilization will be of prime
importance in our expanding civilisation. Planning is therefore essential on a geographically
wide scale and over a long period of time. The greatest obstacle is usually the unavailability
of finance for comprehensive investigations.
It would be desirable from the engineering viewpoint to start development high up in a river
and then progress downstream. This would improve quality and gradually increasing control
of the river would facilitate and lower the cost of the downstream stages. However there is
usually less potential, difficult access and hence construction costs are higher, and therefore
the benefit to cost ratio is generally lower.
For example the Hoover Dam, used to prevent floods, generate electricty and provide
irrigation has two mighty spillways, which due to subsequent development upstream will
probably never be used. Such occurences are unavoidable when only part of a river system is
developed, i.e. when the economy requires the 'best' damsites be exploited first.
On a larger scale the major rivers of the world often form international boundaries or they rise
in one country and flow through several others. International agreements may exist between
countries with regards the usage of the river for example. For the satisfactory allocation of
costs a basic programme for the full development of the river basin must be evolved and
accepted.
Reservoir Utilisation
Single Purpose Reservoirs
Mainly for industry, such as mining where the life of the dam depends on the mines resources,
town water supply or for beautification and recreation.
Multipurpose Reservoirs
Life of a dam
Many dams are in existence that are over 1000 years old. Gravity and rockfill dams must
qualify for long structural lives wheras thin arches, multiple arches or buttress dams have
more limited lives, especially if they retain aggresive water.
It is usual to finance the building of a dam on the basis of repayment of its cost over 50 or 60
years. After this the only cost will be maintenance. The life of a dam may be prejudiced by the
amount of silt carried by the river, since the reservoir loses capacity. It is possible to raise the
dam by building up, but at a considerable expense.
Multidisciplinary Approach
We have reached an era when the Engineer must cooperate with members of other disciplines
if a project is to be completed for optimum benefits and minimum adverse effects.
An example of the number of disciplines involved, relative to the Auburn Dam project;
Appurtenant Features
Coffer Dams - Coffer dams usually are temporary structures built upstream from a dam to
prevent stream flow around the excavation for a dam. In valleys of steep profile diversion
commonly is accomplished by a tunnel or tunnels in the walls of the valley. Commonly the
diversion tunnels are put to further use to control flow from the reservoir either for drainage
of the reservoir or for flow under pressure into a hydroelectric generating plant. In valleys of
low profile diversion is by tunnels, canals, or by conduits which subsequently are buried by
the dam. It is not unusual in embankment dams to incorporate the coffer dam into the larger
embankment structure comprising the designed dam.
Fish ladders - dams constructed on
streams that are the migration paths for
spawning fish commonly make
provisions for movement of the fish up
or in the vicinity of the downstream
face of the dam. The facility that
permits fish migration is usually called
a fish ladder. See figure.
Hydroelectric power plants - many dams are constructed to generate hydroelectric power.
The powerhouse is located at,or in the vicinity of, the toe of a dam or at some distance
downstream. Flow of water into the powerhouse is controlled by valves upstream from the
dam, within the dam downstream, or in valve vaults excavated in rock outside of the dam.
Locks - locks are movable dams or portions of dams utilized in navigation along rivers and
canals.
Spillways - a spillway is designed to contain and control overflow of reservoir water when
the reservoir is full. Spillways are, or should be, designed to accommodate flows during
maximum flood stage so as to prevent damage to the dam and appurtenant features. Their size
and location with respect to the dam is determined by the size and kind of dam, local
topography, geology, and a careful review of the History of stream flow at the site of the dam.
The factor of safety must relate to the strength, stability and durability with consideration to
magnitude of economic and personal loss that would result from its failure.
The aim of the Engineer must be to reduce the number of uncertainties, both as regards
loading on the dam and in the means by which the dam and the foundations withstand such
loads. The Engineer must also be satisfied that there is no feasible mechanism that could
result in failure.
Headwater (H1) - For the basic calculation of stability the level in the reservoir will be
assumed at or above the level required for the passage of the design flood. In many instances
the dam is designed for the highest level of water tightness, e.g. a concrete parapet.
Silt (H2) - A changed land usage as a result of a dam may well result in increased erosion,
causing a deposition of silt. Unless very deep deposits of silt are likely it is adequate to
assume a triangular load allotting an appropriate relative density to the fluid. This would have
a maximum value of 1.4.
Reservoir Behaviors (H3) - Wind and other natural causes will induce movement in the
reservoir as waves, reservoir set-up or seethe effect.
Ice Loading (H4) - It is assumed that ice will not form and exert pressure on the dam at times
of maximum flood. The slope of the upstream face of the dam as well as the slope and
roughness of the valley walls will influence the magnitude of ice loading. Even wind blowing
down the reservoir at 50 km/hr may increase the ice loading by 4-5 t/m of exposed face.
Tailwater (H5) - In some cases water is ponded downstream from the dam. Assistance from
this may be assumed but it must not be overlooked that, in the case of an overflow dam, flood
waters passing over the dam might well evacuate such water from the face of the dam.
Seethe effect (H7) - Is an undulation in the reservoir water due to natural causes, intermittent
wind, variation in atmospheric pressure, earthquake and motion of the Earth. Usually less than
0.5 m, though levels of 2 m have been reported in Lake Geneva.
Vertical Loads
Vertical Water Loading (V2) - Imposed on any sloping surface of the dam, usually the
upstream face, but also on the downstream for overflow dams.
Water Density - Some rivers carry very heavy silt load in seasons which changes the density
of the reservoir.
Reservoir set-up - The result of continuing wind causing one end of the reservoir to be at a
higher level. Calculations for a large reservoir in which the fetch is 38km would indicate the
following values:
Thermal Effects - Concrete dams will be subject to loading from temperature variation within
the dam caused by hydration of the cement and due to seasonal variations. Water as depth
doesn't vary, but towards the surface it varies with season. A skew loading is used to describe
solar and air temperature effects.
Construction Loads - Concrete dams of cupola and buttress shape offer good resistance to
water loading when complete but during construction it is necessary to control the rate of
construction and to include reinforcement in overhanging sections.
Tectonic Forces - Besides seismic effects, there may be significant tectonic forces on the
Earth's crust at the site and these may be upset by deep excavation or saturation due to the
filling of the reservoir.
For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient is adopted and applied as an additional static load.
For arch dams the dynamic effects receive greater attention with both model tests and in situ
testing by vibrating the dam. For embankment dams additional horizontal static loads are
considered and a dynamic analysis has been developed with close attention being paid to the
characteristics of fill material.
Design
o For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient was generally adopted and applied as
an additional static load. Vertical effects were taken into account in very few
circumstances and dynamic analysis was used by very few.
o For arch dams the dynamic effects received greater attention in model tests and
in situ testing by vibration of the dam.
o For embankment dams additional horizontal static loads were considered;
dynamic analysis was being developed and closer attention was being given to
the characteristics of fill material.
Zoning - Many countries were adopting the principle of seismic zoning.
Seismic Coefficients - A coefficient of from 0.1 to 0.2 was commonly used.
Seismic Waves - Analyses had been made by applying sinusoidal or modified
earthquake records - but actual earthquake records had only been applied in rare cases
for dynamic analyses.
Properties of Materials - Different mechanical properties of various materials when
subjected to static and dynamic loading.
Loads Considered - For dynamic water pressure the formulae of Westergaard, Zanger
and the USBoR were in use.
The ratio of the sum of the horizontal forces to the sum of the vertical forces is referred to as
the sliding factor (Fss). This is usually about 0.75 but must not exceed 0.90 under extreme
loading. These figures represent the range of the coefficient of static friction normally
encountered at the site of a gravity dam.
At or in the foundations, the horizontal loading will be resisted by cohesion and friction. The
ratio of the total resistance by cohesion and friction to the horizontal load is termed the shear
friction factor (Fsf). Most countries accept 4 as a minimum value. In practice the foundation is
usually prepared in steps or is sloped upward in a downstream direction to provide resistance
to failure far in excess of the above figure.
Load Combination
Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme
dam concrete, base interface 3.0 2.0 <1.0
foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3
The design criterion adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is for a factor of safety of 4
based on the strength of concrete at 1 year. Except for extreme loading combinations the
maximum compressive stress is usually limited to 6.9 MPa.
Upstream Slope
Downstream Slope
In an area subject to earthquakes the following factors are indicative of acceptable values:
In the planning stage possible dam sites will have been chosen from contour maps and aerial
photography, selected primarily on topography. A narrow gorge is best, hoping for minimum
quantities in the dam and a valley opening upstream to provide the required storage. There
maybe alternative sites along the length of a river and hence further investigation has to be
done to ascertain the best possible position.
See the GeoCAL package for further information on general site investigation. Link to
GeoCAL homepage
It is not unusual to spend 3 years on site investigations, this will depend on the location and
size of the dam, but time must not be underestimated. To meet stringent requirements for
environmental studies and public opinion polls could add 2 years to the time and several
percent to the cost.
If, as a result of the site investigation another site is to be chosen, the same time and money
must be spent investigating the new site. Adequate time and money must always be available
to all disciplines to give them the opportunity to investigate and report.
A Geologist will assist the Engineer in the selection of the damsite, and a construction
Engineer will study the access and possible sources of materials.
The joints may be open or in filled with products of decomposition, they present
construction hazards and possible leakage paths around the dam.
Examination along the beds of the river and tributary streams will indicate the strike
and dip of rock formations.
Any springs or underground water should be identified since they provide leakage
paths from the reservoir.
The depth of alluvium or soil should be determined to indicate the excavation required
and the probable quantity of material required for the dam.
At this stage, the preliminary geological data should be assessed and enhanced by mapping
and modeling. This can help to highlight important considerations about which type of dam
may be most appropriate, and any problems which may be encountered, before extensive
drilling or exploratory works are performed. Assessment of preliminary data will assist in the
choice of exploratory methods and in the design of the exploratory program as a whole.
Check list for Site Investigation
Check List for Site Investigation
Auger Boring - Generally limited to firm soils, above the watertable. Gravel larger
than about a third of the diameter of the hole cannot be drilled but very hard soil and
soft rock can often be penetrated if sufficient power is available.
Test Boring -
Core Drilling -
Diamond Drilling -
Short Drilling or Calyx Drilling -
Foundation testing
Undisturbed Sampling
Pit Sampling
Thin-walled Samplers
Foil Samplers
Rotary Samplers
Laboratory Testing
Field testing
Test Pit
Plate Load Test
Seepage Test
Sampling
Laboratory Testing
Test Strip
Following the desk study and preliminary field work, it may be necessary to establish a
pattern and base level of seismicity for later evaluation of induced seismicity. If potential
active faults are identified, seismic arrays should be installed to monitor these. This will help
assess the need for criteria changes should seismic activity occur after the feasibility stage has
been completed and the design is well advanced.
For the post-commissioning stage, monitoring will involve regular reading of installed
instrumentation to check performance against design criteria. This should serve as an 'early
warning' system which will initiate a contingency programme, thus minimising the delays
which would result from the development of an adverse situation.
GEOLOGY CONTENTS
Geology Introduction
The geological services required for the engineering of a large dam are in the following areas;
The safety of the dam on its foundations;
The water tightness of the reservoir basin;
The availability of natural materials for its construction.
The engineering geologist is a key member of an engineering team, since he will ensure the
feasibility of the project, continuing through the design stage and terminating only when
construction has either proved that geological conditions revealed are in conformity with the
premises adopted in design, or he has made possible proper evaluation of any conditions not
foreseen in the earlier stages.
It is necessary to investigate both the regional geology and the specific local geology to
ensure a global picture is developed.
Geology Terminology
1. Bedding planes - The planes marking the termination of one sedimentary deposit and
the beginning of another; they usually constitute a weakness along which the rock
tends to break.
2. Foliation - In rocks that have been subjected to heat and deforming pressures during
regional metamorphism, some new materials such as muscovite and biotite mica, talc
and chlorite may be formed by recrystallisation. These new minerals are arranged in
parallel layers of flat or elongated crystals - the property of foliation.
3. Joints - These are fractures along which no movement has occured. All rocks are
jointed to some extent and weathering occurs in these joints. They offer pathways for
water, any clay infilling offering little resistance to sliding.
4. Faults - These are fractures along which movement has occured. They may range
from rather inconspicious zones hundreds of metres wide and many kilometres long.
The movement may have formed a zone that is so crushed and chemically altered as to
be unable to support any weight. The presence of faults may be recognised from such
physical features as;
o Offset of beds, dykes or veins;
o Slickensides;
o Gouge;
o Brecciation or crushing;
o Topographic features like escarpments, linear trenches or sag valleys.
5. Weathering - The following definitions appeared in the Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology, UK, 1970.
Classification of rocks
1. Uniaxial Compressive Strength
o Weak - less than 35MPa
o Strong 35-115MPa
o Very Strong - greater than 115MPa
2. Prefailure Deformation
Types of Rock
Granite
Can bear great pressures
Generally watertight
Caution must be taken when large masses of china clay appear, for it is not
feasible to anchor pre-stressed cables in china clay.
Example: The Sarrans dam had a broad foundation of 11,000 sqm of decomposed granite. To
improve the strength, and bearing capacity and to reduce seepage of the foundations and
abutments a grouting programme was undertaken. This involved 691 tonnes of cement in 81
boreholes which had an aggregate length of 2800 m or 240 kg per m.
Gabbros, Andesites, Dolerite and Basalt
These types of rock cannot be trusted for dams and reservoirs.
Porphyritic rocks need careful grouting.
Example: The Rieutord dam which is on a tributary of the Loire, necessitated a considerable
amount of grouting. Conversely, the Tirso multiple arch dam in Sardinia is founded on
trachytes and volcanic tuffs with little grout.
Amphibolites
Gneiss, mica schists and associated rocks are considered to be satisfactory for
sustaining bearing pressure and for water-tightness. However, gneiss and particularly
mica schist are less favourable due to the mica which may facilitate slipping.
Where gneiss and mica schists are associated, a very weak zone of disintegrated rock
may be found at the junction of these two rocks.
Example: the Forks dam, California, founded on gneiss and mica schists, had to be abandoned
in 1929 because of bad foundations which occurred at the junction of these two rocks which,
in themselves, were quite sound.
Example: The Lavaude-Gelade dam in the Central Massif, Creuse, France was founded on
altered granulite. The alteration in the granulite was found to persist to a depth of 20m, in
addition to being broken and fissured. The site required an extensive grouting injection with
cement, clay and bentonite.
Limestone
Limestone dam sites vary widely in their suitability. Thickly bedded horizontally lying
limestones which are relatively free from solution cavities afford excellent dam sites.
On the other hand, thin bedded, highly folded, or cavernous limestones are likely to
present serious foundation or abutment problems involving bearing capacity and water
tightness.
Concrete dams have been constructed on Jurassic limestone at Castillon, where slips
and leakage problems have occurred. These have been surmounted by an extensive
grouting scheme.
Sandstones
Sandstones have a wide range of strength depending largely upon the amount and type of
cement matrix material occupying the voids of the rock. Generally sandstones do not
deteriorate rapidly on exposure to the surface with the exception of shaly sandstone. As a
foundation rock sandstone is not susceptible to plastic deformation, even with poorly
cemented sandstones. However, sandstones are susceptible to erosion due to the scouring and
plucking action from the overflow of dams and so have to be adequately protected by suitable
hydraulic structures.
Sandstones are frequently interbedded with shales. The sandstone-shale contact may allow
seepage of water and may cause potential sliding. Severe uplift pressures may also develop
beneath beds of shale in a dam due to the swelling characteristics of shales.
Many dams in the English Pennines have been constructed on Carboniferous sandstones
interbedded with shales, most of them as earth embankments.
Example : Longdendale, Langsett, Scar House reservoirs and Ladybower reservoir on the
Sabden shales in the Derwent valley.
Clays
Clay formations are often thick and massive and are frequently associated with thin seams of
sandstone or limestone. Earth dams or rockfill dams are usually constructed on clay
foundations because clays lack the load bearing properties necessary to support concrete
dams.
Example : Selset reservoir in the North East of England is founded on Boulder Clay.
Rock Properties
The following properties must be examined to ensure the dam will be stable and the reservoir
watertight -
Crushing strength
Shearing strength
Elasticity of rock
Deformability of the rock mass
Tectonic stresses
Laboratory Testing
Field Testing
Crushing Strength
In general the compressive load from a dam on to its foundations will not exceed 10 MPa.
Quality
The degree of weathering
Presence of micro-cracks
Shearing Strength
The minimum angle of friction for sound rock is 55°.
Elasticity of Rock
It is not appropriate to classify rocks by elastic constants alone, since many rocks are
nonelastic. Elasticity refers to the property of reversibility of deformation when subjected to a
load. Many fresh, hard rocks are elastic when considered as laboratory specimens. But on the
field scale rocks can be expected to contain fractures, fissures, bedding planes, contacts, zones
of altered rock and clays with plastic properties.
Therefore, most rocks do not exhibit perfect elasticity. The extent of irrecoverability of strain
in response to load cycles may be important for the design and can be determined by the slope
of the load/deformation curve.
For example, as the reservoir behind the arch dam rises, the rock under the arch responds
along curve 1.
The concave upward curvature of this load/deflection path is typical for fractured rocks on
first loading because the fractures close and stiffen at low loads. When the reservoir is
lowered, the rock unloads along path 2, with a permanent deflection.
The dam will try to follow the loading, but since it is often more elastic than the rock, it will
move away from the rock on unloading. This could open joints in the rock or concrete or
simply lower the compressive stress flowing through the structure. Repeated cycles of loading
and unloading in response to cyclic operation of the reservoir would produce the series of
loops ('hysteresis').
Some sites have been considered unacceptable for concrete dams because of large hysteresis
even though the modulus of elasticity of the rock itself was considered reasonable.
The large ranges emphasize the need for testing at each site.
Deformability
The modulus of elasticity of rock is normally adequate, but due to the existence of joints,
faults amd seams in the rock mass - sometimes open and sometimes filled with products of
decompostion, the modulus of deformation may be inadequate.
The capacity of a rock to strain under applied loads or in response to unloading on excavation
is known as deformability. The strains present in rock concern engineers even when there is
little risk of rock failure, because large rock displacements can raise stresses within structures.
For example a dam founded on varying rock types of different deformability properties will
develop shear and diagonal tension stresses due to the unequal deflections of the foundations.
The deflections can be handled by structuring the dam correctly, if the rock properties are
known and the variation of properties within the foundations are determined.
Tectonic Stresses
The fact that rock may be in a state of high internal stress is often overlooked. It is common to
assume a vertical stress field due to the weight of overlying rock. The corresponding
horizontal stress will vary with the rock and the rock formation. Frequently one horizontal
principal stress will equal or exceed the vertical stress, the other being much lower -
indicating the existence of large shearing stresses.
Crustal horizontal stress increases with depth. As excavation proceeds and loading on the
strata is reduced, there will be upward changes in level. As a result of the reduction in vertical
restraint the strata can no longer transfer the horizontal forces, but buckle upwards with
horizontal cracking. This deformation reduces the horizontal load on the layer so that the
underlying strata tend to carry the horizontal tectonic stress. As a result the strata down to
considerable depths suffer disturbance to their equilibrium.
If horizontal cracks are caused then erosion can occur and resistance to sliding will be
decreased.
Laboratory Testing
Compressive strength
Shear tests
Direct shear
Triaxial shear
Field Testing
In-situ shear tests
Commonly carried out on 'undisturbed' specimens in the galleries of the dam. Disturbance of
the specimen should be kept to a minimum as the specimen is exposed from the parent rock.
The specimen is then protected and loaded in two directions. It is important that the axes of
the jacks pass through the centre of the zone under test. A normal load is applied and held
until any displacements have stabilised, the tangential load is then applied in steps and
displacements measured. By repeating the test with different normal loads, values of cohesion
and angle of friction can be derived.
Hydraulic Fracturing
Flat Jack Method
Overcoring
Soundness of the foundation is of paramount importance for all arch and cupola dams.
Example : Piave di Cadore dam (Italy) was constructed as a thick arch dam with a chord-
height ratio of 5.5. It's thickness was less than a gravity dam but more than a thin arch dam.
If the narrow valley is filled with permeable and compressible material, for example from a
glacial origin, the dam engineer has two choices:
More and more thick arch dams with a thickness of less than the gravity section will be
constructed in the future as more confidence is gained in:
The reliability of new models confirm and even supplant the mathematical
analyses.
The experience of strengthening weak foundations to carry heavier unit pressures
which are to be sustained compared with the gravity section.
Dams in wide valleys
Wide valleys may be defined where the chord-height ratio of the dam is above 6 or 7. In a
wide valley nearly every type of dam can be constructed, except a thick or thin arch dam. The
most influential factors in a wide valley in determining the type of dam are:
The geology of the site.
The proximity of materials from which the dam is to be made.
Gravity Dams : there are many examples of masonry and concrete gravity dams in wide
valleys, especially where the bedrock is close to the surface. The earliest large example in
Great Britain is the Vyrnwy dam (masonry), which supplies water to the city of Liverpool.
The chord-height ratio of the dam is 7.
Earthfill Dams : because there are a great many wide valleys in England, there are a number
of examples of earthfill dams. These dams are most suitable if the foundation is soft
compressible sedimentary strata.
Rockfill Dams : the wide valley is suitable for all forms of rockfill dams.
Buttress Dams : with suitable foundations capable of withstanding direct pressures and
resistance to sliding, the buttress dam can usefully be adopted in a wide valley.
Example : Scotland, the Errochty and Shira dams are situated in wide valleys and have chord-
height ratios of 10 and 15 respectively.
Valleys have been formed or have been modified by downward and lateral erosion of running
water and/or ice, and commonly contain unconsolidated deposits transported by water, ice, or
wind. The individual characteristics of a valley are a function of the topography, climate, rock
type and geologic structure.
Artificial reservoirs are usually created by construction of a dam or dams in a large or small
valley, commonly in a constriction. Correct interpretation of the various physical aspects of a
valley reveals much concerning the characteristics of bedrock beneath a dam site and beneath
the floor and sides of the reservoir basin above the dam site.
Running water erodes the materials in the bottom and sides of the channel by corrosion,
corrasion and cavitation.
Corrosion - is a chemical process whereby materials are taken into solution so as to become
part of the dissolved load of a stream. Limestone is very susceptible to this process.
Corrasion - is a mechanical process that causes materials to wear away and includes abrasion
by solid particles carried by the stream, and evorsion, which wears down compact materials
by the impact of clear water carrying no suspended load.
Cavitation - requires high velocities in running water and results first from formation of
vapour bubbles because of pressure decrease associated with velocity increase in accordance
with the Bernoulli theorem, and then explosive collapse of the bubbles where the velocity
diminishes.
Deposition of the solid load is a consequence of a decrease in the stream gradient, volume or
velocity. Features of deposition in a stream are alluvial flood plains, deltaic deposits and
alluvial fans.
When considering the construction of a dam and reservoir in a valley the concern generally is
with only a relatively short segment of the total length of a stream, and particular attention is
given to whether in the floor of the valley erosional features on the average dominate or are
subsidiary to depositional features.
Glaciated Valleys
Streamcut valleys that have been modified by glaciers moving through them are of interest.
The figure shows an idealised plan and sections of a stream and glacier eroded valley with
two stages of glacier advance and retreat and prior and intervening periods of stream erosion.
Morainal ridges formed by deposition of glacial till along the sides of the glacier are called
lateral moraines. Stationary moraine is termed end or terminal moraine.
The alluvial, glacial, and landslide deposits on the floors and sides of valleys generally have
locations, configurations, and physical properties that are identified in the field with relative
ease. During planning, design, and construction of a dam and reservoir an assessment of these
deposits can be made without difficulty, and appropriate measures can be taken for their
removal or stabilization.
The two major consequences of impounding water in a natural or artificial reservoir are -
Deposition of all or much of the suspended and traction load transported by the
stream;
Increase in downward and lateral erosion by clear or desilted water downstream from
the obstruction.
Attempts to control the rate of filling of reservoirs by sediment may include construction of
dams and reservoirs to intercept sediment upstream from a major facility, such as a large dam
for electric power generation, and regional programs for soil stabilization and conservation in
upstream drainage basins.
Based on Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites by E.E.
Wahlstrom
Topographical and Geological Conditions for Different Types of Dams
When the size of the dam has been determined, the type of dam envisaged requires certain
geological and topographical conditions which, for the main types of dams, may be stated as
follows.
Concrete Dams Embankment Dams
Gravity Dams
Rockfill Dams
Buttress Dams
Hydraulic Fill Dams
Multiple Arch Dams
Earthen Embankments
Thick Arch Dams
Composite Dams
Thin Arch Dams
Gravity Dams
Buttress Dams
An arch dam utilises the strength of an arch to resist loads placed upon it by 'arch action'. The
foundations and abutments must be competent not only to support the dead weight of the dam
on the foundation but also the forces that are directed into the abutments because of arch
action in response to the forces acting on the dam. Therefore, the strength of the rock mass at
the abutments and immediately downvalley of the dam must be unquestionable and its
modulus of elasticity must be high enough to ensure deformation under thrust from the arch is
not so great as to induce excessive stresses in the arch.
The thick arch dam can be built where the crest chord-height ratio is between 3 and 5.
The chief geological criterion is that the rock must be absolutely reliable to bear 3.5
MPa or more without any appreciable settlement.
A substantial saving in material compared with that of gravity dams.
Thick arch dams are difficult to design on paper but are well determined from trials on
models.
Thin arch dams require valleys to have a crest chord-height ratio of under 3, with a
radius of under 150m.
The pressure exerted on the valley sides is between 5.5 - 8 MPa
Where there is a vertical radius of curvature as well as a horizontal, this is known as a
cupola or dome type.
Used where cement is expensive and labour is cheap.
Rockfill Dams
Suitable in valleys of soft material and are constructed by pumping soft material duly
consolidated up to moderated heights up to 30m.
Earthen Embankments
Near the site there must be clay to fill the trench and embanking material capable of
standing safely, without slipping, to hold up a clay core.
An advantage of earthen embankments is that troubles due to the deterioration of the
structure by peaty waters of low pH do not arise.
Composite Dams
Not only can different types of dam can be built in the same valley, but the same dam
can be of different types owing to the varying geological and topographical features of
the dam site.
Many buttress dams also join up with gravity mass concrete dams at their haunches at
the sides of the valley, and again at the centre have a mass concrete gravity dam to
form a suitable overflow or spillway.
Seismic Activity
An engineer is interested in two aspects of seismic activity:
1. Whether natural earthquakes are likely to occur in close proximity to the dam and
would they be of an intensity to cause damage to the dam or appurtenant structures.
Natural Events
2. Whether filling of the reservoir might induce earthquake activity, with the possibility
of damage to the dam or liability for damage to other structures or persons. Although
the magnitude of the shocks maybe low, the proximity of the epicentres could make
the effects more serious.
Triggered Events
Appraisal of the seismicity of the site should be undertaken at the earliest possible date.
Seismographs should be installed to establish the magnitude of all natural events, their
epicentres and depths of focus. Background noise, such as quarry blasting should be filtered
out of the records. Records should be continued for at least 5 years after filling of the
reservoir, and preferably to cover periods of large drawdown and refilling of the reservoir.
Seismographs - For large dams the installation of seismographs is not expensive. These
seismographs will be triggered to record major events of a predetermined magnitude. It is
usual to install such instruments on rock at the base of the dam, on the crest of the dam and
preferably on rock at a short distance from the dam.
The magnitude of an earthquake is an indication of its absolute size, or total energy release. It
is measured by the Richter Scale which is an arbitrary logarithmic scale. It defines the
magnitude in terms of the maximum amplitude of a standard seismometer at a distance of 100
km from the epicentre.
Preliminary investigations should include researching the earthquake history of the region.
This should involve investigating official records and local newspapers which often reveal
shocks felt by people in centres remote from any seismographs. If no evidence of earthquake
activity in the region is apparent, it would be unwise to assume nothing could happen in the
future. Field surveys should include the recording of all faults in the region and the
installation of seismographs in the region.
The scope of the seismic investigation is decided by the engineer. The engineer must consider
the probable cost in comparison with the cost of conservative assumptions in design, the
effect of such extra cost on the viability of the project, and the damage that might occur by
neglect of such investigations.
Appraisal of the seismicity of the site should be undertaken at the earliest possible date.
Seismographs should be installed to establish the magnitude of all natural events, their
epicentres and depths of focus. Background noise, such as quarry blasting should be filtered
out of the records. Records should be continued for at least 5 years after filling of the
reservoir, and preferably to cover periods of large drawdown and refilling of the reservoir.
Seismographs - For large dams the installation of seismographs is not expensive. These
seismographs will be triggered to record major events of a predetermined magnitude. It is
usual to install such instruments on rock at the base of the dam, on the crest of the dam and
preferably on rock at a short distance from the dam.
The magnitude of an earthquake is an indication of its absolute size, or total energy release. It
is measured by the Richter Scale which is an arbitrary logarithmic scale. It defines the
magnitude in terms of the maximum amplitude of a standard seismometer at a distance of 100
km from the epicentre.
Landslips are a common feature of valleys in mountainous areas and large slips often cause
narrowing of a valley which may then look topographically suitable for a dam. Unless they
are shallow seated and can be removed or effectively drained, it is prudent to avoid land slip
areas in dam location, because their unstable nature may result in movement during
construction or subsequently on drawdown.
Valley Bulging
Valley bulges consist of folds formed by mass movement of argillaceous material in valley
bottoms, the argillaceous material being overlain by thick, competent strata. These features
cause stress-relief, that is, as stream erosion occurs within the valley the excess loading on the
sides causes the argillaceous material to squeeze out towards the area of minimum loading.
This causes the rocks in the valley to bulge upwards.
When the mine is under a reservoir there is the possibility that sufficient water could pass
through the intervening rocks to flood the mine, or at least increase drainage problems. Even
if the rock series were sufficiently impermeable to impede the flow of water, there is the
possibility that excessive interstical pressure could build up - with the danger to mine faces. If
the mine is above and adjacent to the reservoir, saturation of the hillside and change in the
water table could lead to potential instability. Seismic effects from blasting within the mine
might then be sufficient to trigger a landslide.
Any site investigation must include both existing mines and potential mines, for matters of
liability.
HYDROLOGY CONTENTS
5. FLOODS
1. INTRODUCTION
6. HYDRODYNAMIC FLOW NETS
2. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
7. ANISOTROPIC BEDROCKS
3. STORAGE CAPACITY
4. FREEBOARD
8. FILLED RESERVOIRS
Hydrology Introduction
Hydrology is a science of prediction - the likelihood of recurrence of natural events.
Mathematicians may try to predict events based on past history but Nature is unpredictable as
to time and magnitude of occurence.
Based on past information the low flow characteristics of the river will control the storage
required and hence the normal full supply level of the reservoir. High flow records and flood
forecasting techniques provide the basis for design of the spillway, and hence the flood
storage required above normal full supply level.
Meteorology - Weather forecasting is important to the dam engineer because future seasonal
weather could influence the decision as to which type of dam is built. For example, too short a
Whatever dimensions the Engineer selects for the dam and spillway there will always be some
risk, assessment of the acceptable risk is the art of dam engineering.
Hydrological Cycle
The cyclic movement of water from the sea to the atmosphere and thence by precipitation to
the Earth, where it collects in streams and runs back to the sea, is referred to as the
hydrological cycle. The cycle is not as simple as that, firstly, precipitation may fall at all
stages, secondly, there is no uniformity in the time a cycle takes, thirdly, the intensity and
frequency of the cycle depend on geography and climate.
Water in the sea evapourates under solar radiation, and clouds of water vapour move over land
areas. Precipitation occurs as snow, hail, rain and condensate in the form of dew, over land
and sea. Snow and ice on land are water in temporary storage. Rain falling over land surfaces
may be intercepted by vegetation and evaporate back to the atmosphere. Some of it infiltrates
into the soil and moves down or percolates into the saturated ground zone beneath the water
table, or phreatic surface. The water in this zone flows slowly through aquifers to river
channels or sometimes directly to the sea. The water that infiltrates also feeds the surface
plant life and some gets drawn up into this vegetation where transpiration takes place from
leafy plant surfaces.
The water remaining on the surface partially evapourates back to vapour, but the bulk of it
coalesces into streamlets and runs as surface runoff to the river channels. The river and lake
surfaces also evapourate, so still more is removed here. Finally, the remaining water that has
not infiltrated or evapourated arrives back at the sea via the river channels. The groundwater,
moving much more slowly, either emerges into the stream channels or arrives at the coastline
and seeps into the sea, and the whole cycle starts again.
Storage Capacity
The storage capacity required in a reservoir may be determined in a number of ways. In
tropical regions it may be decided to store the whole runoff from precipitation in one season.
Whether this would ensure continuity of flow would depend upon the season selected and the
seasons occurring later. It may be decided to provide sufficient storage to ensure continuity
based upon a repetition of past history.
In evaluating storage requirements a hydrologist would use various hydrological tools such as
cumulative mass curves, runoff, estimation of flood design, flood routing and other factors.
Freeboard
Freeboard - 'The vertical distance between the top of the dam and the full supply level on the
reservoir.'
The top of the dam is the level of water tightness of the structure and may be the top of a
parapet that is watertight throughout its length. Full supply level is the level adopted in design
for the maximum operation of the reservoir.
Flood Surcharge
Seiche effects
Wind set-up of the water surface
Wave action
Run-up of waves on the dam.
Inaccuracy of data;
Large risks if breached;
Type of dam.
Floods
Estimation of design flood
The statistical analysis of past floods with extrapolation to estimate the magnitude and
probability of occurrence of future floods, and;
The estimation of probable maximum precipitation on to the particular catchments
under the worst meteorological conditions likely to occur over the catchments,
followed by an estimation of the run-off that would result from such a storm.
The determination of probable maximum precipitation for a particular drainage basin requires
comprehensive study of major storms on record and is a job for experts. One is limited by the
lack of data, records usually do not go back more than 50 years, which makes prediction of
more than the 100 year flood impossible. As it is, 50 years of data will predict a 100 year
flood to within 25%, and 115 years will predict it to 10%.
The Engineer is faced with conflicting requirements in terms of safety and economy, he is
therefore obliged to use to the best advantage the data and procedures that are available;
Flood Routing
Idealised cross sections of dams showing various kinds of zones of potential seepage in
bedrock.
Filling of a reservoir causes adjustments in the groundwater table in adjacent materials. Over
a period of time when the reservoir is full a new groundwater table is established with
coincides with the elevation of the water surface. The groundwater surface is a free surface in
contact through unfilled pore spaces with the atmosphere, changes in atmospheric pressure are
Foundation Introduction
The foundations of a dam must be able to withstand without unacceptable deformation the
loads imposed upon it by the structure, both immediately after filling the reservoir and in the
long term.
With time, deterioration by saturation and percolation of water can occur, whilst soft rocks
and clays usually exhibit lower residual strengths under sustained loading than under rapid
testing. It is the 10-20m of rock immediately below the dam that is of greatest importance.
Foundation Preparation
Introduction
If it is economically feasible, all material under the base of a proposed dam which could cause
excessive settlement and leakage should be removed. If this cannot be done, the dam design
should be modified to take account of such material. Sometimes it may be necessary to
remove material to considerable depths in isolated areas of the foundation. This is known as
dental work. The general overall removal of material is termed stripping, whereas the removal
of loose masses of rocks on the abutments is termed scaling. The engineering geologist has to
determine the expected depth of weathered or unsound rock or overburden that must be
removed in advance of construction.
Foundation programme
A planned programme of foundation excavation should be initiated with the view that the
volume of excavation and configuration of the excavation will approximate reasonably to the
plans and specifications established. It is the responsibility of the construction engineer to
ensure slopes for excavations will be permanently stable or will not fail during construction.
In earth materials slopes of 1.5:1 to 2:1 are excavated in permanent cuts and slopes of 1:1 are
established in temporary cuts, except where unusual conditions are anticipated. In bedrock
that is not closely fractured or does not contain inclined planes of potential slippage, such as
bedding planes in weak rocks, slopes are excavated at angles up to the vertical.
Poor foundation conditions in rocks are associated with close fracturing, weathering or
hydrothermal alteration, or poorly indurated sedimentary rocks.
Excavation in bedrock
The objective of excavation is the preparation of a clean surface that will provide optimum
contact with the dam materials, whether earth or concrete is to be placed on that surface.
Therefore excavations in bedrock should extend into firm, fresh rock. Any closely fractured
zones extending downward, especially if containing soft altered materials such as clay gouge
or other products of weathering, should be removed if feasible.
Prolonged exposure of both earth and rock foundations to the atmosphere or to water
frequently results in deterioration by hydration, dehydration, frost action, shrinkage, and
expansion with changes in temperature. It is good practice to protect reactive surfaces that
will be exposed for long periods of time with bituminous materials. Alternatively, original
cover is not removed until final cleanup and just prior to placement of the dam.
At an ideal site, excavations in unconsolidated deposits should extend to solid bedrock for the
full width of the dam, whether it is constructed of concrete or earth/rock fill. However, there
are many locations where the depth of the valley fill is so great that dams must be constructed
in part or entirely on unconsolidated deposits. Where this is the case steps must be taken to
improve the engineering properties of the foundation materials and to reduce subsurface
seepage to allowable levels.
Except for low dams of small gross weight, concrete dams are not built on unconsolidated
deposits because of their generally low bearing strength. Larger dams constructed in whole or
in part on unconsolidated deposits should without exception, be earth or rockfill dams with
the capacity to adjust to settlement in the foundation materials.
CONCRETE
Preparation of foundations - the extent of the work that will be necessary in the foundations
for a concrete dam will be determined by two main factors, their strength to sustain the loads
that will be imposed by dam and the reservoir water, and the effect of water entering the
foundations under pressure from the reservoir.
Generally the quality of foundations for a gravity dam will improve with depth of excavation
however the abutments for an arch dam often do not improve with distance excavated into the
sides of the valley. Deterioration of clay could endanger the dam and/or lead to collapse of
abutments downstream from the dam.
Frequently the course of the river has been determined by geological faults or weaknesses;
proving of the river bed is therefore of first importance in the investigation stage. The depth to
Concrete dams may be constructed on foundations other than massive rock, i.e. shales, glacial
deposits or even sand for river works. Each case must be examined relative to permeability,
settlement, and load-carrying capacity (vertical and horizontal).
The final preparation of the foundation should be undertaken just prior to the placement of
concrete. It should include the removal of loose rock and all debris, roughening of smooth
rock surfaces, washing down of all surfaces, and the removal of excess water from pools to
leave a clean damp surface to receive the concrete.
Foundation Design
Construction of a dam and filling of the reservoir behind it create load stresses on the floor
and sides of a valley that did not exist previously.
The kinds and distributions of imposed stresses created by a dam on its foundation depend on
the shape of the dam and the materials used in its construction.
Earth and rock fill dams exhibit gross semiplastic behaviour, and the pressure on the
foundation at any point depends on the thickness of the dam above the point.
The pressures exerted by earth and rock-fill dams resemble in some respects those exerted by
the water in a reservoir, but pressure distribution is modified by the fact that the materials of
construction have some inherent strength, and fail only after some threshold stress has been
exceeded. Pressures exerted by water in the reservoir behind a dam are hydrostatic and
increase linearly with depth.
The pressures are hydrostatic and increase with depth. On the assumption that the pressures
are directed normal to the floor and sides, they are shown as vectors of increasing magnitude
with depth.
The deadweight load of a concrete dam is distributed over the total area of the foundation and
is shown by vectors normal to the surface beneath the dam. The figures are essentially static,
and depend only on the weight of the dam and the area of the foundation.
Water exerts hydrostatic pressures not only on the floor and walls of a reservoir but also on
the upstream face of a dam. D is the depth of water in a reservoir, P is the hydrostatic pressure
per unit area acting on the vertical face of a concrete dam assumed to behave as a rigid body.
The change in pressure with depth (in the y direction) is given by dP/dY=þg in which þ is the
density of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Figure 1 illustrates an earth dam, a nonrigid structure that under stress behaves
semiplastically. Because of relatively easy internal adjustments to loads, the pressure exerted
on the foundation are approximately equal to the weight of overlying prisms of material of
different heights. Pressures exerted on the dam by water in the reservoir tend to cause greater
adjustments near the base of the dam than at shallower depths.
A cross section of a concrete gravity dam, presumed to behave as a rigid body. When the
reservoir is empty, the weight of the dam is directed vertically downward. When the reservoir
is full, a combination of hydrostatic pressure on the upstream face of the dam and the weight
of the dam produces a force vector inclined downstream away from the vertical force vector,
and there is a tendency for the dam not only to be displaced downstream but also to rotate
about the downstream toe of the dam because of a torque.
These figures show force vectors for empty and filled reservoirs behind concrete arch dams.
Unlike gravity dams, arch dams because of the egg-shell effect tend to resist downstream
dislocation and the displacing forces, instead, are transmitted laterally through the dam and
toward the abutments.
Figures (C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites
The figure below shows a mechanism of foundation failure under load that has been widely
employed in the analysis of bearing strengths of soils. This mechanism responds to analysis
by application of Mohr's thoery of shear failure called the plastic method of analysis of
bearing capacity.
Slope failures toward abutments (in direction of the dam axis) which disturb or dislocate the
abutments are rare. In concrete dams in which slopes in the abutment areas maintain
themselves during excavation for the foundation, the possibility of downslope movement
along surfaces that intersect the foundation of the dam is remote because of the added stability
provided by the weight and strength of the dam. However, the possibility that slopes above
the dam, especially in deep valleys, may fail and bury surface structures with rock and/or soil
debris.
Bearing capacity
To avoid shear failure, the foundation pressures used in design should have an adequate factor
of safety when compared with the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation. If failure is to
be avoided, then a factor of safety must be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity, the value
being obtained being the safe bearing capacity. The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the
least pressure which would cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below and
adjacent to a foundation. However, this value still may mean risk of excessive settlement or
differential settlement. Thus the allowable bearing capacity which is used in design will take
into account all possibilities of ground movement and so its value will normally be less than
the safe bearing capacity.
Seepage - Introduction
Seepage under an embankment is much more dangerous than that for a concrete dam, since
embankments are usually built on soft material which is liable to be scoured out and it is also
vulnerable to influx of water; whereas a concrete dam is usually built on rock which is not
worn away so rapidly by the scouring action of water; and even then a defective dam will not
necessarily be endangered by passage of water through it or even under it.
Stored water behind dams, gives rise to three basic seepage problems, which can lead to
difficulties and in serious cases to total failure:
1. Piping occurs when water picks up soil particles and moves them through unprotected
exits, developing unseen channels or pipes through a dam or its foundation.
2. Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces.
3. Excessive loss of water.
Water that percolates through earth dams and their foundations can carry soil particles that are
free to migrate. The seepage forces tend to cause the erodible soil or soft rock to move
towards the downstream face of the dam. That is if the seepage forces are large enough and
the pore spaces in the material are large enough. Along the unprotected discharge face AB, the
soil will heave if the gradients are large enough.
Every seepage discharge surface, both internal and external, which could be susceptible to
piping or heave must be covered with filters that permit water to pass but will hold the soil
particles firmly in place.
Filter criteria
Since the core is stabilised with rock or gravel zones, it is necessary to prevent the fine core
material being sucked into the upstream shell material during rapid drawdown of the
reservoir, or forced into the downstream shell by seepage water under reservoir head.
Transition or filter zones must therefore be provided on each side of the core.
The upstream filter, if non-cohesive and of proper grading, can serve a valuable service by
providing material for induced self-healing should a transverse crack appear in the core.
Selection of the best material for this purpose is well justified. Although its prime function is
to retain the core material against movement into the rockfill, the downstream transition
material should be selected and placed so as to inhibit the propagation of a core crack into the
compacted rockfill. It is good practice to widen the transition zones towards each abutment,
i.e. where tension and oblique cracking may occur.
D50/D50 < 25
(filter)/(zone being filtered)
The foundations and abutments of dams are usually stable under the influence of the natural
groundwater flow. However, reservoir filling greatly changes the groundwater regime and
may lead to piping and internal erosion. The potential for internal erosion and piping may
occur at joints in rock, beds of gravel and in cavities left by rotting roots, animals burrows or
other buried organic matter.
Field exploration and geological mapping for dam projects should identify the important soil
and rock formations that could cause failure by internal piping or heave. The geotechnical
properties of these materials should be thoroughly investigated. If the materials are proven to
be unsuitable then remedial action should be taken to improve their geotechnical properties.
All new dams and reservoirs should be carefully observed and monitored once in service to
detect the development of unsafe conditions. If seepage quantities increase or if there is an
unexplained change in seepage conditions then protective measures should be put into action.
Such actions should include lowering the reservoir and placing weighted filters over areas
where seepage discharges occur.
Seepage Reduction
Basic considerations
Seepage-reduction methods make use of impermeable cutoffs, grout curtains, and upstream
blankets, which consume energy at locations within cross sections where large water
pressures and seepage forces have no detrimental effects. The net result of these methods is
that water pressures and seepage forces are reduced in the downstream region. These seepage-
reducing features are usually combined with properly designed filters and drainage features,
since seepage reduction can only be partially effective by itself.
Foundation grouting
Foundations Improvement
Pre-Consolidation
Pre-consolidation is a useful foundation treatment method in compressible soils, depending on
the rate of consolidation. If the rate is rapid (one to two months for 50%) it will be possible to
pile up the soils removed from stripping and scaling of the abutments to form an artificial
surcharge.
If the rate is slower (one to two years for 50%) the dam weight can be used to consolidate the
soil and increase it's strength. It would be necessary to control the rate of construction so that
the weight applied does not exceed the ability of the foundation to support the structure safely.
It may, however, be necessary to increase the length of the construction period to obtain a
sufficient gain in strength. Drainage of the foundation can also help to accelerate
consolidation.
A vibroflot can be used to penetrate the soil and can operate efficiently below the water table.
The best results are obtained in coarse sands which contain little or no silt or clay, since both
reduce the effectiveness of the vibroflot.
Preliminary geological and geophysical investigations usually reveal only the general
characteristics of the bedrock, it is not until the keyway for the dam has been excavated and
the bare rock can be examined. This is a critical time because the constructor is eager to
proceed with the dam construction, however this is the last chance to ensure that all the
fissures are sealed to prevent water loss at a later stage and must be extensively treated to
assure ultimate safety of the dam.
Although grouting of a rock foundation may be conducted with meticulous care, the possibiliy
always exists that some channelways of underground water circulation remain and that flow
through these chanelways will accelerate as the reservoir is filled. If the volumes are
excessive then remedial steps must be taken, otherwise the flows may be intercepted and
diverted by drain holes or porous prisms.
Grout
Grout is a liquid, either a uniform chemical substance or an aqueous suspension of solids that
is injected into rocks or unconsolidated materials through specially drilled boreholes to
improve bulk physical properties and/or to eliminate seepage of groudwater.
Some cross sections of dams with rock foundations showing locations of drilled holes for
foundation treatment.
A - Curtain grout holes
B - Blanket grout holes
C - Special purpose, off-pattern grout holes
D - Drain holes
Earth dam
Concrete arch-dam
Pattern Grouting
Plans for dams commonly include broad specifications for a systematic program of blanket
and/or curtain grouting. Grouting is an uncertain process, it is impossible to accurately
estimate the amount of grout required, and usually the 'take' amounts moderately to greatly in
excess of the estimate. 'Grouting is an art and not a science.'
Pattern grouting is grouting included in the plans and specifications for a dam and commonly
is the basis for estimation prior to construction of the total footage of grout holes and the
expected amount of grout consumption. It is general practice to lay out locations of grout
holes in the plans with a definite, systematic pattern, spacing and assumed depths.
Blanket Grouting
Blanket grout holes are usually shallow, not more than 6 - 9 m deep and are intended to
remedy flaws in the foundation, such as fractured rock, by reducing permeability and
increasing bulk strength. Although holes may be routinely drilled normal to the foundation
surface, there is considerable merit in directing the holes to intersect specific local features
identified in the dam foundation during excavation. Blanket grouting must be completed
before construction of a dam.
Curtain Grouting
In earth / rockfill dams, curtain grouting is usually completed before a dam is constructed and
involves filling a narrow excavated trench in the foundation with concrete. The exception to
the timing of the grouting operation is grouting after construction for a grouting cap at the
upstream heel of a dam.
Curtain grouting of the foundations of concrete dams is most effective after completion of the
dam, at a time when the full load is being applied to the foundation. Under such
circumstances higher pressures may be used in grouting so as to assure maximum travel of
grout in all directions along flow paths intersected by grout holes.
In gravity and gravity arch dams of moderate to large size it is common practice to construct a
gallery inside the dam for drilling curtain grout holes and drainage holes. Foundations of
small gravity and thin arch dams are efficiently grouted from grout caps along the contact of
the upstream face of the dam with rock.
Where there are no geological controls the depths of curtain pattern grout holes are
determined by a formula. A frequently used formula is: the vertical depth of grout holes shall
be a third of the dam height at the location of the hole plus (15 - 20m).
The depths, directions and inclinations of the grout holes are determined by the three-
dimensional geometry of zones of incompetent and / or permeable rocks as revealed by field
examination of bedrock exposures in foundation and abutment excavations.
If easy grout circulation continues with the progress of the grouting operation, the suspension
is gradually thickened and, if necessary, the pressure correspondingly increased until filling of
available openings is indicated by refusal of the grout hole to accept additional grout. Grout
leaks at the surface should be calked or otherwise sealed to promote confined subsurface
movement of grout suspensions.
The definitions of thin and thick are not precise, but generally thin mixtures are construed to
mean mixtures prepared by mixing 8-10 volumes water with one volume of cement. Thick
mixtures have volume proportions of cement to water of approximately 1:1, or thicknesses
that are not so great that the grout can not be pumped with reasonable ease. In highly
permeable materials thick grout mixtures are indicated with inert additives such as clay or
sand may be added to grout suspensions as inexpensive fillers.
If grout pressures exceed certain limits there is the possibility of foundation dislocation and
new channelways being created. Because of a wide range in complexity of patterns of
underground circulation it is not possible to establish a rigid formula for controlling grout
Premature thickening of grout or reduction of pressures to cause grout refusal in a grout hole
should be avoided unless it can be demonstrated that grout is escaping to the surface well
outside of the foundation area. So long as grout is circulating somewhere in the foundation of
a dam or in the near proximity of the foundation, it must be assumed that it is contributing to
an improvement of the engineering properties of foundation materials and to a reduction in
permeability to groundwater seepage.
Drainage Methods
Permeable downstream shells
At dam sites where there is an abundance of at least two different materials with significantly
different permeabilities, a zoned dam may be constructed. In such cases permeable material is
placed downstream of less permeable material, often with a transition zone between. For
example, in a zoned dam which has a thick impermeable core and rests on an impermeable
foundation, the flowpaths within the downstream portion of the dam will be low. Thus
seepage has a negligible effect on the stability of the downstream slope, which is the ideal
condition in zoned earth dams.
Purpose
A homogeneous dam with a height of more than about 6 m to 8 m should have some type of
downstream drain. The purpose of a drain is:
1. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam therefore
increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
2. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and prevent
erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location and extent.
However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the pervious material from
which the drain is constructed meets the filter requirements for the embankment material.
The design of a downstream drainage system is controlled by the height of the dam, the cost
and availability of permeable material, and the permeability of the foundation.
For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have been installed in
some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent softening and erosion of the
downstream toe.
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or one-third of the
foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's 45 m Vega Dam is a homogeneous dam which
has been constructed with a horizontal downstream drain. Where pervious material is scarce,
the internal strip drains can be placed instead since these give the same general effect.
An earth dam embankment tends to be more pervious in the horizontal direction than in the
vertical. Occasionally, horizontal layers tend to be much more impervious than the average
material constructed into the embankment, so the water will flow horizontally on a relatively
impervious layer and discharge on the downstream face despite the horizontal drain.,p>
Where this has occurred the downstream slope is prone to slipping and piping. Repairs can be
made by installing pervious blankets on the downstream slopes or constructing vertical drains
to connect with the horizontal blanket. Such vertical drains are normally composed of sand
and gravel.
Chimney drains
In some major dam projects, chimney drains have been inclined at a considerable slope, both
upstream and sometimes downstream. An upstream inclined drain can act as a relatively thin
core. In addition to controlling seepage through the dam and increasing the stability of the
downstream slope, the chimney drain is also useful in reducing pore water pressures both
during construction and following rapid reservoir drawdown.
The dimensions and permeability of permeable drains must be adequate to carry away the
anticipated flow with an ample margin of safety for unexpected leaks. If the dam and the
foundations are relatively impermeable, then the expected leakage would be low. A drain
should be constructed of material with a coefficient of permeability of at least 10 to 100 times
greater than the average embankment material.
Settlement
All structures undergo some settlement, regardless of their construction or of the quality of
their foundations. Structures made of soil or founded on soil settle so much that their
performance is affected and their safety is compromised.
Concrete dams are almost always based on strong rock foundations where settlement of the
dam is kept to a minimum otherwise the dams would crack leading to serious structural faults.
Embankment dams can be founded on soft compressible materials and are able to withstand
large settlements.
Causes of settlement
Measurement of settlement
Effects of settlement on structures
Settlement due to changes in environment
Causes of settlement
1. Bearing capaicty failure or instability, including landslides.
2. Failure or deflection of the foundation structure.
3. Elastic or distortion of the soil or rock.
Measurement of settlement
Measurement of settlement within a dam should illustrate the progress of consolidation in the
dam and point out whether addition of height will be necessary to maintain freeboard. In
embankment dams settlement measurements are helpful in computing the volume of material
placed in the dam from the dimensions of the completed structure and provide a check on
original design specifications.
Crest settlement is measured by bench marks placed at intervals along the top of the dam.
Obviously these are tied to a reference bench mark on the abutment which is immovable.
Measurement of internal settlement is made using settlement plates embedded in the dam or
the foundation.
Total Settlement
The total amount of settlement a structure can undergo without damage is large provided it is
relatively uniform. However, with large amounts of settlement several forms of trouble
develop. In embankments and dams on earth foundations the result will be a lowering of the
crest. This is an insidious form of trouble since it usually develops slowly, often without the
operators of maintenance personnel being aware of the loss of height and free board.
Allowances must be made for settlement in the design height, and periodic measurements
should be taken to be sure that the proper crest level is maintained. A considerable part of the
settlement, both of the foundation and of the embankment, occurs during the construction
period. This can result in discrepancies in the computed volume of the structure unless it is
anticipated and careful records of the settlement are kept. With proper allowances,
embankment settlements of a few metres can be tolerated. Total settlement is not a serious
matter if it is anticapted and provisions made before hand.
Tilting
Tilting occurs in the parts of the structure that are outside the centre of the saucer-like
depression. It also takes place when the structure is unevenly loaded, or when the soils are
non-uniform. It is of importance mainly with tall structures such as large retaining walls,
transmission towers, water tanks, and smoke stacks. It is particularly serious in structures that
are inter-connected. The amount of tilt which can be tolerated depends on the height-width
ratio of the structure.
Distortion
Differential settlement which produces relative movement is known as distortion. The load of
an embankment on a uniform soil produces a settlement profile as shown below. There is also
a tendency for cracks to develop as indicated. These cracks may lead to accelerated seepage,
erosion, and even failure.
Figure 2 - The non uniform foundation thickness and the greater loading at the centre than at
the abutments brings about a sagging profile along the axis. Shear cracks tend to form as
shown. These are far more serious because they extend from upstream to downstream and
several dam failures have been attributed to such cracking.
Figure 3 - When a small portion of the embankment extends beyond the main section shear
cracks sometimes develop.
Figure 4 - Similar settlement adjacent to an overhanging abutment can create cracks at their
juncture.
Exposure to soils to hot dry weather during construction can cause both settlement and
shrinkage cracking. A desiccated clay that is subsequently inundated may swell and damage a
superimposed structure or embankment by heave. Moreover, the cracked, swollen soil is
weakened and can be a cause of foundation failure.
CONCRETE DAMS
CONTENTS
A concrete gravity dam has a cross section such that with a flat bottom, the dam is free
standing. That is, the dam has a center of gravity low enough that the dam will not topple if
unsupported at the abutments. Gravity dams require maximum amounts of concrete for their
construction as compared with other kinds of concrete dams, and resist dislocation by the
hydrostatic pressure of reservoir water by sheer weight. A favourable site usually is one in a
constriction in a valley where the sound bedrock is reasonably close to the surface both in the
floor and abutments of the dam. The availability of suitable aggregate for manufacture of
concrete is also an important consideration.
Masonry dams that relied upon their weight for stability against sliding and overturning date
back 3000 to 4000 years, both upstream and downstream faces were sloped and the base
thickness was many times the height. In 1872 Rankine proposed that there should be no
tensile stress in a gravity dam. In 1895 Levy proposed that the compressive stress in the
material of the dam at the upstream face should be greater than the water pressure at the
corresponding depth in the reservoir.
Loading Criteria
In 1940 Houk and Keener, listed twenty five basic assumptions that should be considered
relative to the design of important masonry dams.
1. The rock that constitutes the foundation and abutments at the site is strong enough to
carry the forces imposed by the dam with stresses well below the elastic limit at all
places along the contact planes.
2. The bearing power of the geologic structure along the foundation and abutments is
great enough to carry the total loads imposed by the dam without rock movements of
detrimental magnitude.
3. The rock formations are homogeneous and uniformly elastic in all directions, so that
their deformations may be predicted satisfactorily by calculations based on the theory
of elasticiy, by laboratory measurements on models constructed of elastic materials, or
by combinations of both methods.
4. The flow of the foundation rock under the sustained loads that result from the
construction of the dam and the filling of the reservoir may be adequately allowed for
by using a somewhat lower modulus of elasticity than would otherwise be adopted for
use in the technical analyses.
5. The base of the dam is thoroughly keyed into the rock formations along the
foundations and abutments.
6. Construction operations are conducted so as to secure a satisfactory bond between the
concrete and rock materials at all areas of contact along the foundation and abutments.
7. The concrete in the dam is homogeneous in all parts of the structure.
8. The concrete is uniformly elastic in all parts of the structure, so that deformations due
to applied loads may be calculated by formulae derived on the basis of the theory of
elasticity or may be estimated from laboratory measurements on models constructed of
elastic materials.
9. Effects of flow of concrete may be adequately allowed for by using a somewhat lower
modulus of elasticity under sustained loads than would otherwise be adopted for use in
technical analyses.
10. Contraction joints are properly grouted under adequate pressures, or open slots are
properly filled with concrete, so that the dam may be considered to act as a monolith.
11. Sufficient drains are installed in the dam to reduce such uplift pressures as may
develop along areas of contact between the concrete and rock materials.
12. Effects of increases in horizontal pressures caused by silt contents of flood waters
usually may be ignored in designing high storage dams, but may require consideration
in designing relatively low diversion structures.
13. Uplift forces adequate for analysing conditions at the base of the dam are adequate for
analysing conditions at horizontal concrete cross sections above the base.
19. Vertical as
well as
horizontal
Uplift
Two factors directly affect the design of a dam, the intensity of hydrostatic pressure at various
points within or under the dam and the area upon which pressure acts.
It is now accepted for design purposes that uplift pressures act on the full area of the section.
The intensity of pressure may be represented by the diagram showing the ideal case of
underflow conditions for an impermeable dam with a straight base on a homogeneous
isotropic foundation of unlimited depth and horizontal extent.
Drainage is in the form of curtain of cored vertical holes 150 mm or more in diameter at 3-5
m spacing and located 304 m from the upstream face. A gallery runs from one end to the other
of the dam, above the tail water level. Drainage from the holes is led away via open gutters,
with measuring weirs installed to record the flow.
It is now general to adopt a distribution of uplift pressure as above, the value of factor k being
decided having due regard to the porosity of foundation rock and the existence of joints and
cracks therein. It is important to expend effort and money on a drainage system to ensure
satisfactory function over the entire life of the dam.
The usual analysis stresses normal to horizontal planes are assumed to have a linear
trapezoidal distribution. Finite element methods show the stress distribution to be as in the
figure.
It is significant that the maximum stresses do not occur at the downstream toe, and there may
be tension rather than compression at the upstream heel. However, there is similarity between
the two methods. It is important to check the distribution and intensity of stress around
galleries and other openings in the dam and to provide adequate reinforcement to prevent
propagation of cracks from points of high stress concentration.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Contraction Joints
Transverse Joints
Longitudinal Joints
For large structures the problems of cooling large masses of concrete are enormous. Resulting
in limiting the dimensions of monoliths to 15m squares, keyed on all sides. There is now a
tendency to decrease the number of longitudional joints or even omit them all, since there are
doubts of the final behaviour of dams built in columns.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Galleries
The normal function of a gallery is to provide access for inspection purposes, to monitor the
behaviour of the dam, and to carry out remedial work if required. It must therefore be of
sufficient height to permit easy movement of personnel and minor equipment, commonly
2.13m but varied to suit construction methods. The width is usually 1.5m but should be
related to the function of the gallery. Wide opening induce quite high local stresses with
consequent cracking of the concrete. Spiral staircases can link other galleries, ventilation and
pipes in quite a small shaft.
Circular shafts are the most desirable, with a removable floor covering drainage, but it is
harder and more expensive to form. Rectangular galleries require greater amounts of
reinforcement. Galleries also should be well lit and ventilated.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Go to Spillways Page
Power Station
The reluctance to use cables has been related to a lack of knowledge of steel cables when
embedded in concrete. It is however generally agreed that steel does not rust when embedded
in high quality concrete or cement grout in which there are no cracks or interconnected voids.
If prestressing is accepted in the design then it is prudent to make provision for retensioning if
required, replacement of bars or cables, or the installation of new cables. Serious corrosion of
cables can be detected by the regular measurement of their electrical resistance.
The actual behaviour of the dam will depend upon the nature of the foundation rock, any
initial stress in the rock and the effect of saturation of the rock mass.
For reasonable stress distribution the depth of the anchorage should be not less than the width
of the base of the dam. The advantages of wires over bars are:
The allowable working stress in high tensile wires is usually greater than in bars
Wire cables can be fabricated on site in one length, avoiding the use of couplers that
are necessary with bars and are a source of trouble
Arch dams are usually built in narrow, deep gorges in mountainous regions where access and
availability of construction materials pose especially acute problems.
Constant radius arch dams - commonly have a vertical upstream face with a constant radius
of curvature
Variable radius dams - have upstream and downstream curves (extrados and intrados curves)
of systematically decreasing radii with depth below the crest.
When a dam is also doubly curved, that is, it is curved in both horizontal and vertical planes,
it is sometimes called a dome dam. Some dams are constructed with two or several
contiguous arches or planes and are described as multiple arch or multiple dome dams.
Analysis assumes that two major kinds of deflections or dislocations affect the dam and its
abutments. Pressure of water on the upstream face of the dam and uplift pressures from
seepage beneath the dam tend to rotate the dam about its base by cantilever action. In addition
the pressure of reservoir water tends to flatten the arch and push it downstream.
Photograph (C) Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US
The concrete in the dam and the rock foundations are homogeneous and isotropic;
Stresses within the elastic limit for both concrete and the rock formations and that
stress will be proportional to strain;
That plane sections before bending remain plane after bending;
That direct stresses vary linearly between the upstream and downstream faces, in both
arch and cantilever elements;
That the modulus of elasticity of concrete and the modulus of deformation of the
foundation are the same in tension as in compression;
That temperature stresses and strains are proportional to temperature changes;
That water load on the reservoir walls does not cause differential movements at the
damsite;
That foundation deformations are independent of the shape of the foundation;
That tensions are relieved by cracking so that all loads are carried by compression and
shear in the uncracked portions;
That the dam acts as a monlith, i.e. that contraction joints or slots have been tightly
grouted and that all shrinkage of the concrete has taken place before this.
Steel reinforcement can reduce the thickness of the dam but at a cost. If reinforcement was not
used then cracking in the faces of an arch dam may result from:
Excessive tensile stress due to dam geometry;
Secondary tension resulting from high compressive forces in thin members;
Secondary tensile stresses at the arch haunches and parallel to the abutments;
'Hang up' of concrete adjacent to a near vertical abutment;
Temperature effects - either due to hydration of the cement or climatic conditions.
Definition of different arch dams based on base thickness (h is height of the dam):
Thin arch <0.2h
Medium arch 0.2h - 0.3h
Thick arch >0.3h
Arch-gravity >0.5h
Uplift - is not usually of importance in thin arch dams, but in thick arch dams provision is
made for internal drainage, as for gravity dams. If the design assumes that the concrete will
crack if tensions exceed say 0.4MPa, then it is consistent to assume that full hydrostatic
pressure can act in such cracks.
Tensile stresses - the aim of the designer is to eliminate tensile stresses, although this is not
always possible since an irregular cross-section can generate local stress concentrations, and
necessary excavation of abutments beyond the design limits will alter the geometry of the
dam, and possibly affect the degree of fixity.
Abutment Stability
In the rock body the following are involved:
The weight of the rock;
Static tectonic and dynamic seismic stresses;
Hydrostatic thrusts and buoyancy after filling of the reservoir;
Forces transmitted from the dam.
Minimum safety is usually found in the upper part of the double curvature dams because:
The upper zones of the valley are less tight and earthquake forces here cause stronger
reactions;
The rock overburden is less - providing less normal loading on possible sliding planes;
The direction of the resultant forces from the dam often meet the abutments at less
favourable angles.
Percolation of water under pressure may affect the strength of a rock abutment:
Saturation frequently decreases the strength of rocks, probably due to infiltration of
microcracks;
Natural rock stresses will be modified by the water pressure, and
Shearing resistance may be decreased.
Shell Geometry
Constant-Radius Arch Dam
Each joint is usually divided by horizontal grout stops so that zones from ten to fifteen meters
high may be grouted progressively to ensure stability of the completed sections against
inadvertent overtopping by floods.
Arch dams are usually sufficiently flexible to defect measurably under the forces exerted by
joint grouting; the effectiveness of the grouting can therefore be assessed by comparing
measured with calculated deformations. To prevent harmful overstress regular observations
should be made during grouting on joint meters embedded in the concrete across the joints, on
dial gauges fixed to be upstream and downstream faces of the joint, on clinometers on faces of
the dam and galleries and on plumbobs and survey targets as convenient.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Prestressing
In seeking further economies in the construction of arch dams it appears to be necessary to
consider means of applying external loads to the dam to counteract undesirable tensile stresses
that would otherwise develop. Many dams have now been built with compressive stresses up
to 8.5 MPa but to increase these stresses would most likely not be possible without
prestressing to counteract the higher tensions.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TERMINOLOGY
3. EMBANKMENT DAMS
4. EARTHFILL DAMS
5. ROCKFILL DAMS
Introduction to Embankment Dams
ICOLD defined an embankment dam as, "any dam constructed of excavated materials placed
without addition of binding materials other than those inherent in the natural material. The
materials are usually obtained at or near the damsite"
Larger embankment dams are zoned and constructed of a variety of materials, either extracted
from different local sources or prepared by mechanical or hydraulic separation of source
material into fractions with different properties.
Embankment dams have been built on a variety of foundations, ranging from weak glacial
deposits to strong rock. An advantage compared with concrete dams is that the bearing
strength requirements of the foundation are much less. Minor settlement during and after
construction is generally not serious because of the adjustability of the material.
Terminology
Parts of an Earth Dam
1. It is more stable under the water load, because the downward force of the water
produces frictional resistance to sliding
2. The permeable rock embankment develops no uplift, since the embankment permits
no movement of water upward from the foundation.
3. The impermeable deck can easily be inspected and repaired if necessary.
4. During construction the height of the dam can be increased by dumping only on the
downstream side and extending the membrane upward on the sloping surface.
The choice for dams with impermeable zones depends largely on the stability of the core
material. If it is strong, a near upstream location is often the most economical. However, if the
core material is weak a central location is better.
Introduction
Failure of an embankment dam can result from instability of either the upstream or
downstream slopes. The failure surface may lie within the embankment or may pass through
the embankment and the foundation soil. The critical stages in an upstream slope are at the
end of construction and during rapid drawdown. The critical stages for the downstream slope
are at the end of construction and during steady seepage when the reservoir is full.
It is common to install piezometers to measure pore water pressures and compare data with
the predicted values used in design. Since pore water pressures are a dominant influence on
the factor of safety of slopes, remedial action should be taken if the factor of safety, based on
the measured values, is considered to be too low.
1. The slopes must be safe against surface slipping. To ensure this the slopes must be no
steeper than the angle of repose
2. The dam must be safe against sliding on the foundation
3. The mass of the embankment must be safe against a circular arc failure or composite
linear failure. This is likely to occur within an earth core or weak foundation
The safety against failure can be increased by reducing the gradient of the slopes.
Homogeneous Embankment
Zoned Embankment
1. Within rockfill
2. Through rockfill and foundation
3. Through core and foundation
Most slope failures occur either during, or at the end of construction. Pore water pressures
depend on the placement water content of the fill and on the rate of construction. A
commitment to achieve rapid completion will result in high pore water pressures at the end of
construction. However, the construction period of an embankment dam is likely to be long
enough to allow partial dissipation of excess pore water pressure, especially for a dam with
internal drainage. Dissipation of excess pore water pressures can be accelerated by installing
horizontal drainage layers within the dam. However, a total stress analysis would result in an
over conservative design. An effective stress analysis is therefore preferred. A factor of safety
as low as 1.3 may be acceptable at the end of construction provided there is reasonable
confidence in the design data.
Steady seepage
When the reservoir has been full for some time, conditions of steady seepage become
established through the dam with the soil below the top flow line in the fully saturated state.
This condition must be analysed in terms of effective stress with values of pore pressure being
determined from the flow net. The factor of safety for this condition should be at least 1.5.
Internal erosion is a particular danger when the reservoir is full because it can arise and
develop within a relatively short time, seriously impairing the safety of the dam.
Rapid drawdown of the reservoir after a condition of steady seepage will result in a change in
the pore water pressure distribution. If the permeability of the soil is low, a drawdown period
measured in weeks may be 'rapid' in relation to the dissipation time and the change in pore
water pressure.
The pore water pressure distribution after drawdown in soils of high permeability decreases as
pore water drains out of the soil above the drawdown level. The saturation line moves
downwards at a rate dependant upon the permeability of the soil. A series of flow nets can be
drawn for different positions of the saturation line and values of pore water pressure obtained.
The factor of safety can then be determined, using an effective stress analysis, for any position
of the saturation line.
Settlement
Settlement is a problem for embankment dams. It begins during construction and continues
for many years after the dam is complete. The two main causes are:
1. The migration or working of fines from between the points of contact between the
larger rock allows the particles to re-orient themselves into a more dense structure
2. The crushing of the contact points between the larger rocks under the extreme stress
developed by the embankment weight causes the rocks to develop new points of
contact which in turn crush again.
The problem can be avoided by proper compaction during construction. In earthfill dams it
may be possible to overbuild the dam, to make a, say 50% higher dam which will settle to the
correct height. Multi-stage construction also helps.
a. Settlement in section
b. Settlement - elevation
c. Irregular abutment
d. Overhanging abutment
(C) Sowers, George Earth and Rockfill Dam Engineering
Slope Protection
Both faces of an embankment dam must be protected against structural damage. In normal
circumstances the downstream will only be subject to the forces of nature. The upstream face
must be protected against erosion or disturbance by wave action, ice or by impact of floating
debris. Various methods of protection include large rocks (rip-rap), precast concrete forms,
soil cement or the waterproofing membrane of the dam. Protection must be well above and
below the operating range of the reservoir.
Rip-rap size : Mass of individual rock = 1000 x (Wave Height Hs)3 (kg)
The rip-rap must be durable, weatherproof and of good quality sound rock to enable it to
withstand the changing harsh conditions.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Seepage Paths
Piping
Plastic clays with a plasticity index >15, for both well and poorly compacted are the materials
which are most resistant to piping. Minimum piping resistance is found in poorly compacted,
through to well-graded cohesionless soils with practically no binder. It is also found in
uniform, fine, cohesionless sand, even when well compacted. Settlement cracks in resistant
materials may also produce piping.
Piping can be avoided by lengthening the flowpaths of water within the dam and its
foundations. This decreases the hydraulic gradient of the water flow and hence its velocity.
The flowpaths can be increased by:
Cutoff walls
Seepage control
Seepage is the continuous movement of water from the upstream face of the dam toward its
downstream face. The upper surface of this stream of percolating water is known as the
phreatic surface. The phreatic surface should be kept at or below the downstream toe.
The phreatic surface within a dam can be controlled by properly designed cores or walls.
Purpose
A homogeneous dam with a height of more than about 6 m to 8 m should have some type of
downstream drain. The purpose of a drain is:
1. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam therefore
increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
2. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and prevent
erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location and extent.
However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the pervious material from
which the drain is constructed meets the filter requirements for the embankment material.
Toe drains
The design of a downstream drainage system is controlled by the height of the dam, the cost
and availability of permeable material, and the permeability of the foundation.
For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have been installed in
some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent softening and erosion of the
downstream toe.
For reservoir depths greater than 15 m, most engineers would place a drainage system further
inside the embankment where it will be more effective in reducing pore pressures and
controlling seepage.
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or one-third of the
foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's 45 m Vega Dam is a homogeneous dam which
An earth dam embankment tends to be more pervious in the horizontal direction than in the
vertical. Occasionally, horizontal layers tend to be much more impervious than the average
material constructed into the embankment, so the water will flow horizontally on a relatively
impervious layer and discharge on the downstream face despite the horizontal drain.,p>
Where this has occurred the downstream slope is prone to slipping and piping. Repairs can be
made by installing pervious blankets on the downstream slopes or constructing vertical drains
to connect with the horizontal blanket. Such vertical drains are normally composed of sand
and gravel.
Chimney drains
Chimney drains are an attempt to prevent horizontal flow along relatively impervious
stratified layers, and to intercept seepage water before it reaches the downstream slope.
Chimney drains are often incorporated in high homogeneous dams which have been
constructed with inclined or vertical chimney drains.
In some major dam projects, chimney drains have been inclined at a considerable slope, both
upstream and sometimes downstream. An upstream inclined drain can act as a relatively thin
core. In addition to controlling seepage through the dam and increasing the stability of the
downstream slope, the chimney drain is also useful in reducing pore water pressures both
during construction and following rapid reservoir drawdown.
The dimensions and permeability of permeable drains must be adequate to carry away the
anticipated flow with an ample margin of safety for unexpected leaks. If the dam and the
foundations are relatively impermeable, then the expected leakage would be low. A drain
should be constructed of material with a coefficient of permeability of at least 10 to 100 times
greater than the average embankment material.
In an earth dam with an upstream sloping core of low permeability, the foundation is assumed
to be impermeable and in a steady state. Under steady state conditions the small amount of
water that seeps through the core flows vertically downward in a partially saturated zone and
then more or less horizontally in a thin saturated layer along the impermeable foundation. For
this type of dam the downstream shell must be several hundred times more permeable than the
core.
For an effective cutoff the positioning and depth of cutoff must be essentially 'perfect'. Since
this is impossible to achieve, other methods of seepage control should be used in conjunction
with cutoffs.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
(C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites
(C) Craig R, F Soil Mechanics
The upstream filter, if non-cohesive and of proper grading, can serve a valuable service by
providing material for induced self-healing should a transverse crack appear in the core.
Selection of the best material for this purpose is well justified. Although its prime function is
to retain the core material against movement into the rockfill, the downstream transition
material should be selected and placed so as to inhibit the propagation of a core crack into the
compacted rockfill. It is good practice to widen the transition zones towards each abutment,
i.e. where tension and oblique cracking may occur.
D50/D50 < 25
(filter)/(zone being filtered)
Cores
The core may be defined as a membrane built within an embankment dam to form the
impermeable barrier, the balance of the dam being provided to ensure stability. It may be of
natural materials, clay, gravels etc. or prepared materials such as cement or asphaltic concrete,
or of metal, plastic, rubber, etc.
A core of natural materials may be central, inclined and close under the upstream face or in
some intermediate position. A general core thickness is one half of the height of the dam,
depending on materials available. Permeability of the compacted core should not exceed 10-5
cm/s.
The hydraulic gradient relative to the core is the ratio of maximum head of water to the
thickness of the core. Thin cores may be adequate for impermeability but it is essential to
provide well designed filters on either side. The greatest danger with thin filters is the
possibility that a 'blow through' may occur in a segregated zone.
The principal factors considered in determining core dimensions and embankment zoning are:
Cracking of Core - cracks frequently occur in earthfill dams and in cores of rockfill dams.
Care must be taken to prevent such cracking and the Engineer must decide whether the cracks
are likely to extend and become serious or whether they are stable and can be backfilled.
Freeboard
A homogeneous embankment dam should never be overtopped and for preference no
permanent embankment dam should be overtopped. However, provision for freeboard can be
expensive because it requires enlargement of the dam section and hence much more materials.
It may be convenient to pave the crest and downstream face. The level of the crest is then
determined to allow for only spray to pass over, or for the peak flood discharge to pass over or
even more frequent overtopping. However this is only used for dams under 30m high.
An alternative method of reducing the quantity of fill is to provide a wave wall along the crest
of the embankment. See figure.
Crest Width
This is often governed by construction procedure and the access required either during
construction or as a permanent feature. The Japanese Code 1957 specifies crest width (W) in
terms of the height of the dam, as
W=3.6H1/3-3(m)
which would give crest widths as in the table.
The conventional culvert is one of reinforced concrete designed to withstand both the internal
water pressure and external embankment loading. It is important that leakage does not occur
within the core area or upstream from it, or anywhere within an homogeneous bank. To
prevent this cut-off collars usually encircle the pipe, their location and dimensions being
governed by the head from the reservoir.
A rockfill dam where all the voids have been filled by finer materials by hydraulic sluicing is
usually regarded as an earthfill dam.
(C) Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US
Basic properties required in the material for an homogeneous embankment or for the core of a
rockfill dam are:
It must be sufficiently impervious to prevent excessive loss of water through the dam,
the acceptable loss being determined by the safety of the structure and the value of the
lost water;
It must be capable of being placed and consolidated to give a practically homogeneous
mass, free from potential paths of percolation, either through the fill or along its
contact with the foundation;
The soil should develop a maximum practical shear strength under compaction and
maintain most of it after the filling of the reservoir;
It must not consolidate, soften or liquify upon saturation.
The stability of an embankment dam is enhanced if the downstream portion can be maintained
free from seepage. Internal drains are therefore put within the dam. See figure, leaving the
'dry' compacted fill as support. The section A-A represents the filter, drainage, filter divisions.
Core Stability - The core material usually has less shear strength than the rest of the
embankment, therefore from a stability standpoint, a thinner core is better. However, a thicker
core has increased resistance to differential cracking; which may lead to piping. Therefore,
piping resistance is dependent upon the soil properties such as plasticity and gradation of the
core material.
1. One advantage of the vertical core is that higher pressures will exist on the contact
between the core and the foundation, and will provide more protection against the
possibility of leakage along the contact.
The following criteria represent a rough cross-section of opinion among experienced earth
dam engineers:
Cores with a width 30% to 50% of the head of water have proved satisfactory on many
dams under diverse conditions. Cores of this width are adequate for any soil type and
dam height.
Cores with a width of 15% to 20% of the head of water are considered thin. However,
when adequately designed and constructed filter layers are used, then the core is
satisfactory under most circumstances.
Core widths of less than 10% of the head of water are not used widely and should only
be used when a large leak through the core would not lead to failure of the dam.
Drainage of the core takes place in two ways, some of the water percolates horizontally into
the more pervious shell. The remainder moves upward to the surface, allowing the centre of
the dam to subside. The downward movement eventually develops arching in the core and
prevents its full consolidation.
Materials
The thouroughness with which borrow areas are investigated can have a major effect on the
cost of the dam. The best information is derived from trenches cut by bulldozer. Two
questions must be asked;
1. Is the material acceptable?
2. How will it be excavated?
The materials must be tested in the laboratory and must be representative of what would be
used in the final dam.
When selecting earth for a core or for a homogeneous dam, one must consider its
permeability, resistance to piping, shear strength, flexibility and resistance to cracking. The
water content will effect each of these differently; testing and judgement are required to
determine the optimum mositure content for the particular soil in the particular part of the
dam.
Like an earth dam it is composed of fragmental materials, with each particle independent of
the others. The mass stability is developed by the friction and inter-reaction of one particle on
another rather than by any cementing agent that binds the particles together.
Upstream core
Upstream thin
membrane or deck
Unbonded or dry
masonry
Rockfill is particularly suitable when there is no satisfactory earth available and when a
plentiful supply of sound rock is at hand. The rockfilling is especially adapted to construction
during wet and cold weather and permits continuous work under weather conditions that
would not permit earth or concrete construction.
Very rapid constructions are possible with rockfill because of its adaptability to bad weather
and because the process of filling does not have to be interrupted for rolling or other separate
compaction operations.
The rockfill dam with an upstream diaphragm is very well adapted to stage construction. The
dam height can be increased merely by dumping more rock behind the impervious diaphragm
without interfering with or encroaching on the reservoir. The dam is then made water-tight by
continuing the impervious face upward. The stage construction concept is also suitable for
cofferdamming, as the first part of the dam serves as a cofferdam which protects the
remainder of the foundation for further construction.
Rockfill Materials
The quality of the rock is a major factor in the choice of a rockfill dam and in the design of
the structure. Extensive testing is necessary to judge whether the rock is suitable for
construction.
Quarrying - The cost of drilling and blasting constitutes a large part of the unit price of
rockfill. Quartzite for example has excellent qualities for rockfill but is extremely expensive
to drill. The way the rock breaks up is also important, sandstone produces a lot of fines, others
produce flat slate pieces which do not lend themselves to dumped rockfilling.
Rock Durability - There is no entirely satisfactory test to determine durability of rock over
centuries, and hence good judgement has to be used. Examining old structures such as walls
and bridge piers built of the same material is helpful. Accelerated durability tests do exist,
Strength - In high dams where crushing of the corners of the rock pieces will result in
settlement, the strength is important. In general strengths of over 35MPa or more are desirable
for dams over 40m, while strengths as low as 14MPa are more suitable for dams less than
15m in height. Friability, the tendency to become a powder during crushing is important
because too many fines can seriously interfere with construction.
Petrography - The study of the rock under chemical reaction and under a microscope to
establish rock breakage.
Shear Strength - Large size triaxial or direct shear tests are the best method for determining
strength.
The main rockfill provides the structural support for the dam by its weight and internal
stability. The impervious zone holds back the water. It is made up of the membrane which
holds the water and transition zone which transfers the water load to the rockfill. The
membrane may be a thick blanket or core of earth or a thin diaphragm or deck of wood,
concrete, steel, asphalt, dry rubble masonry or stone masonry. The auxiliary support members
help to sustain the membrane or parts of the main rockfill. These components are similar to
the shell, core, and appurtenances of the earth-fill dam and are analysed in a similar way.
Steel Face - consists of large welded panels, connected by flexible joints to allow for
expansion and contraction and any displacement of the plates relative to the face of the
rockfill. To help reduce corrosion, coats of coal-tar epoxy resin preparation and
supplementary cathodic protection are provided below water level, giving about a 50 year life.
Cement Concrete Face - since cement has a very long life, it is an obvious watertight
membrane on rockfill dams. Details of typical facing are shown in the figure.
The facing can be tied to the dam in two ways, either poured directly onto the rubble
transition zone. A mortar bed is initially placed which penetrates into the rubble a few
centimeters. This is immediately covered with the concrete to form a monolithic mass which
extends into the rubble and is thus bonded to the dam.
Or, ribs are placed in the bottom of the slab by forcing grooves in the facing. The ribbed
support, however, is unnecessary if the bonding with the backing is effective.
One is a thin monolithic slab of concrete with no joints. It is sufficiently flexible to conform
to movements in the backing without failure and the tensile forces are distributed by the
reinforcements so that numerous small cracks develop rather than any major failures.
The second type, used in most concrete faced dams, has a facing which consists of monolithic
slabs, 10 to 30 sqm each. The concrete thickness is largely a matter if experience. Only
nominal reinforcement is required, about 0.5% concrete area in each direction. Water
tightness is ensured by copper water stops.
Asphaltic Concrete Face - two types of asphaltic facings have been used, a laminated facing
consisting of:
Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 100
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1. Rubble concrete masonry transition
2. 10cm thick porous concrete
3. 15cm bituminous concrete, placed in two layers and rolled
4. Reinforced concrete protective and insulating layer 12cm thick.
The outer layer of concrete only serves to protect the bituminous side from sunshine and
physical damage. It is sprayed with water during very hot weather to keep the bituminous
concrete from sagging in plastic flow. The second form employs an asphaltic concrete paving
similar to that used in highways. It is placed in layers and rolled as for paving. The advantage
of a purely asphaltic paving is that it tends to adjust itself to movement by plastic flow. As
with other thin facings, a transition zone is required to equalise settlement movements and to
provide uniform support.
SPILLWAY CONTENTS
7. 3D FE SIMULATION
IMAGES
(C) Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US
Spillways - Introduction
The provision of adequate spillway facilities can pose more problems than the design of the
dam. Complete protection against the greatest flood that might occur would in almost all
circumstances be unjustifiable. The existing or possible future habitation in the valley below
the dam must influence decisions to be made regarding the spillway. Four standards for dam
design have been suggested;
Freeboard and still capacity sufficiently to ensure that the dam will not be overtopped
by floods up to probable maximum categories;
Such that the dam can be overtopped without failing, and in so far as practicable,
without suffering serious damage;
Such as to ensure that breaching of the structure would occur at a relatively gradual
rate; and
The height of the dam and storage are small enough that no serious hazard exists
downstream in the event of breaching.
Fuse-Plug Spillways are structures built instead of an auxiliary spillway. They may be simple
earth banks, flash boards, or other devices designed to fail when overtopped. Such plugs
should only be used when the sudden release of water is both safe and not over-destructive to
the environment. For preference fuse plugs should be so constructed as to make their
Bottom spillway
Advantage - provision can usually be made for its use
for the passage of floods during construction.
Disadvantage - once built its capacity is finite wheras
the forecasting is indefinite.
- a single outlet can be blocked by flood debris
Siphon Spillway
Disadvantage - construction is expensive
- sudden appearance of flood water
downstream
- large flood debris can block outlet
Gates or no gates - many Engineers are not inclined to place full reliance on effective
operation of gates at the time of a major flood. The provision of gated spillways is usually
economic, whatever height of dam the cost remains roughly the same and is only dependent
on the magnitude of the flood provision. The possibility of maloperation can not be
overlooked and their accessibility is important. If proper gate operation can not be guaranteed
It is common practice to choose the design head for the nappe as 75%-80% of the maximum
expected head. When the spillway so designed does pass the greater flows, pressures lower
than atmosphere will occur over the crest, causing problems associated with cavitation.
The flow over a spillway gives rise to self-excited vibration, in which three coupled elements
are involved; the jet, the overflow crest and the air cushion between dam and jet. This can be
avoided by using splitters on the crest.
With the reservoir at a particular level the discharge over the spillway will be proportional to
its length. It is possible to introduce variations in the plan shape of the spillway crest so that
the effective length is increased, for example, rectangular 'duckbill' spillway or triangular
sections.
The Engineer is concerned with the loads concentrated on certain parts of the dam by the
system for supporting and operating the gates. This is very important when one gate is closed
and the other open. Large gates require special formwork, complicated reinforcement and
probably prestressing of anchorages which puts the price up.
The minimum length is determined by the debris which could be expected to flow through the
gate. The location chosen must be easily accessible during normal operation and during
extreme floods. The engineer must be responsible for the procedures for operation of the
gates. Automatic gates may be required in remote locations however the expense and
reliability issues do not favour their installation.
Vertical-lift Gates
8. Inspection Gallery
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
The rock must be massive and free from close jointing and
competent. The rock excavated must be used in the dam if
the scheme is to be economically viable.
Lined Chutes - at most sites a concrete lined chute is required. The chute width is determined
by the length and arrangement of the spillway crest, the total energy in the water and the
economical relation between the width (including excavation costs) and the height of the side
Free Overfall - energy dissipated in a downstream coffer dam stilling basin unless overflow
is very high, say 80m&SUP3;/s/m or the height of the overfall exceeds 100m. For example
the scour below a free overfall at Kariba Dam is over 50m.
Flip Bucket Spillways - the purpose of this type is to throw the water well clear of the
structure. The jet of a ski jump spillway leaves horizontally wheras the jet of a flip bucket is
deflected upwards to induce disintegration in the air. The spray produced can cause damage to
the countryside and may adversely affect nearby electrical installations.
A. Roller Basin
B. Deflector Bucket
C. Flip Bucket
D. Non-radial spillway and sluice
buckets
E. Schoklitsch dissipator
In spillway design, the free surface pattern under different geometry needs to be known. The
3-D free surface flow in chute spillway is of typical super-critical. An unsteady three-
dimensional free-surface flow model is developed based on the compressible hydrodynamic
euqations and large eddy simulation concept using an explicit finit volume scheme.
The simulation process is divided into three steps for computational efficiency. Approximate
free-surface profile and average velocity distribution were determined first assuming steady
one-dimensional non-viscous flow. The fully developed 3-D turbulent flow filed is simulated
next holding the free-surface profile fixed. Finally, the free surface is set free to move and the
fully developed flow with strong gravity waves are simulated.
A free-surface smoothing and a wave steepness constrainbt approaches were used to assure
numerical stability while waves up to certain specified steepness can be resolved.
CONSTRUCTION
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL
2. RIVER DIVERSION
3. CONCRETE DAMS
4. EMBANKMENT DAMS
General Construction
1. Safety
2. Specifications
3. Plant
4. Cost and its control
Safety - with the ever increasing height of dams there is greater need for precautions,
especially against falling objects or persons. Double curvature structures have made access
and movement of personnel difficult. All site personnel must be alert at all time for the
accidents that might happen. The insurance is regular meetings of staff and representatives of
Specifications
For all types of dam, the specification should cover the following:
The required date for completion, with a schedule to indicate dates for completion of
stages of the work;
The degree of responsibility to be accepted by the Contractor in the dimensioning of
diversion works, for losses due to floods, for river pollution and general care of the
river;
Clearing of the site and works areas;
The extent of foundation preparation required and the sharing of responsibility for
unforeseen conditions;
Protection of the environment, disposal of soil, rehabilitation of borrow areas,
beautification, etc.;
Premliminary work that will be done by the Owner and the degree of responsibility
accepted by the Owner for consequences of such work.
Plant - The cost of purchasing plant and its operation are major items. On a dam involving 2
million cum of concrete, the purchase and operation might each represent 18-20% of the
direct cost of the dam. For an embankment dam this may be of the order of 25-35%. It is
therefore important to select the correct plant to achieve optimum cost.
The specification for some major contracts calls for the use of only new plant and the main
advantage is that suitable plant can be matched to the particular job. Material transporters can
be matched to quarry equipment for example. For compaction of embankments - soil or rock,
it is important to select the most appropiate equipment and this can be best determined by
means of a trial embankment. It is also necessary to have a supply of spare parts since many
sites are remote. Plant should be simple and rugged, and preferably modular to simplify the
replacement of parts.
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Consistently high quality of materials is the objective of all dam builders and to sacrifice
quality for a doubtful saving in cost is poor engineering.
Cost and its Control - Safety, Time and Cost are interrelated and usually conflicting. Safety
is always paramount, and hence time and cost directly relate to quality and degree of
perfection required. There is an optimum time for any operation and beyond this time will
incur extra costs. Cost is made up of direct charges for manpower and materials, plus
overheads and interest. Interest is out of the control of the Engineer.
With regard to the direct charges, the selection of the type of dam will be the major decision
and this might well be influenced by local conditions rather than mathematical economies.
For a concrete dam, for example, the dissection of costs may be;
Materials 25%
Formwork 20%
Plant Purchase 19%
Plant Operation 19%
Placing and consolidation of concrete 4%
Precooling concrete 3%
Concrete Treatment 3%
For an embankment dam, for example. the dissection of costs may be;
At most sites it will be necessary to move the river whilst part of the dam is constructed; this
part will incorporate either permanent or temporary openings through which the river will be
diverted in the second stage. If the first diversion is not large enough the initial stages of
construction will be inundated, if the second stage outlets are too small, the whole works will
be flooded.
At some sites there is a distinct seasonal pattern of river flows and advantage can be taken of
such conditions but noting that Nature is random.
Construction from each bank of the river of groynes a short distance upstream of the
dam, to alter the direction of flow and thus to move the low water channel towards the
left bank of the river at the dam site.
Construction of a semi circular concrete arch cofferdam on the right bank of the river.
De-watering of this cofferdam and excavation within it for the main dam blocks, the
proportion of the overspill apron and the sections of the mid channel cofferdams.
Concreting of the dam blocks, numbers 14 to 28 up to a minimum level of 1200
meters, the portions of the overspill apron and of the mid channel cofferdams within
this cofferdam. In blocks of the dam constructed on this stage, temporary openings
were formed through which the river was later diverted.
Diversion can also be achieved by means of a tunnel, which depends on the nature of the rock
and depth of weathering and should be far away from the dam itself to not interferre with the
foundations. The tunnel also should be large enough to avoid the possibility of job jams.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay on
construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The complication of
installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage wells and gate wells are
common on spillways. There has been a tendency to use precast concrete units for galleries to
save time, however this prevents the inspection of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Close co-operation between the Owner and Contractor will save time and money. Questions
have to be asked at all stages such as;
Is it permissible to design for tensile stress in the concrete?
Will arching of the dam result in overall economy?
Are longitudinal contraction joints necessary in large gravity dams?
Can the transverse contraction joints be omiited, located at wider spacing etc?
What clean up is necessary on horizontal construction joints?
Should the height of lift be specified by the designer?
Should the cement content of the concrete be specified or only the properties required
in the concrete?
Can the dams of intricate shape be justified?
Should ancillary works be separated from the dam to minimise interference with a
continuous or cyclic process of dam building?
What is the optimum layout and design for galleries?
Looking at the 'Construction - General Section' to see the proportion of costs in a concrete
dam, assumuing that the materials have been
predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase
of plant and its operation.
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 120
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The placing of a low-slump concrete, four layers in 2.3m lift
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity,
temperature and wind.
Looking at the 'Construction - General Section' to see the proportion of costs in a concrete
dam, assumuing that the materials have been predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase of plant and its operation.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
1. Aggregate Production
2. Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
5. Cooling of Concrete
6. Economical Construction
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay on
construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The complication of
installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage wells and gate wells are
common on spillways. There has been a tendency to use precast concrete units for galleries to
save time, however this prevents the inspection of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Close co-operation between the Owner and Contractor will save time and money. Questions
have to be asked at all stages such as;
Is it permissible to design for tensile stress in the concrete?
Will arching of the dam result in overall economy?
Are longitudinal contraction joints necessary in large gravity dams?
Can the transverse contraction joints be omiited, located at wider spacing etc?
What clean up is necessary on horizontal construction joints?
Should the height of lift be specified by the designer?
Should the cement content of the concrete be specified or only the properties required
in the concrete?
Can the dams of intricate shape be justified?
Should ancillary works be separated from the dam to minimise interference with a
continuous or cyclic process of dam building?
What is the optimum layout and design for galleries?
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Looking at the 'Construction - General Section' to see the proportion of costs in a concrete
dam, assumuing that the materials have been predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase of plant and its operation.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
1. Aggregate Production
2. Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
5. Cooling of Concrete
6. Economical Construction
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 130
from167
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay on
construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The complication of
installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage wells and gate wells are
common on spillways. There has been a tendency to use precast concrete units for galleries to
save time, however this prevents the inspection of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Close co-operation between the Owner and Contractor will save time and money. Questions
have to be asked at all stages such as;
Is it permissible to design for tensile stress in the concrete?
Will arching of the dam result in overall economy?
Are longitudinal contraction joints necessary in large gravity dams?
Can the transverse contraction joints be omiited, located at wider spacing etc?
What clean up is necessary on horizontal construction joints?
Should the height of lift be specified by the designer?
Should the cement content of the concrete be specified or only the properties required
in the concrete?
Can the dams of intricate shape be justified?
Should ancillary works be separated from the dam to minimise interference with a
continuous or cyclic process of dam building?
What is the optimum layout and design for galleries?
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Looking at the 'Construction - General Section' to see the proportion of costs in a concrete
dam, assumuing that the materials have been predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase of plant and its operation.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
1. Aggregate Production
2. Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
5. Cooling of Concrete
6. Economical Construction
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.
Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 137
from167
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay on
construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The complication of
installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage wells and gate wells are
common on spillways. There has been a tendency to use precast concrete units for galleries to
save time, however this prevents the inspection of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Close co-operation between the Owner and Contractor will save time and money. Questions
have to be asked at all stages such as;
Is it permissible to design for tensile stress in the concrete?
Will arching of the dam result in overall economy?
Are longitudinal contraction joints necessary in large gravity dams?
Can the transverse contraction joints be omiited, located at wider spacing etc?
What clean up is necessary on horizontal construction joints?
Should the height of lift be specified by the designer?
Should the cement content of the concrete be specified or only the properties required
in the concrete?
Can the dams of intricate shape be justified?
Should ancillary works be separated from the dam to minimise interference with a
continuous or cyclic process of dam building?
What is the optimum layout and design for galleries?
Looking at the 'Construction - General Section' to see the proportion of costs in a concrete
dam, assumuing that the materials have been predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase of plant and its operation.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the
pieces to become tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the
pieces to become tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the
pieces to become tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the
pieces to become tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the
pieces to become tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the
'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound
or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact cause the
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.