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INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
The aim of this project is to AUTOMATIC SPEED CONTROL OF VEHICLE
AT ACCIDENT PRONE AREAS USING IR SENSOR in this project we interface
the sensors to the micro controller. That sensor sense the object and it
compares to the reference value which predefined in the micro controller. By
using this project we can control the speed of the vehicles which cross the
speed limit at accident prone areas.
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1.3 MOTIVATION:
Due to the over speed of the vehicles, the number of accidents occurring
are increasing from year to year. To keep an end to the over speed‖ the
automatically speed control of the vehicles using IR sensors‖ is designed.
The IR standard wires developed to address the following needs
1. It has response time faster than thermocouple.
2. It delivers high repeatability
3. Infrared motion sensor detects motion in day time and night reliably.
4. The sensor does not require any contact with the product to be sensed
5. It provides secured communication
1.4 LITERATURE SURVEY:
Several read articles and literature detours were searched .But very few
information was available regarding speed control systems using IR technology.
Numerous articles were found related to the present road condition and urgent
need of safely measures. Various studies are being carried out but all these
controllers are using RF technology in which human power is involved which is
a disadvantage .Therefore in our study IR sensors used in which no human
power is required.
Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the
project. In the project overview a brief introduction of AUTOMATIC SPEED
CONTROL OF VEHICLE AT ACCIDENT PRONE AREAS USING IR SENSOR and
its applications are discussed.
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Chapter 2 Presents the project description along with Metal Sensor, IR speed
sensor, DC motor with driver module interfacing to microcontroller.
Chapter 3 Presents the topic embedded systems. It explains the about what
is embedded systems, need for embedded systems, explanation of it along with
its applications.
Chapter 4 Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block diagram
of the project and explains the purpose of each block. In the same chapter the
explanation of microcontrollers, power supplies, Humidity sensor, Relay, DC
motors and driver are considered.
Chapter 6 Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the project
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CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
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Fig 2.1: Block Diagram
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Fig 2.2: schematic diagram
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The project is built around AT89S52 MCU. Here we are using a pair if IR
transmitter, receiver pair to track the particular school zone and automatically
reduce the vehicle speeds. This information will be displayed on 16X2 LCD. At
each and every speed limiting zone it is placed with IR transmitter and vehicle
consists of a receiver to track and automatically reduce the speed limit in
vehicles. Once it crosses the particular area automatically it gains normal
speed. We are using a DC motor for symbolic representation of vehicle.
This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three
terminal voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave
rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down
transformer.
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CHAPTER 3
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
3.1 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
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In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most
systems have some element of extensibility or programmability. For example,
handheld computers share some elements with embedded systems such as the
operating systems and microprocessors which power them, but they allow
different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover,
even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature
generally need to support software updates. On a continuum from "general
purpose" to "embedded", large application systems will have subcomponents at
most points even if the system as a whole is "designed to perform one or a few
dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call "embedded". A modern
example of embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.
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easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is
cheap in comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow
processors and low memory, while at the same time battling a need for
efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of issues specific to
the embedded field.
3.1.1 History:
One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo
Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT
Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance
computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it employed
the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size and
weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17
guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built
from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the
Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new
computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.
3.1.2 Tools:
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Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general
programs on your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it.
This makes fixing your program difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports
can overcome this issue in part. However, if you stop on a breakpoint when
your system is controlling real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent
equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded
programming quickly become masters at using serial IO channels and error
message style debugging.
3.1.3 Resources:
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3.1.4 Real Time Issues:
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day
new products are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers
in novel ways. In recent years, hardware such as microprocessors,
microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much cheaper. So when
implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and
write your own custom software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to
handle a particular task or set of tasks costs far more time and money. Many
embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that "writing your
own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation
viewpoint, there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded
system. Embedded systems are often required to provide Real-Time response.
The main elements that make embedded systems unique are its reliability and
ease in debugging.
3.2.1 Debugging:
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3.2.2 Reliability:
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software. This encapsulation keeps faults from propagating from one
subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also allow a
subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault
detection.
Immunity Aware Programming
In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls
subroutines, each of which manages a part of the hardware or software.
Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but
this task is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt
handler will add longer tasks to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt
handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop. This method
brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.
Cooperative Multitasking:
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A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple
control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer
defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to ―run‖ in.
When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called ―pause‖, ―wait‖,
―yield‖, ―nop‖ (stands for no operation), etc. The advantages and disadvantages
are very similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier,
by simply writing a new task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.
Primitive Multitasking:
As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in
larger systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and
tested, and access to shared data must be controlled by some synchronization
strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking
synchronization scheme.
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switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User mode processes
implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc.
In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and inter task
communication is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate
efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the
system are available to, and extensible by application programmers. Based on
performance, functionality, requirement the embedded systems are divided into
three categories:
These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from
transducers or commands from human beings such as pressing of a button
etc.., process them and produces desired output. This entire process of taking
input, processing it and giving output is done in standalone mode. Such
embedded systems comes under stand-alone embedded systems
These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if
the tasking is not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of
damage to the entire equipment.
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entire equipment. So in such cases we use embedded systems for doing
automatic operations.
Eg: Consider a TV remote control system ,if the remote control takes a
few milliseconds delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the
remote control. These systems which will not cause damage when they are not
operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft real-time
embedded systems.
Eg:
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Fig 3.2: Network communication embedded systems
The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following
microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal processing.
Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main
advantage of microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial
communication interfaces, analog to digital converters etc.., all these are
built on a single chip. The numbers of external components that are
connected to it are very less according to the application.
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3.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control.
In industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation
like monitoring temperature, pressure, humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and
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basing on these monitored levels we do control other devices, we can send
information to a centralized monitoring station.
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3.4.6 Tele communications:
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CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect
of independent modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 4.1:
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4. 2.THE MICROCONTROLLER
The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of single and
double byte instructions that are used to move data and code from internal
memory to the ALU. The microcontroller is concerned with getting data from
and to its own pins; the architecture and instruction set are optimized to
handle data in bit and byte size.
AT895C2 MICROCONTROLLER
FEATURES
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Memory addressing capability
– 64K ROM and 64K RAM
Power save modes:
– Idle and power-down
Six interrupt sources
Most instructions execute in 0.3 us
CMOS and TTL compatible
Maximum speed: 40 MHz @ Vcc = 5V
Industrial temperature available
Packages available:
– 40-pin DIP
– 44-pin PLCC
– 44-pin PQFP
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PIN DESCRIPTION
VCC
Supply voltage
GND
Ground
Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port,
each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the
pins can be used as high impedance inputs.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port
1output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port
1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As
inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (1)
because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port
2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port
2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As
inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
because of the internal pull-ups.
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Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during access to DPTR. In this application Port 2 uses
strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data
memory that use 8-bit data address (MOVX@R1), Port 2 emits the contents of
the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address
bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port
3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port
3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups can be used as inputs. As
inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash Programming and
verification.
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RST
Rest input A on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device.
ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during access to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse
input (PROG) during Flash programming.
PSEN
EA /VPP
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
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XTAL 2
OPERATING DESCRIPTION
• Timer/Counters
• Interrupt System
Memory
The AT895C2 has separate address spaces for program and data
memory. The program and data memory can be up to 64K bytes long. The
lower 4K program memory can reside on-chip. The AT895C2 has 128 bytes of
on-chip RAM.
1. Register Banks 0-3: locations 00H through 1FH (32 bytes). The device after
reset defaults to register bank 0. To use the other register banks, the user
must select them in software. Each register bank contains eight 1-byte
registers R0-R7. Reset initializes the stack point to location 07H, and is
incremented once to start from 08H, which is the first register of the second
register bank.
2. Bit Addressable Area: 16 bytes have been assigned for this segment 20H-
2FH. Each one of the 128 bits of this segment can be directly addressed (0-
7FH). Each of the 16 bytes in this segment can also be addressed as a byte.
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3. Scratch Pad Area: 30H-7FH are available to the user as data RAM.
However, if the data pointer has been initialized to this area, enough bytes
should be left aside to prevent SP data destruction.
The Special Function Registers (SFR's) are located in upper 128 Bytes
direct addressing area. The SFR Memory Map in shows that.
Not all of the addresses are occupied. Unoccupied addresses are not
implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses in general return
random data, and write accesses have no effect. User software should not write
1s to these unimplemented locations, since they may be used in future
microcontrollers to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive
values of the new bits will always be 0, and their active values will be 1.
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Accumulator (ACC)
B Register (B)
The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other
instructions it can be treated as another scratch pad register.
The Data Pointer consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL). Its
function is to hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16-bit register
or as two independent 8-bit registers.
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Timer Registers
Register pairs (TH0, TL0) and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counter registers
for Timer/Counters 0 and 1, respectively.
Control Registers
Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON
contain control and status bits for the interrupt system, the Timer/Counters,
and the serial port.
4.2.5 TIMER/COUNTERS
The IS89C51 has two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer
1. All two can be configured to operate either as Timers or event counters. As a
Timer, the register is incremented every machine cycle. Thus, the register
counts machine cycles. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods,
the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency.
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TIMERS:
OSCILLATOR
FREQUENCY 12D
TMOD Register
TCON Register
Timer(T0) & timer(T1) Registers
(i) TMOD Register:
The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in
which the 8052‘s two timers operate. This SFR controls whether each
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of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to indicate
that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related
bits are located in TCON SFR.
These bits are used to configure the way in which the external
interrupt flags are activated, which are set when an external interrupt
occurs.
T H0 T L0
TH1 TL1
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The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the
Special Function Register TMOD. These two Timer/Counters have four
operating modes, which are selected by bit pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes 0,
1, and 2 are the same for both Timer/Counters, but Mode 3 is different.
Mode 0:
Both Timers in Mode 0 are 8-bit Counters with a divide-by-32 pre scalar.
Figure 8 shows the Mode 0 operation as it applies to Timer 1. In this mode, the
Timer register is configured as a 13-bit register. As the count rolls over from all
1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer interrupt flag TF1. The counted input is enabled
to the Timer when TR1 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or INT1 = 1. Setting GATE = 1
allows the Timer to be controlled by external input INT1, to facilitate pulse
width measurements. TR1 is a control bit in the Special Function Register
TCON. Gate is in TMOD.
The 13-bit register consists of all eight bits of TH1 and the lower five bits
of TL1. The upper three bits of TL1 are indeterminate and should be ignored.
Setting the run flag (TR1) does not clear the registers.
Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1, except that TR0,
TF0 and INT0 replace the corresponding Timer 1 signals. There are two
different GATE bits, one for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for Timer 0 (TMOD.3).
Mode 1
Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is run with
all 16 bits. The clock is applied to the combined high and low timer registers
(TL1/TH1). As clock pulses are received, the timer counts up: 0000H, 0001H,
0002H, etc. An overflow occurs on the FFFFH-to-0000H overflow flag. The
timer continues to count. The overflow flag is the TF1 bit in TCON that is read
or written by software
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Mode 2
Mode 3
Timer 1 in Mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is the same as
setting TR1 = 0. Timer 0 in Mode 3 establishes TL0and TH0 as two separate
counters. The logic for Mode 3 on Timer 0 is shown in Figure 11. TL0 uses the
Timer 0 control bits: C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0, and TF0. TH0 is locked into a
timer function (counting machine cycles) and over the use of TR1 and TF1 from
Timer 1. Thus, TH0 now controls the Timer 1 interrupt.
4.3.1 Introduction:
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A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary
or secondary sources of energy such as
The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led
connected as load is shown in fig: 4.10.
Fig 4.10: Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection
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The components mainly used in above figure are
230V AC MAINS
TRANSFORMER
BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
RESISTOR
LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is
as follows:
Transformers:
If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil.
If the current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.
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If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves
out or in, the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it
does this, a voltage is induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains
supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION
and forms the basis of the transformer.
The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.
For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary
will have half the primary voltage.
Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has
500 turns, then the turn‘s ratio is 10:1.
If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10
smaller = 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the
primary must equal the power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt
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lamp is connected across a 24 volt secondary, then the primary must supply
24 watts.
To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are
wound on a metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY
CURRENTS, into this core, the core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made
up from metal sheets insulated from each other. Transformers to work at
higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.
Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly
changing current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a
steady field and there would be no induction.
Step Up transformer:
The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell
battery. Dry-cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of
electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate alternately until the desired total voltage is
achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have one of the following
voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-zinc
battery, the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and
magnesium dioxide is reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish
a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.
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higher oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium
batteries have many benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged.
They have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and
the ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.
Rectification:
Rectifiers:
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converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the
development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and
copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used.
The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig: 3.14, which converts an ac voltage to
dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier
circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a
bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the
bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the
bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will
be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows
through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4
conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4
will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows
through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-
directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
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Input Output
DB107:
Features:
Filters:
Introduction to Capacitors:
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Fig 4.16:Construction Of a Capacitor Fig 4.17:Electrolytic Capaticor
Units of Capacitance:
Operation of Capacitor:
First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor
is used to connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without
allowing any direct current to flow.
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If the current flow is alternating between zero
and a maximum, our "storage tank" capacitor will
allow the current waves to pass through.
A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge)
it will not pass d.c.
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Regulation:
Voltage Regulator:
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You
cannot use a 12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are
very robust. These can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and
also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before any damage
occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its
input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.18 shows
voltage regulator.
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Resistors:
V = IR
Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
V = IR
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Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to
the current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance
(R).
Power dissipation:
4.4. LED:
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Fig 4.21: Inside a LED Fig 4.22: Parts of a LED
Working:
The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the
light bulb. Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-
emitting semiconductor material is what determines the LED's color. The LED
is based on the semiconductor diode.
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heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for
general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output. They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as
replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting (particularly
indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new
text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in advanced communications technology. The electrical symbol
and polarities of led are shown in fig: 4.23.
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Applications of LED fall into three major categories:
Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from
the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual
response of these objects.
Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not
involve the human visual system.
4.5: IR SENSOR
Basics of IR transmitter:
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Fig 4.24: IR TRANSMITTER
Basics of IR receiver:
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Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent is produced.
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1. Transmitter section:
2. Receiver section:
Photo Diodes:
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connection, to let in the light to the sensitive part of the device. They may also
be used without a window to detect vacuum UV or X-rays.
Principle of operation:
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But a more important effect of reverse bias is widening of the depletion
layer (therefore expanding the reaction volume) and strengthening the
photocurrent. Circuits based on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones
based on the photovoltaic effect and also tend to have lower capacitance, which
improves the speed of their time response. On the other hand, the photovoltaic
mode tends to exhibit less electronic noise.
Features:
1. Responsivity:
2. Dark current:
3. Noise-equivalent power:
Applications:
1. Due to the intrinsic layer, a PIN photodiode must be reverse biased (Vr).
The Vr increases the depletion region allowing a larger volume for
electron-hole pair production, and reduces the capacitance thereby
increasing the bandwidth.
2. The Vr also introduces noise current, which reduces the S/N ratio.
Therefore, a reverse bias is recommended for higher bandwidth
applications and/or applications where a wide dynamic range is
required.
3. A PN photodiode is more suitable for lower light applications because it
allows for unbiased operation.
4.6 LCD DISPLAY
LCD Background:
Pin description:
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 4 RS
1 = Data input
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Pin no. 10 D3 Data bus line 3
The LCD requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the
data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data
bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total
of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data
bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the
8 lines for the data bus).
The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.
The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD
that we are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, our program should
make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or
put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN
high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD
datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to
be treated as a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position
cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which should
be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen
we would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the
information on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1),
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the program is effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction
("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands--so RW
will almost always be low.
Schematic:
Circuit Description:
Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and
Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open
collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up
resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K
external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of
computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors.
We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore
we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause
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no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's
internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and finished
processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known
delays into our program.
The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing
fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. We can use
a bench power supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a
few de-coupling capacitors, especially if we have trouble with the circuit
working properly.
SETB RW
As we mentioned above, the EN line is used to tell the LCD that we are
ready for it to execute an instruction that we've prepared on the data bus and
on the other control lines. Note that the EN line must be raised/ lowered
before/after each instruction sent to the LCD regardless of whether that
instruction is read or write text or instruction. In short, we must always
manipulate EN when communicating with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of
knowing that we are talking to it. If we don't raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't
know we're talking to it on the other lines.
Thus, before we interact in any way with the LCD we will always bring
the EN line low with the following instruction:
CLR EN
And once we've finished setting up our instruction with the other control
lines and data bus lines, we'll always bring this line high:
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SETB EN
The line must be left high for the amount of time required by the LCD as
specified in its datasheet. This is normally on the order of about 250
nanoseconds, but checks the datasheet. In the case of a typical microcontroller
running at 12 MHz, an instruction requires 1.08 microseconds to execute so
the EN line can be brought low the very next instruction. However, faster
microcontrollers (such as the DS89C420 which executes an instruction in 90
nanoseconds given an 11.0592 MHz crystal) will require a number of NOPs to
create a delay while EN is held high. The number of NOPs that must be
inserted depends on the microcontroller we are using and the crystal we have
selected.
While it is possible to write code that waits for a specific amount of time
to allow the LCD to execute instructions, this method of "waiting" is not very
flexible. If the crystal frequency is changed, the software will need to be
modified. A more robust method of programming is to use the "Get LCD Status"
command to determine whether the LCD is still busy executing the last
instruction received.
Applications:
Medical equipment
Electronic test equipment
Industrial machinery Interface
Serial terminal
Advertising system
EPOS
Restaurant ordering systems
Gaming box
Security systems
R&D Test units
Acclimatizing units
PLC Interface
Simulators
Environmental monitoring
Lab development
Student projects
Home automation
PC external display
HMI operator interface.
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CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
5.1 ADVANTAGES:
4) Low cost
5.2 DISADVANTAGES:
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CHAPTER 6
RESULTS
The project presented here is an approach towards vehicle navigation & safety
implementation. As the title suggests, the project is aimed at automatically sensing
the areas/zones like ―School zone‖, ―Work zone‖ or ―Curve zone‖. As an example, near
school zone, the sign board displays ―School Zone Ahead, Drive Slowly‖, or near
construction area, ―Drive slowly, Work under construction‖.
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
CONCLUSION:
Usually people drive harshly in heavy traffic prone areas as they are in a
hurry but it has hurriedness they often end in loosing either their life or
someone other life on road. Our project is based i\on .so it has a great
significance in termination and reduction of overall accidents and causalities in
high traffic prone areas.
This project has a system that checks the speed of the vehicle using IR
sensors and microcontroller and sends warning signals to driver to lower down
the speed if speed is on higher side. Incase driver does not reduce the speed
then within second our system will take over the control and will reduce the
speed of vehicle automatically. Hence this project is a great lifesaving system in
heavy traffic areas.
FUTURE SCOPE:
Scope of this project idea is very bright as it is a lifesaving tool and there
is nothing more important than human life. In future every vehicle will have
such type of system that will reduce number of fatal accidents. This System
can increase its compatibility by using ultra-sonic sensors. Ultra-sonic sensors
can detect any hurdles on road such as breakers, building etc... Several read
articles and literature detours were searched .But very few information was
available regarding speed control systems using IR technology. Numerous
articles were found related to the present road condition and urgent need of
safely measures. This project can be extended for Traffic Signals, using this IR
Technology We can control the speed of the vehicles on Highways.
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Bibliography:
References:
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