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It has been seen that the three dimensional hull form can be
represented by a series of curves which are the intersections of the
hull with three sets of mutually orthogonal planes. The naval
architect is interested in the areas and volumes enclosed by the
curves and surfaces so represented.
The naval architect is constantly required to find the area, centroids of
areas, first moment of area and second moment of area (moment of
inertia) of figures bounded by straight lines and curves. There are
various rules in common use for finding areas such as Trapezoidal rule,
Simpson’s First Rule, Simpson’s Second Rule etc.
One could draw the shape of a area on squared paper and count the
squares included within it. If the area shape is cut from a uniform card
and pinned it can be balanced at its point of centre of gravity. Such
methods would be very tedious but illustrate the principle of what is
being attempted. To obtain an area it is divided into a number of
sections by a set of parallel lines. These lines are usually equally spaced
but not necessarily so.
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
If the points at which the parallel lines intersect the area perimeter
are joined by straight lines, the area can be represented
approximately by the summation of the set of trapezia so formed.
The generalized form is illustrated like this:
The area of the shaded trapezium is:
An
hn
The curve ABC has been replaced by two straight lines, AB and BC with
ordinates y0 y1 and y2 distance h apart. The area is the sum of the two
trapezia so formed
The accuracy with which the area under the actual curve is calculated
will depend upon how closely the straight lines mimic the curve. The
accuracy of representation can be increased by using a smaller interval h.
Because warship hulls tend to have greater curvature they are usually
represented by twenty divisions with twenty-one ordinates.
The trapezoidal rule, using straight lines to replace the actual ship
curves, has limitations as to the accuracy achieved. Many naval
architectural calculations are carried out using what are known as
Simpson's rules.
where y1, y3, y11 and y13 are the extra ordinates.
These moments can be about the y-axis and x-axis that is the axis
through 0,
The moment of an area about an axis, is equal to the sum of all the
elements of the area times the distance of each element from the axis
about 0Y,
about 0X,
y dx = element of area
The second moment of an area, known generally as the moment
of inertia of an area about an axis, is equal to the sum of all the
elements of the area times the square of the distance of each
element from the axis
Y
X
Example
Simpson’s Second Rule:
Bonjean Curves
From day to day a ship may be loaded to different drafts and different
trims. Therefore, underwater hull form characteristics over a range of
loading conditions need to be calculated. This is done by calculating each
characteristic at each loading condition (different waterlines).
The results of these calculations are plotted on closely spaced grid paper.
These curves are called hydrostatic curves or curves of form. The
following figure shows such a set. Vertical scale shows the ship’s draft.
Displacement (salt water and fresh water)
VCB : vertical center of buoyancy
LCB : longitudinal center of buoyancy
LCF : longitudinal center of floatation
CB : block coefficient
CP : prismatic coeficient
CM : midship section coeficient
WS : wetted surface
KM : location of transverse metacentre above the baseline
MT1 : moment to trim one centimetre
Tons per one centimetre immersion
Sample hydrostatic curves
For the convenience of the deck officers, much of the numerical
information shown on the hydrostatic curves is repeated in the form
of tables, which most people find easier to use.
They do this for several stations along the vessel's length. These cross-
sectional areas are then plotted to vertical scale against their fore-and-
aft locations, as shown in the following slide
The smooth line that you see drawn through those data points is what
naval architects call the sectional area curve (SAC), an important tool
in ship design.
If we now apply Simpson's rule to this sectional area curve's offsets, we
can derive the ship's volume of displacement and its longitudinal center of
buoyancy.
In actual practice, what most naval architects often do is; they start by
drawing what they know to be a good sectional area curve and use that to
develop the individual stations, and then fair up the complete lines
drawing. This brings up the question of what is meant by
"a good sectional area curve"?