Oop Notes2

EdiTed BY: AbDUL QaYooM AbrO
Shah Abdul Latif University

Khairpur Mir’s
Name: Abdul Qayoom Abro

F/Name: Abdul Jabbar Abro
Roll No: IT – 17 – 06
Semester: 2nd
Contact: 03158380323
Department (Computer Science)
Class (Information Technology)
Topic: Programming fundamental
Teacher: Riaz Ahmed Shaikh
&
SHAHID DANWAR
Signature: _________________
Dated: _________________
1
Contents
Introduction to C++ ............................................................................................................................ 3
Benefits of C++ over C Language ...................................................................................................... 3
C++ and Object Oriented Programming................................................................................................ 5
OOPS Concept Definitions..................................................................................................................... 9
Data Types in C++ ................................................................................................................................ 11
Basic Built in types .............................................................................................................................. 12
Enum as Data type .............................................................................................................................. 13
Modifiers ............................................................................................................................................. 14
What are Variables.............................................................................................................................. 15
Operators in C++ ................................................................................................................................. 21
sizeof operator in C++ ......................................................................................................................... 27
typedef Operator ................................................................................................................................ 28
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Introduction to C++
C++, as we all know is an extension to C language
and was developed by Bjarne stroustrup at bell
labs. C++ is an intermediate level language, as it
comprises a confirmation of both high level and low
level language features. C++ is a statically typed,
free form, multiparadigm, compiled general-purpose
language.
C++ is an Object Oriented Programming
language but is not purely Object Oriented. Its
features like Friend and Virtual, violate some
of the very important OOPS features, rendering this
language unworthy of being called completely
Object Oriented. Its a middle level language.
Benefits of C++ over C Language

The major difference being OOPS concept, C++ is
an object oriented language whereas C language is a
procedural language. Apart form this there are many
other features of C++ which gives this language an
upper hand on C laguage.
Following features of C++ makes it a stronger
language than C,
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1. There is Stronger Type Checking in C++.

2. All the OOPS features in C++ like Abstraction,
Encapsulation, Inheritance etc makes it more
worthy and useful for programmers.
3. C++ supports and allows user defined operators
(i.e Operator Overloading) and function
overloading is also supported in it.
4. Exception Handling is there in C++.
5. The Concept of Virtual functions and also
Constructors and Destructors for Objects.
6. Inline Functions in C++ instead of Macros in C
language. Inline functions make complete
function body act like Macro, safely.
7. Variables can be declared anywhere in the
program in C++, but must be declared before
they are used.
What we will cover in Basics of C++

 Overview and OOPS concept
 Basic Syntax and Structure of programming
 Data Types and Modifiers
 Variables and Operators in C++
 Decision Making
 Types of Loops
 Types of Storage Classes
4
 Introduction to Functions
C++ and Object Oriented Programming
Object Oriented programming is a programming
style that is associated with the concept of Class,
Objects and various other concepts revolving around
these two, like Inheritance, Polymorphism,
Abstraction, Encapsulation etc.
Let us try to understand a little about all these,

through a simple example. Human Beings are living
forms, broadly categorized into two types, Male and
Female. Right? Its true. Every Human being(Male or
Female) has two legs, two hands, two eyes, one
nose, one heart etc. There are body parts that are
common for Male and Female, but then there are
some specific body parts, present in a Male which
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are not present in a Female, and some body parts

present in Female but not in Males.
All Human Beings walk, eat, see, talk, hear etc. Now
again, both Male and Female, performs some
common functions, but there are some specifics to
both, which is not valid for the other. For example :
A Female can give birth, while a Male cannot, so
this is only for the Female.
Human Anatomy is interesting, isn't it? But let's see
how all this is related to C++ and OOPS. Here we
will try to explain all the OOPS concepts through
this example and later we will have the technical
definitons for all this.
Class
Here we can take Human Being as a class. A class
is a blueprint for any functional entity which defines
its properties and its functions. Like Human Being,
having body parts, and performing various actions.
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Inheritance
Considering HumanBeing a class, which has
properties like hands, legs, eyes etc, and functions
like walk, talk, eat, see etc. Male and Female are
also classes, but most of the properties and functions
are included in HumanBeing, hence they can
inherit everything from class HumanBeing using
the concept of Inheritance.
Objects
My name is Abhishek, and I am an instance/object
of class Male. When we say, Human Being, Male
or Female, we just mean a kind, you, your friend, me
we are the forms of these classes. We have a
physical existence while a class is just a logical
definition. We are the objects.
Abstraction
Abstraction means, showcasing only the required
things to the outside world while hiding the details.
Continuing our example, Human Being's can talk,
walk, hear, eat, but the details are hidden from the
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outside world. We can take our skin as the

Abstraction factor in our case, hiding the inside
mechanism.
Encapsulation
This concept is a little tricky to explain with our
example. Our Legs are binded to help us walk. Our
hands, help us hold things. This binding of the
properties to functions is called Encapsulation.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism is a concept, which allows us to
redefine the way something works, by either
changing how it is done or by changing the parts
using which it is done. Both the ways have different
terms for them.
If we walk using our hands, and not legs, here we
will change the parts used to perform something.
Hence this is called Overloading.
And if there is a defined way of walking, but I wish
to walk differently, but using my legs, like everyone
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else. Then I can walk like I want, this will be called

as Overriding.
OOPS Concept Definitions

Now, let us discuss some of the main features of
Object Oriented Programming which you will be
using in C++(technically).
1. Objects
2. Classes
3. Abstraction
4. Encapsulation
5. Inheritance
6. Overloading
7. Exception Handling
Objects
Objects are the basic unit of OOP. They are
instances of class, which have data members and
uses various member functions to perform tasks.
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Class
It is similar to structures in C language. Class can
also be defined as user defined data type but it also
contains functions in it. So, class is basically a
blueprint for object. It declare & defines what data
variables the object will have and what operations
can be performed on the class's object.
Abstraction
Abstraction refers to showing only the essential
features of the application and hiding the details. In
C++, classes provide methods to the outside world to
access & use the data variables, but the variables are
hidden from direct access. This can be done access
specifiers.
Encapsulation
It can also be said data binding. Encapsulation is all
about binding the data variables and functions
together in class.
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Inheritance
Inheritance is a way to reuse once written code again
and again. The class which is inherited is called base
calls & the class which inherits is called derived
class. So when, a derived class inherits a base class,
the derived class can use all the functions which are
defined in base class, hence making code reusable.
Polymorphism
It is a feature, which lets us create functions with
same name but different arguments, which will
perform differently. That is function with same
name, functioning in different way. Or, it also allows
us to redefine a function to provide its new
definition. You will learn how to do this in details
soon in coming lessons.
Exception Handling
Exception handling is a feature of OOP, to handle
unresolved exceptions or errors produced at runtime.
Data Types in C++
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They are used to define type of variables and

contents used. Data types define the way you use
storage in the programs you write. Data types can be
built in or abstract.
Built in Data Types
These are the data types which are predefined and
are wired directly into the compiler. eg: int, char etc.
User defined or Abstract data types
These are the type, that user creates as a class. In
C++ these are classes where as in C it was
implemented by structures.
Basic Built in types

char for character storage ( 1 byte )
int for integral number ( 2 bytes )
float single precision floating point ( 4 bytes )
double precision floating point numbers (
double
8 bytes )
Example :
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char a = 'A'; // character

type
int a = 1; // integer
type
float a = 3.14159; // floating
point type
double a = 6e-4; // double
type (e is for exponential)
Other Built in types

bool Boolean ( True or False )
void Without any Value
wchar_t Wide Character
Enum as Data type

Enumerated type declares a new type-name and a
sequence of value containing identifiers which has
values starting from 0 and incrementing by 1 every
time.
For Example :
enum day(mon, tues, wed, thurs,
fri) d;
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Here an enumeration of days is defined with variable

d. mon will hold value 0, tue will have 1 and so on.
We can also explicitly assign values, like, enum
day(mon, tue=7, wed);. Here, mon will be 0,
tue is assigned 7, so wed will have value 8.
Modifiers
Specifiers modify the meanings of the predefined
built-in data types and expand them to a much larger
set. There are four data type modifiers in C++, they
are :
1. long
2. short
3. signed
4. unsigned
Below mentioned are some important points you
must know about the modifiers,
 long and short modify the maximum and
minimum values that a data type will hold.
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 A plain int must have a minimum size of short.

 Size hierarchy : short int < int < long
int
 Size hierarchy for floating point numbers is :
float < double < long double
 long float is not a legal type and there are no
short floating point numbers.
 Signed types includes both positive and
negative numbers and is the default type.
 Unsigned, numbers are always without any
sign, that is always positive.
What are Variables
Variable are used in C++, where we need storage for
any value, which will change in program. Variable
can be declared in multiple ways each with different
memory requirements and functioning. Variable is
the name of memory location allocated by the
compiler depending upon the datatype of the
variable.
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Basic types of Variables

Each variable while declaration must be given a
datatype, on which the memory assigned to the
variable depends. Following are the basic types of
variables,
For variable to store boolean values( True
bool
or False )
char For variables to store character types.
int for variable with integral values
float and double are also types for variables
with large and floating point values
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Declaration and Initialization

Variable must be declared before they are used.
Usually it is preferred to declare them at the starting
of the program, but in C++ they can be declared in
the middle of program too, but must be done before
using them.
Example :
int i; // declared but not
initialised
char c;
int i, j, k; // Multiple
declaration
Initialization means assigning value to an already
declared variable,
int i; // declaration
i = 10; // initialization
Initialization and declaration can be done in one
single step also,
int i=10; //initialization
and declaration in same step
int i=10, j=11;
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If a variable is declared and not initialized by default

it will hold a garbage value. Also, if a variable is
once declared and if try to declare it again, we will
get a compile time error.
int i,j;
i=10;
j=20;
int j=i+j; //compile time error,
cannot redeclare a variable in same
scope
Scope of Variables
All the variables have their area of functioning, and
out of that boundary they don't hold their value, this
boundary is called scope of the variable. For most of
the cases its between the curly braces,in which
variable is declared that a variable exists, not outside
it. We will study the storage classes later, but as of
now, we can broadly divide variables into two main
types,
 Global Variables
 Local variables
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Global variables
Global variables are those, which ar once declared
and can be used throughout the lifetime of the
program by any class or any function. They must be
declared outside the main() function. If only
declared, they can be assigned different values at
different time in program lifetime. But even if they
are declared and initialized at the same time outside
the main() function, then also they can be assigned
any value at any point in the program.
Example : Only declared, not initialized
include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int x; // Global
variable declared
int main()
{
x=10; //
Initialized once
cout <<"first value of x = "<< x;
x=20; //
Initialized again
cout <<"Initialized again with
value = "<< x;
}
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Local Variables
Local variables are the variables which exist only
between the curly braces, in which its declared.
Outside that they are unavailable and leads to
compile time error.
Example :
include <iostream>
int main()
{
int i=10;
if(i<20) // if condition
scope starts
{
int n=100; // Local variable
declared and initialized
} // if condition
scope ends
cout << n; // Compile time
error, n not available here
}
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Some special types of variable

There are also some special keywords, to impart
unique characteristics to the variables in the
program. Following two are mostly used, we will
discuss them in details later.
1. Final - Once initialized, its value cant be
changed.
2. Static - These variables holds their value
between function calls.
Example :
#include <iostream.h>
int main()
{
final int i=10;
static int y=20;
}
Operators in C++
Operators are special type of functions, that takes
one or more arguments and produces a new
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value. For example : addition (+), substraction (-

), multiplication (*) etc, are all operators.
Operators are used to perform various
operations on variables and constants.
Types of operators
1. Assignment Operator
2. Mathematical Operators
3. Relational Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Shift Operators
7. Unary Operators
8. Ternary Operator
9. Comma Operator
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Assignment Operator ( = )
Operates '=' is used for assignment, it takes the
right-hand side (called rvalue) and copy it into
the left-hand side (called lvalue). Assignment
operator is the only operator which can be
overloaded but cannot be inherited.
Mathematical Operators
There are operators used to perform basic
mathematical operations. Addition (+) ,
subtraction (-) , diversion (/) multiplication (*)
and modulus (%) are the basic mathematical
operators. Modulus operator cannot be used with
floating-point numbers.
C++ and C also use a shorthand notation to
perform an operation and assignment at same
type. Example,
int x=10;
x += 4 // will add 4 to 10, and
hence assign 14 to X.
x -= 5 // will subtract 5 from 10
and assign 5 to x.
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Relational Operators
These operators establish a relationship between
operands. The relational operators are : less than
(<) , grater thatn (>) , less than or equal to (<=),
greater than equal to (>=), equivalent (==) and
not equivalent (!=).
You must notice that assignment operator is (=)
and there is a relational operator, for equivalent
(==). These two are different from each other, the
assignment operator assigns the value to any
variable, whereas equivalent operator is used to
compare values, like in if-else conditions,
Example
int x = 10; //assignment operator
x=5; // again assignment
operator
if(x == 5) // here we have used
equivalent relational operator, for
comparison
{
cout <<"Successfully compared";
}
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Logical Operators
The logical operators are AND (&&) and OR (||).
They are used to combine two different
expressions together.
If two statement are connected using AND
operator, the validity of both statements will be
considered, but if they are connected using OR
operator, then either one of them must be valid.
These operators are mostly used in loops
(especially while loop) and in Decision making.
Bitwise Operators
There are used to change individual bits into a
number. They work with only integral data types
like char, int and long and not with floating
point values.
 Bitwise AND operators &
 Bitwise OR operator |
 And bitwise XOR operator ^
 And, bitwise NOT operator ~
They can be used as shorthand notation too, & =
, |= , ^= , ~= etc.
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Shift Operators
Shift Operators are used to shift Bits of any
variable. It is of three types,
1. Left Shift Operator <<
2. Right Shift Operator >>
3. Unsigned Right Shift Operator >>>
Unary Operators
These are the operators which work on only one
operand. There are many unary operators, but
increment ++ and decrement -- operators are
most used.
Other Unary Operators: address of &,
dereference *, new and delete, bitwise not ~,
logical not!, unary minus - and unary plus +.
Ternary Operator
The ternary if-else? : is an operator which has
three operands.
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int a = 10;
a > 5 ?cout << "true" : cout <<
"false"
Comma Operator
This is used to separate variable names and to
separate expressions. In case of expressions, the
value of last expression is produced and used.
Example :
int a,b,c; // variables declaration
using comma operator
a=b++, c++; // a = c++ will be
done.
sizeof operator in C++
sizeOf is also an operator not a function, it is used to
get information about the amount of memory
allocated for data types & Objects. It can be used to
get size of user defined data types too.
sizeOf operator can be used with and without
parentheses. If you apply it to a variable you can use
it without parentheses.
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cout << sizeOf(double); //Will

print size of double
int x = 2;
int i = sizeOf x;
typedef Operator
typedef is a keyword used in C language to assign
alternative names to existing types. Its mostly used
with user defined data types, when names of data
types get slightly complicated. Following is the
general syntax for using typedef,
typedef existing_name alias_name
Lets take an example and see how typedef actually

works.
typedef unsigned long ulong;
The above statement define a term ulong for an
unsigned long type. Now this ulong identifier can be
used to define unsigned long type variables.
ulong i, j;
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typedef and Pointers

typedef can be used to give an alias name to pointers
also. Here we have a case in which use of typedef is
beneficial during pointer declaration.
In Pointers * binds to the right and not the left.
int* x, y ;
By this declaration statement, we are actually
declaring x as a pointer of type int, whereas y will be
declared as a plain integer.
typedef int* IntPtr ;
IntPtr x, y, z;
But if we use typedef like in above example, we can
declare any number of pointers in a single statement.
Decision making in C++
Decision making is about deciding the order of
execution of statements based on certain conditions
or repeat a group of statements until certain specified
conditions are met. C++ handles decision-making by
supporting the following statements,
if statement
switch statement
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conditional operator statement

goto statement
Decision making with if statement

The if statement may be implemented in different
forms depending on the complexity of conditions to
be tested. The different forms are,
Simple if statement
If....else statement
Nested if....else statement
else if statement
Simple if statement
The general form of a simple if statement is,
if( expression )
{
statement-inside;
}
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statement-outside;
If the expression is true, then 'statement-inside' it
will be executed, otherwise 'statement-inside' is
skipped and only 'statement-outside' is executed.
Example :
#include< iostream.h>
int main( )
{
int x,y;
x=15;
y=13;
if (x > y )
{
cout << "x is greater than y";
}
}
Output :
x is greater than y
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if...else statement
The general form of a simple if...else statement is,
if( expression )
{
statement-block1;
}
else
{
statement-block2;
}
If the 'expression' is true, the 'statement-block1' is
executed, else 'statement-block1' is skipped and
'statement-block2' is executed.
Example :
void main( )
{
int x,y;
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x=15;
y=18;
if (x > y )
{
cout << "x is greater than y";
}
else
{
cout << "y is greater than x";
}
}
Output :
y is greater than x
Nested if....else statement

The general form of a nested if...else statement is,
if( expression )
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{
if( expression1 )
{
statement-block1;
}
else
{
statement-block2;
}
}
else
{
statement-block3;
}
if 'expression' is false the 'statement-block3' will be
executed, otherwise it continues to perform the test
for 'expression 1' . If the 'expression 1' is true the
'statement-block1' is executed otherwise 'statement-
block2' is executed.
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Example :
void main( )
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
cout << "enter 3 number";
cin >> a >> b >> c;
if(a > b)
{
if( a > c)
{
cout << "a is greatest";
}
else
{
cout << "c is greatest";
}
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}
else
{
if( b> c)
{
cout << "b is greatest";
}
else
{
printf("c is greatest");
}
}
getch();
}
else-if ladder
The general form of else-if ladder is,
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if(expression 1)
{
statement-block1;
}
else if(expression 2)
{
statement-block2;
}
else if(expression 3 )
{
statement-block3;
}
else
default-statement;
The expression is tested from the top(of the ladder)
downwards. As soon as the true condition is found,
the statement associated with it is executed.
Example :
37
void main( )
{
int a;
cout << "enter a number";
cin >> a;
if( a%5==0 && a%8==0)
{
cout << "divisible by both 5 and 8";
}
else if( a%8==0 )
{
cout << "divisible by 8";
}
else if(a%5==0)
{
cout << "divisible by 5";
}
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else
{
cout << "divisible by none";
}
getch();
}
Points to Remember
In if statement, a single statement can be included
without enclosing it into curly braces { }
int a = 5;
if(a > 4)
cout << "success";
No curly braces are required in the above case, but if
we have more than one statement inside if condition,
then we must enclose them inside curly braces.
== must be used for comparison in the expression of
if condition, if you use = the expression will always
39
return true, because it performs assignment not

comparison.
Other than 0(zero), all other values are considered as
true.
if(27)
cout << "hello";
In above example, hello will be printed.
Looping in C++
In any programming language, loops are used to
execute a set of statements repeatedly until a
particular condition is satisfied.
How it works
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A sequence of statement is executed until a specified

condition is true. This sequence of statement to be
executed is kept inside the curly braces { } known as
loop body. After every execution of loop body,
condition is checked, and if it is found to be true the
loop body is executed again. When condition check
comes out to be false, the loop body will not be
executed.
There are 3 type of loops in C++ language

while loop
for loop
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do-while loop
while loop
while loop can be address as an entry control loop. It
is completed in 3 steps.
Variable initialization.( e.g int x=0; )
condition( e.g while( x<=10) )
Variable increment or decrement ( x++ or x-- or
x=x+2 )
Syntax :
variable initialization ;
while (condition)
{
statements ;
variable increment or decrement ;
}
for loop
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for loop is used to execute a set of statement

repeatedly until a particular condition is satisfied. we
can say it an open ended loop. General format is,
for(initialization; condition ; increment/decrement)
{
statement-block;
}
In for loop we have exactly two semicolons, one
after initialization and second after condition. In this
loop we can have more than one initialization or
increment/decrement, separated using comma
operator. for loop can have only one condition.
Nested for loop

We can also have nested for loop, i.e one for loop
inside another for loop. Basic syntax is,
for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
{
for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
{
43
statement ;
}
}
do while loop
In some situations it is necessary to execute body of
the loop before testing the condition. Such situations
can be handled with the help of do-while loop. do
statement evaluates the body of the loop first and at
the end, the condition is checked using while
statement. General format of do-while loop is,
do
{
....
.....
}
while(condition);
Jumping out of loop

44
Sometimes, while executing a loop, it becomes

necessary to skip a part of the loop or to leave the
loop as soon as certain condition becocmes true, that
is jump out of loop. C language allows jumping
from one statement to another within a loop as well
as jumping out of the loop.
1) break statement
When break statement is encountered inside a loop,
the loop is immediately exited and the program
continues with the statement immediately following
the loop.
2) continue statement
It causes the control to go directly to the test-
condition and then continue the loop process. On
encountering continue, cursor leave the current cycle
of loop, and starts with the next cycle.
Storage Classes in C++

Storage classes are used to specify the lifetime and
scope of variables. How storage is allocated for
variables and How variable is treated by complier
depends on these storage classes.
45
These are basically divided into 5 different types :

Global variables
Local variables
Register variables
Static variables
Extern variables
Global Variables
These are defined at the starting , before all function
bodies and are available throughout the program.
int globe; // Global variable
void func();
int main()
{
.....
}
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Local variables
They are defined and are available within a
particular scope. They are also called Automatic
variable because they come into being when scope is
entered and automatically go away when the scope
ends.
The keyword auto is used, but by default all local
variables are auto, so we don't have to explicitly add
keyword auto before variable dedaration. Default
value of such variable is garbage.
Register variables
This is also a type of local variable. This keyword is
used to tell the compiler to make access to this
variable as fast as possible. Variables are stored in
registers to increase the access speed.
But you can never use or compute address of register
variable and also , a register variable can be declared
only within a block, that means, you cannot have
global or static register variables.
Static Variables
47
Static variables are the variables which are

initialized & allocated storage only once at the
beginning of program execution, no matter how
many times they are used and called in the program.
A static variable retains its value until the end of
program.
void fun()
{
static int i = 10;
i++;
cout << i;
}
int main()
{
fun(); // Output = 11
}
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As, i is static, hence it will retain its value through

function calls, and is initialized only once at the
beginning.
Static specifiers are also used in classes, but that we
will learn later.
Extern Variables
This keyword is used to access variable in a file
which is declared & defined in some other file, that
is the existence of a global variable in one file is
declared using extern keyword in another file.
Functions in C++
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Functions are used to provide modularity to a

program. Creating an application using function
makes it easier to understand, edit, check errors etc.
Syntax of Function
return-type function-name (parameters)
{
// function-body
}
return-type : suggests what the function will return.
It can be int, char, some pointer or even a class
object. There can be functions which does not return
anything, they are mentioned with void.
Function Name : is the name of the function, using
the function name it is called.
Parameters : are variables to hold values of
arguments passed while function is called. A
function may or may not contain parameter list.
void sum(int x, int y)
{
50
int z;
z = x + y;
cout << z;
}
int main()
{
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
sum (a, b);
}
Here, a and b are sent as arguments, and x and y are
parameters which will hold values of a and b to
perform required operation inside function.
Function body : is he part where the code statements
are written.
Declaring, Defining and Calling Function

51
Function declaration, is done to tell the compiler

about the existence of the function. Function's return
type, its name & parameter list is mentioned.
Function body is written in its definition. Lets
understand this with help of an example.
#include < iostream>
int sum (int x, int y); //declaring function
int main()
{
int a = 10;
int b = 20;
int c = sum (a, b); //calling function
cout << c;
}
int sum (int x, int y) //defining function
{
return (X + y);
}
52
Here, initially the function is declared, without body.

Then inside main() function it is called, as the
function returns sumation of two values, hence z is
their to store the value of sum. Then, at last, function
is defined, where the body of function is mentioned.
We can also, declare & define the function together,
but then it should be done before it is called.
Calling a Function
Functions are called by their names. If the function
is without argument, it can be called directly using
its name. But for functions with arguments, we have
two ways to call them,
Call by Value
Call by Reference
Call by Value
In this calling technique we pass the values of
arguments which are stored or copied into the formal
parameters of functions. Hence, the original values
are unchanged only the parameters inside function
changes.
53
void calc(int x);

int main()
{
int x = 10;
calc(x);
printf("%d", x);
}
void calc(int x)
{
x = x + 10 ;
}
Output : 10
In this case the actual variable x is not changed,
because we pass argument by value, hence a copy of
x is passed, which is changed, and that copied value
is destroyed as the function ends(goes out of scope).
So the variable x inside main() still has a value 10.
54
But we can change this program to modify the

original x, by making the function calc() return a
value, and storing that value in x.
int calc(int x);
int main()
{
int x = 10;
x = calc(x);
printf("%d", x);
}
int calc(int x)
{
x = x + 10 ;
return x;
}
Output : 20
55
Call by Reference
In this we pass the address of the variable as
arguments. In this case the formal parameter can be
taken as a reference or a pointer, in both the case
they will change the values of the original variable.
void calc(int *p);
int main()
{
int x = 10;
calc(&x); // passing address of x as argument
printf("%d", x);
}
void calc(int *p)

{
*p = *p + 10;
}
Output : 20
56
NOTE : If you do not have a prior knowledge of

pointers, do study Pointers first.
Introduction to Classes and Objects
The classes are the most important feature of C++
that leads to Object Oriented programming. Class is
a user defined data type, which holds its own data
members and member functions, which can be
accessed and used by creating instance of that class.
The variables inside class definition are called as
data members and the functions are called member
functions.
For example : Class of birds, all birds can fly and
they all have wings and beaks. So here flying is a
behavior and wings and beaks are part of their
characteristics. And there are many different birds in
this class with different names but they all posses
this behavior and characteristics.
Similarly, class is just a blue print, which declares
and defines characteristics and behavior, namely
data members and member functions respectively.
And all objects of this class will share these
characteristics and behavior.
57
More about Classes

Class name must start with an uppercase
letter(Although this is not mandatory). If class name
is made of more than one word, then first letter of
each word must be in uppercase. Example,
class Study, class StudyTonight etc
Classes contain, data members and member
functions, and the access of these data members and
variable depends on the access specifiers (discussed
in next section).
Class's member functions can be defined inside the
class definition or outside the class definition.
Class in C++ are similar to structures in C, the only
difference being, class defaults to private access
control, where as structure defaults to public.
All the features of OOPS, revolve around classes in
C++. Inheritance, Encapsulation, Abstraction etc.
Objects of class holds separate copies of data
members. We can create as many objects of a class
as we need.
58
Classes do posses more characteristics, like we can

create abstract classes, immutable classes, all this we
will study later.
Objects
Class is mere a blueprint or a template. No storage is
assigned when we define a class. Objects are
instances of class, which holds the data variables
declared in class and the member functions work on
these class objects.
Each object has different data variables. Objects are
initialised using special class functions called
Constructors. We will study about constructors later.
And whenever the object is out of its scope, another
special class member function called Destructor is
called, to release the memory reserved by the object.
C++ doesn't have Automatic Garbage Collector like
in JAVA, in C++ Destructor performs this task.
class Abc
{
int x;
59
void display(){} //empty function

};
in main()
{
Abc obj; // Object of class Abc created
}
Access Control in Classes
Now before studying how to define class and its
objects, lets first quickly learn what are access
specifiers.
Access specifiers in C++ class defines the access
control rules. C++ has 3 new keywords introduced,
namely,
public
private
protected
60
These access specifiers are used to set boundaries for

availability of members of class be it data members
or member functions
Access specifiers in the program, are followed by a
colon. You can use either one, two or all 3 specifiers
in the same class to set different boundaries for
different class members. They change the boundary
for all the declarations that follow them.
Public
Public, means all the class members declared under
public will be available to everyone. The data
members and member functions declared public can
be accessed by other classes too. Hence there are
chances that they might change them. So the key
members must not be declared public.
class PublicAccess
{
public: // public access specifier
int x; // Data Member Declaration
void display(); // Member Function decaration
61
Private
Private keyword, means that no one can access the
class members declared private outside that class. If
someone tries to access the private member, they
will get a compile time error. By default class
variables and member functions are private.
class PrivateAccess
{
private: // private access specifier
}
Protected
Protected, is the last access specifier, and it is similar
to private, it makes class member inaccessible
outside the class. But they can be accessed by any
subclass of that class. (If class A is inherited by class
62
B, then class B is subclass of class A. We will learn

this later.)
class ProtectedAccess
{
protected: // protected access specifier
}
Defining Class and Declaring Objects
When we define any class, we are not defining any
data, we just define a structure or a blueprint, as to
what the object of that class type will contain and
what operations can be performed on that object.
Below is the syntax of class definition,
class ClassName
{
Access specifier:
Data members;
Member Functions(){}
63
};
Here is an example, we have made a simple class

named Student with appropriate members,
class Student
{
public:
int rollno;
string name;
};
So its clear from the syntax and example, class

definition starts with the keyword "class" followed
by the class name. Then inside the curly braces
comes the class body, that is data members and
member functions, whose access is bounded by
access specifier. A class definition ends with a
semicolon, or with a list of object declarations.
Example :
class Student
64
{
public:
int rollno;
string name;
}A,B;
Here A and B are the objects of class Student,

declared with the class definition. We can also
declare objects separately, like we declare variable
of primitive data types. In this case the data type is
the class name, and variable is the object.
int main()
{
Student A;
Student B;
}
Both A and B will have their own copies of data
members.
Accessing Data Members of Class
65
Accessing a data member depends solely on the

access control of that data member. If its public, then
the data member can be easily accessed using the
direct member access (.) operator with the object of
that class.
If, the data member is defined as private or
protected, then we cannot access the data variables
directly. Then we will have to create special public
member functions to access, use or initialize the
private and protected data members. These member
functions are also called Accessors and Mutator
methods or getter and setter functions.
Accessing Public Data Members

Following is an example to show you how to
initialize and use the public data members using the
dot (.) operator and the respective object of class.
class Student
{
public:
int rollno;
66
string name;
};
int main()
{
Student A;
Student B;
A.rollno=1;
A.name="Adam";
B.rollno=2;
B.name="Bella";
cout <<"Name and Roll no of A is :"<< A.name <<

A.rollno;
cout <<"Name and Roll no of B is :"<< B.name <<
B.rollno;
}
67
Accessing Private Data Members

To access, use and initialize the private data member
you need to create getter and setter functions, to get
and set the value of the data member.
The setter function will set the value passed as
argument to the private data member, and the getter
function will return the value of the private data
member to be used. Both getter and setter function
must be defined public.
Example :
class Student
{
private: // private data member
int rollno;
public: // public accessor and mutator functions

int getRollno()
{
68
return rollno;
}
void setRollno(int i)
{
rollno=i;
}
};
int main()
{
Student A;
A.rollono=1; //Compile time error
cout<< A.rollno; //Compile time error
A.setRollno(1); //Rollno initialized to 1

69
cout<< A.getRollno(); //Output will be 1

}
So this is how we access and use the private data
members of any class using the getter and setter
methods. We will discuss this in more details later.
Accessing Protected Data Members

Protected data members, can be accessed directly
using dot (.) operator inside the subclass of the
current class, for non-subclass we will have to
follow the steps same as to access private data
member.
Member Functions in Classes

Member functions are the functions, which have
their declaration inside the class definition and
works on the data members of the class. The
definition of member functions can be inside or
outside the definition of class.
If the member function is defined inside the class
definition it can be defined directly, but if its defined
70
outside the class, then we have to use the scope

resolution :: operator along with class name alng
with function name.
Example :
class Cube
{
public:
int side;
int getVolume(); // Declaring function getVolume
with no argument and return type int.
};
If we define the function inside class then we don't

not need to declare it first, we can directly define the
function.
class Cube
{
public:
int side;
71
int getVolume()
{
return side*side*side; //returns volume of cube
}
};
But if we plan to define the member function outside

the class definition then we must declare the
function inside class definition and then define it
outside.
class Cube
{
public:
int side;
int getVolume();
}
int Cube :: getVolume() // defined outside class

definition
72
{
return side*side*side;
}
The maine function for both the function definition

will be same. Inside main() we will create object of
class, and will call the member function using dot .
operator.
int main()
{
Cube C1;
C1.side=4; // setting side value
cout<< "Volume of cube C1 ="<< C1.getVolume();
}
Similarly we can define the getter and setter
functions to access private data members, inside or
outside the class definition.
Types of Member Functions
73
We already know what member functions are and

what they do. Now lets study some special member
functins present in the class. Following are different
types of Member functions,
Simple functions
Static functions
Const functions
Inline functions
Friend functions
Simple Member functions

These are the basic member function, which dont
have any special keyword like static etc as prefix.
All the general member functions, which are of
below given form, are termed as simple and basic
member functions.
return_type functionName(parameter_list)
{
function body;
}
74
Static Member functions

Static is something that holds its position. Static is a
keyword which can be used with data members as
well as the member functions. We will discuss this
in details later. As of now we will discuss its usage
with member functions only.
A function is made static by using static keyword
with function name. These functions work for the
class as whole rather than for a particular object of a
class.
It can be called using the object and the direct
member access . operator. But, its more typical to
call a static member function by itself, using class
name and scope resolution :: operator.
Example :
class X
{
public:
static void f(){};
};
75
int main()
{
X::f(); // calling member function directly with
class name
}
These functions cannot access ordinary data
members and member functions, but only static data
members and static member functions.
It doesn't have any "this" keyword which is the
reason it cannot access ordinary members. We will
study about "this" keyword later.
Const Member functions

We will study Const keyword in detail later, but as
an introduction, Const keyword makes variables
constant, that means once defined, there values can't
be changed.
When used with member function, such member
functions can never modify the object or its related
data members.
76
//Basic Syntax of const Member Function
void fun() const {}
Inline functions
All the member functions defined inside the class
definition are by default declared as Inline. We will
study Inline Functions in details in the next topic.
Friend functions
Friend functions are actually not class member
function. Friend functions are made to give private
access to non-class functions. You can declare a
global function as friend, or a member function of
other class as friend.
Example :
class WithFriend
{
int i;
77
public:
friend void fun(); // Global function as friend
};
void fun()
{
WithFriend wf;
wf.i=10; // Access to private data member
cout << wf.i;
}
int main()
{
fun(); //Can be called directly
}
Hence, friend functions can access private data

78 members by creating object of the class. Similarly
we can also make function of other class as friend,

or we can also make an entire class as friend class.
class Other
{
void fun();
};
class WithFriend
{
private:
int i;
public:
void getdata(); // Member function of class
WithFriend
friend void Other::fun(); // making function of
class Other as friend here
friend class Other; // making the complete class as
friend
79
};
When we make a class as friend, all its member

functions automatically become friend functions.
Friend Functions is a reason, why C++ is not called
as a pure Object Oriented language. Because it
violates the concept of Encapsulation.
Inline Functions in C++
All the member functions defined inside the class
definition are by default declared as Inline. Let us
have some background knowledge about these
functions.
You must remember Preprocessors from C language.
Inline functions in C++ do the same thing what
Macros do in C. Preprocessors were not used in C++
because they had some drawbacks.
Drawbacks of Macro
In Macro, we define certain variable with its value at
the beginning of the program, and everywhere inside
80
the program where we use that variable, its replaced

by its value on Compilation.
1) Problem with spacing

Let us see this problem using an example,
#define G (y) (y+1)
Here we have defined a Macro with name G(y),
which is to be replaced by its value, that is (y+1)
during compilation. But, what actually happens
when we call G(y),
G(1) //Macro will replace it
the preprocessor will expand it like,
(y) (y+1) (1)
You must be thinking why this happened, this
happened because of the spacing in Macro
definition. Hence big functions with several
expressions can never be used with macro, so Inline
functions were introduced in C++.
2) Complex Argument Problem

81
In some cases such Macro expressions work fine for

certain arguments but when we use complex
arguments problems start arising.
#define MAX(x,y) x>y?1:0
Now if we use the expression,
if(MAX(a&0x0f,0x0f)) // Complex Argument
Macro will Expand to,
if( a&0x0f > 0x0f ? 1:0)
Here precedence of operators will lead to problem,
because precedence of & is lower than that of >, so
the macro evaluation will surprise you. This problem
can be solved though using parenthesis, but still for
bigger expressions problem will arise.
3) No way to access Private Members of Class

With Macros, in C++ you can never access private
variables, so you will have to make those members
public, which will expose the implementation.
class Y
{
82
int x;
public :
#define VAL(Y::x) // Its an Error
}
Inline Functions
Inline functions are actual functions, which are
copied everywhere during compilation, like
preprocessor macro, so the overhead of function
calling is reduced. All the functions defined inside
class definition are by default inline, but you can
also make any non-class function inline by using
keyword inline with them.
For an inline function, declaration and definition
must be done together. For example,
inline void fun(int a)
{
return a++;
}
83
Some Important points about Inline Functions

We must keep inline functions small, small inline
functions have better efficiency.
Inline functions do increase efficiency, but we
should not make all the functions inline. Because if
we make large functions inline, it may lead to code
bloat, and might affect the speed too.
Hence, it is adviced to define large functions outside
the class definition using scope resolution ::
operator, because if we define such functions inside
class definition, then they become inline
automatically.
Inline functions are kept in the Symbol Table by the
compiler, and all the call for such functions is taken
care at compile time.
Access Functions
We have already studied this in topic Accessing
Private Data variables inside class. We use access
functions, which are inline to do so.
class Auto
84
{
int i;
public:
int getdata()
{
return i;
}
void setdata(int x)
{
i=x;
}
};
Here getdata() and setdata() are inline functions, and
are made to access the private data members of the
class Auto. getdata(), in this case is called Accessor
function and setdata() is a Mutator function.
There can be overlaoded Accessor and Mutator
functions too. We will study overloading functions
in next topic.
85
Limitations of Inline Functions

Large Inline functions cause Cache misses and affect
performance negatively.
Compilation overhead of copying the function body
everywhere in the code on compilation, which is
negligible for small programs, but it makes a
difference in large code bases.
Also, if we require address of the function in
program, compiler cannot perform inlining on such
functions. Because for providing address to a
function, compiler will have to allocate storage to it.
But inline functions doesn't get storage, they are kept
in Symbol table.
Forward References
All the inline functions are evaluated by the
compiler, at the end of class declaration.
class ForwardReference
{
int i;
86
public:
int f() {return g()+10;} // call to undeclared
function
int g() {return i;}
};
int main()
{
ForwardReference fr;
fr.f();
}
You must be thinking that this will lead to compile
time error,but in this case it will work, because no
inline function in a class is evaluated until the
closing braces of class declaration.
Function Overloading
If any class have multiple functions with same
names but different parameters then they are said to
be overloaded. Function overloading allows you to
use the same name for different functions, to
87
perform, either same or different functions in the

same class.
Function overloading is usually used to enhance the
readability of the program. If you have to perform
one single operation but with different number or
types of arguments, then you can simply overload
the function.
Ways to overload a function

By changing number of Arguments.
By having different types of argument.
Number of Arguments different

In this type of function overloading we define two
functions with same names but different number of
parameters of the same type. For example, in the
below mentioned program we have made two sum()
functions to return sum of two and three integers.
int sum (int x, int y)
{
88
cout << x+y;

}
int sum(int x, int y, int z)

{
cout << x+y+z;
}
Here sum() function is overloaded, to have two and
three arguments. Which sum() function will be
called, depends on the number of arguments.
int main()
{
sum (10,20); // sum() with 2 parameter will be
called
sum(10,20,30); //sum() with 3 parameter will be

called
}
89
Different Datatype of Arguments

In this type of overloading we define two or more
functions with same name and same number of
parameters, but the type of parameter is different.
For example in this program, we have two sum()
function, first one gets two integer arguments and
second one gets two double arguments.
int sum(int x,int y)
{
cout<< x+y;
}
double sum(double x,double y)

{
cout << x+y;
}
int main()
{
90
sum (10,20);
sum(10.5,20.5);
}
Default Arguments
When we mention a default value for a parameter
while declaring the function, it is said to be as
default argument. In this case, even if we make a call
to the function without passing any value for that
parameter, the function will take the default value
specified.
sum(int x,int y=0)
{
cout << x+y;
}
Here we have provided a default value for y, during
function definition.
int main()
{
91
sum(10);
sum(10,0);
sum(10,10);
}
Output :
10 10 20
First two function calls will produce the exact same
value.
for the third function call, y will take 10 as value and
output will become 20.
By setting default argument, we are also overloading
the function. Default arguments also allow you to
use the same function in different situations just like
function overloading.
Rules for using Default Arguments

Only the last argument must be given default value.
You cannot have a default argument followed by
non-default argument.
sum (int x,int y);
92
sum (int x,int y=0);

sum (int x=0,int y); // This is Incorrect
If you default an argument, then you will have to
default all the subsequent arguments after that.
sum (int x,int y=0);
sum (int x,int y=0,int z); // This is incorrect
sum (int x,int y=10,int z=10); // Correct
You can give any value a default value to argument,
compatible with its datatype.
Placeholder Arguments
When arguments in a function are declared without
any identifier they are called placeholder arguments.
void sum (int,int);
Such arguments can also be used with default
arguments.
void sum (int, int=0);
Constructors
93
Constructors are special class functions which

performs initialization of every object. The Compiler
calls the Constructor whenever an object is created.
Constructors iitialize values to object members after
storage is allocated to the object.
class A
{
int x;
public:
A(); //Constructor
};
While defining a contructor you must remeber that
the name of constructor will be same as the name of
the class, and contructors never have return type.
Constructors can be defined either inside the class
definition or outside class definition using class
class A
{
int i;
94
public:
A(); //Constructor declared
};
A::A() // Constructor definition

{
i=1;
}
Types of Constructors
Constructors are of three types :
Default Constructor
Parametrized Constructor
Copy COnstructor
Default Constructor
Default constructor is the constructor which doesn't
95 take any argument. It has no parameter.
Syntax :
class_name ()
{ Constructor Definition }
Example :
class Cube
{
int side;
public:
Cube()
{
side=10;
}
};
int main()
{
Cube c;
96
cout << c.side;

}
Output : 10
In this case, as soon as the object is created the
constructor is called which initializes its data
members.
A default constructor is so important for
initialization of object members, that even if we do
not define a constructor explicitly, the compiler will
provide a default constructor implicitly.
class Cube
{
public:
int side;
};
int main()
{
Cube c;
97
cout << c.side;

}
Output : 0
In this case, default constructor provided by the
compiler will be called which will initialize the
object data members to default value, that will be 0
in this case.
Parameterized Constructor
These are the constructors with parameter. Using
this Constructor you can provide different values to
data members of different objects, by passing the
appropriate values as argument.
Example :
class Cube
{
public:
int side;
Cube(int x)
98
{
side=x;
}
};
int main()
{
Cube c1(10);
Cube c2(20);
Cube c3(30);
cout << c1.side;
cout << c2.side;
cout << c3.side;
}
OUTPUT : 10 20 30
By using parameterized construcor in above case, we
have initialized 3 objects with user defined values.
99
We can have any number of parameters in a

constructor.
Copy Constructor
These are special type of Constructors which takes
an object as argument, and is used to copy values of
data members of one object into other object. We
will study copy constructors in detail later.
Constructor Overloading
Just like other member functions, constructors can
also be overloaded. Infact when you have both
default and parameterized constructors defined in
your class you are having Overloaded Constructors,
one with no parameter and other with parameter.
You can have any number of Constructors in a class
that differ in parameter list.
class Student
{
int rollno;
100
string name;
public:
Student(int x)
{
rollno=x;
name="None";
}
Student(int x, string str)
{
rollno=x ;
name=str ;
}
};
int main()
{
Student A(10);
101
Student B(11,"Ram");
}
In above case we have defined two constructors with
different parameters, hence overloading the
constructors.
One more important thing, if you define any
constructor explicitly, then the compiler will not
provide default constructor and you will have to
define it yourself.
In the above case if we write Student S; in main(), it
will lead to a compile time error, because we haven't
defined default constructor, and compiler will not
provide its default constructor because we have
defined other parameterized constructors.
Destructors
Destructor is a special class function which destroys
the object as soon as the scope of object ends. The
destructor is called automatically by the compiler
when the object goes out of scope.
102
The syntax for destructor is same as that for the

constructor, the class name is used for the name of
destructor, with a tilde ~ sign as prefix to it.
class A
{
public:
~A();
};
Destructors will never have any arguments.
Example to see how Constructor and Destructor is

called
class A
{
A()
{
cout << "Constructor called";
}
103
~A()
{
cout << "Destructor called";
}
};
int main()
{
A obj1; // Constructor Called
int x=1
if(x)
{
A obj2; // Constructor Called
} // Destructor Called for obj2
} // Destructor called for obj1
104
Single Definition for both Default and Parameterized

Constructor
In this example we will use default argument to have
a single definition for both defualt and
parameterized constructor.
class Dual
{
int a;
public:
Dual(int x=0)
{
a=x;
}
};
int main()
{
105
Dual obj1;
Dual obj2(10);
}
Here, in this program, a single Constructor definition
will take care for both these object initializations.
We don't need separate default and parameterized
constructors.
Namespace
Namespace is a container for identifiers. It puts the
names of its members in a distinct space so that they
don't conflict with the names in other namespaces or
global namespace.
Creating a Namespace
Creating a namespace is similar to creation of a
class.
namespace MySpace
{
// Declarations
}
106
int main() {}
This will create a namespace called MySpace, inside
which we can put our member declarations.
Rules to create Namespace

The namespace definition must be done at global
scope, or nested inside another namespace.
Namespace definition doesn't terminates with a
semicolon like in class definition.
You can use an alias name for your namespace
name, for ease of use. Example for Alias :
namespace StudyTonightDotCom
{
void study();
class Learn { };
}
107
namespace St = StudyTonightDotCom; // St is
now alias for StudyTonightDotCom
You cannot create instance of namespace.
There can be unnamed namespaces too. Unnamed
namespace is unique for each translation unit. They
act exactly like named namespaces. Example for
Unnamed namespace :
namespace
{
class Head { };
class Tail { };
int i,j,k;
}
int main() { }
A namespace definition can be continued and
extended over multiple files, they are not redefined
or overriden. Example :
Header1.h
108
namespace MySpace
{
int x;
void f();
}
Header2.h
#include "Header1.h";
namespace MySpace
{
int y;
void g();
}
Using a Namespace
109
There are three ways to use a namespace in program,

Scope Resolution
The using directive
The using declaration
With Scope Resolution

Any name (identifier) declared in a namespace can
be explicitly specified using the namespace's name
and the scope resolution :: operator with the
identifier.
namespace MySpace
{
class A
{
static int i;
public:
void f();
};
110
class B; // class name declaration

void func(); //gobal function declaration
}
int MySpace::A::i=9; // Initializing static class

variable
class MySpace::B
{
int x;
public:
int getdata()
{
cout << x;
}
B(); // Constructor declaration
}
111
MySpace::B::B() // Constructor definition

{
x=0;
}
The using directive

using keyword allows you to import an entire
namespace into your program with a global scope. It
can be used to import a namespace into another
namespace or any program.
Namespace1.h
namespace X
{
int x;
class Check
{
int i;
112
};
}
Namespace2.h
include "Namespace1.h";
namespace Y
{
using namespace X;
Check obj;
int y;
}
We imported the namespace X into namespace Y,
hence class Check is available in namespace Y.
Program.cpp
113 #include "Namespace2.h";

void test()
{
using Namespace Y;
Check obj2;
}
Hence, the using directive makes it a lot easier to use
namespace, wherever you want.
The using declaration

When we use using directive, we import all the
names in the namespace and they are available
throughout the program, that is they have global
scope.
But with using declaration, we import one specific
name at a time which is available only inside the
current scope.
NOTE : Name imported with using declaration can
override the name imported with using directive
Namespace.h
114
namespace X
{
void f() {}
void g() {}
}
namespace Y
{
void f() {}
void g() {}
}
Program.cpp
#include "Namespace.h";
void h()
{
115
using namespace X; // using directive

using Y::f; // using declaration
f(); // calls f() of Y namespace
X::f(); // class f() of X namespace
}
In using declaration, we never mention the argument

list of a function while importing it, hence if a
namespace has overloaded function, it will lead to
ambiguity.
Static Keyword
Static is a keyword in C++ used to give special
characteristics to an element. Static elements are
allocated storage only once in a program lifetime in
static storage area. And they have a scope till the
program lifetime. Static Keyword can be used with
following,
Static variable in functions
Static Class Objects
Static member Variable in class
116
Static Methods in class
Static variables inside Functions

Static variables when used inside function are
initialized only once, and then they hold there value
even through function calls.
These static variables are stored on static storage
area , not in stack.
void counter()
{
static int count=0;
cout << count++;
}
int main(0
{
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
{
117
counter();
}
}
Output :
01234
Let's se the same program's output without using
static variable.
void counter()
{
int count=0;
cout << count++;
}
int main(0
{
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
{
118 counter();
}
}
Output :
00000
If we do not use static keyword, the variable count,
is reinitialized everytime when counter() function is
called, and gets destroyed each time when counter()
functions ends. But, if we make it static, once
initialized count will have a scope till the end of
main() function and it will carry its value through
function calls too.
If you don't initialize a static variable, they are by
default initialized to zero.
Static class Objects

Static keyword works in the same way for class
objects too. Objects declared static are allocated
storage in static storage area, and have scope till the
end of program.
Static objects are also initialized using constructors
like other normal objects. Assignment to zero, on
119
using static keyword is only for primitive datatypes,

not for user defined datatypes.
class Abc
{
int i;
public:
Abc()
{
i=0;
cout << "constructor";
}
~Abc()
{
cout << "destructor";
}
};
120 void f()

{
static Abc obj;
}
int main()
{
int x=0;
if(x==0)
{
f();
}
cout << "END";
}
Output :
constructor END destructor
You must be thinking, why was destructor not called
upon the end of the scope of if condition. This is
because object was static, which has scope till the
121
program lifetime, hence destructor for this object

was called when main() exits.
Static data member in class

Static data members of class are those members
which are shared by all the objects. Static data
member has a single piece of storage, and is not
available as separate copy with each object, like
other non-static data members.
Static member variables (data members) are not
initialied using constructor, because these are not
dependent on object initialization.
Also, it must be initialized explicitly, always outside
the class. If not initialized, Linker will give error.
class X
{
static int i;
public:
X(){};
};
122
int X::i=1;
int main()
{
X obj;
cout << obj.i; // prints value of i
}
Once the definition for static data member is made,

user cannot redefine it. Though, arithmetic
operations can be performed on it.
Static Member Functions

These functions work for the class as whole rather
than for a particular object of a class.
It can be called using an object and the direct
member access . operator. But, its more typical to
123
call a static member function by itself, using class

Example :
class X
{
public:
static void f(){};
};
int main()
{
X::f(); // calling member function directly with
class name
}
These functions cannot access ordinary data
members and member functions, but only static data
members and static member functions.
124
It doesn't have any "this" keyword which is the

reason it cannot access ordinary members. We will
study about "this" keyword later.
Const Keyword
Constant is something that doesn't change. In C and
C++ we use the keyword const to make program
elements constant. Const keyword can be used in
many context in a C++ program. Const keyword can
be used with:
Variables
Pointers
Function arguments and return types
Class Data members
Class Member functions
Objects
1) Constant Variables
If you make any variable as constant, using const
keyword, you cannot change its value. Also, the
constant variables must be initialized while declared.
125
int main
{
const int i = 10;
const int j = i+10; // Works fine
i++; // This leads to Compile time error
}
In this program we have made i as constant, hence if
we try to change its value, compile time error is
given. Though we can use it for substitution.
2) Pointers with Const

Pointers can be made const too. When we use const
with pointers, we can do it in two ways, either we
can apply const to what the pointer is pointing to, or
we can make the pointer itself a const.
Pointer to Const
This means that the pointer is pointing to a const
variable.
126
const int* u;
Here, u is a pointer that points to a const int. We can
also write it like,
int const* v;
still it has the same meaning. In this case also, v is a
pointer to an int which is const.
Const pointer
To make the pointer const, we have to put the const
keyword to the right of the *.
int x = 1;
int* const w = &x;
Here, w is a pointer, which is const, that points to an
int. Now we can't change the pointer but can change
the value that it points to.
NOTE : We can also have a const pointer pointing to
a const variable.
const int* const x;
127
3) Const Function Arguments and Return types

We can make the return type or arguments of a
function as const. Then we cannot change any of
them.
void f(const int i)
{
i++; // Error
}
const int g()

{
return 1;
}
Some Important points to remember

For built in types, returning a const or non-const,
doesn't make any difference.
const int h()
128
{
return 1;
}
it main()
{
const int j = h();
int k = h();
}
Both j and k will be assigned 1. No error will occur.
For user defined data types, returning const, will
prevent its modification.
Temporary objects created while program execution
are always of const type.
If a function has a non-const parameter, it cannot be
passed a const argument while making a call.
void t(int*) { }
If we pass a const int* argument, it will give error.
129
But, a function which has a const type parameter,

can be passed a const type argument as well as a
non-const argument.
void g(const int*) {}
This function can have a int* as well as const int*
type argument.
4) Const class Data members

These are data variables in class which are made
const. They are not initialized during declaration.
Their initialization occur in the constructor.
class Test
{
const int i;
public:
Test (int x)
{
i=x;
}
130
};
int main()
{
Test t(10);
Test s(20);
}
In this program, i is a const data member, in every
object its independent copy is present, hence it is
initialized with each object using constructor. Once
initialized, it cannot be changed.
5) Const class Object

When an object is declared or created with const, its
data members can never be changed, during object's
lifetime.
Syntax :
const class_name object;
131
Const class Member function

A const member function never modifies data
members in an object.
Syntax :
return_type function_name() const;
Example for const Object and const Member

function
class X
{
int i;
public:
X(int x) // Constructor
{ i=x; }
int f() const // Constant function

{ i++; }
132
int g()
{ i++; }
};
int main()
{
X obj1(10); // Non const Object
const X obj2(20); // Const Object
obj1.f(); // No error
obj2.f(); // No error
cout << obj1.i << obj2.i ;
obj1.g(); // No error
obj2.g(); // Compile time error
}
133
Output :
10 20
Here, we can see, that const member function never
changes data members of class, and it can be used
with both const and non-const object. But a const
object can't be used with a member function which
tries to change its data members.
Mutable Keyword
Mutable keyword is used with member variables of
class, which we want to change even if the object is
of const type. Hence, mutable data members of a
const objects can be modified.
class Z
{
int i;
mutable int j;
public:
Z()
{i=0; j=0;}
134
void f() const

{ i++; // Error
j++; // Works, because j is Mutable
}
};
int main(0
{
const Z obj;
obj.f();
}
References in C++
References are like constant pointers that are
automatically dereferenced. It is a new name given
to an existing storage. So when you are accessing the
reference, you are actually accessing that storage.
int main()
{ int y=10;
135
int &r = y; // r is a reference to int y

cout << r;
}
Output :
10
There is no need to use the * to dereference a
reference variable.
Difference between Reference and Pointer

References Pointers
Reference must be
Pointers can be
initialized when it is
initialized any time.
created.
Once initialized, we Pointers can be
cannot reinitialize a reinitialized any number
reference. of time.
You can never have a
Pointers can be NULL.
NULL reference.
Reference is automatically * is used to dereference
dereferenced. a pointer.
136
References in Funtions
References are generally used for function argument
lists and function return values, just like pointers.
Rules for using Reference in Functions
When we use reference in argument list, we must
keep in mind that any change to the reference inside
the function will cause change to the original
argument outside th function.
When we return a reference from a function, you

should see that whatever the reference is connected
to shouldn't go out of scope when fnction ends.
Either make that global or static
Example to explain use of References
int* first (int* x)

{ (*x++);
return x; // SAFE, x is outside this scope
}
137
int& second (int& x)

{ x++;
return x; // SAFE, x is outside this scope
}
int& third ()
{ int q;
return q; // ERROR, scope of q ends here
}
int& fourth ()
{ static int x;
return x; // SAFE, x is static, hence lives till the
end.
}
138 int main()

{
int a=0;
first(&a); // UGLY and explicit
second(a); // CLEAN and hidden
}
We have four different functions in the above
program.
first() takes a pointer as argument and returns a
pointer, it will work fine. The returning pointer
points to variable declared outside first(), hence it
will be valid even after the first() ends.
Similarly, second() will also work fine. The

returning reference is connected to valid storage, that
is int a in this case.
But in case of third(), we declare a variable q inside

the function and try to return a reference connected
to it. But as soon as function third() ends, the local
variable q is destroyed, hence nothing is returned.
139
To remedify above problem, we make x as static in

function fourth(), giving it a lifetime till main() ends,
hence now a reference connected to x will be valid
when returned.
Const Reference
Const reference is used in function arguments to
prevent the function from changing the argument.
void g(const int& x)
{ x++; } // ERROR
int main()
{
int i=10;
g(i);
}
We cannot change the argument in the function
because it is passed as const reference.
140
Argument Passing Guidelines

Usually call by value is used during funtcion call
just to save our object or variable from being
changed or modified, but whenever we pass an
argument by value, its new copy is created. If we
pass an object as argument then a copy of that object
is created (constructor and destructors called), which
affects efficiency.
Hence, we must use const reference type arguments.
When we use, const reference, only an address is
passed on stack, which is used inside the function
and the function cannot change our argument
because it is of const type.
So using const reference type argument reduces
overhead and also saves our argument from being
changed.
Copy Constructor in C++
Copy Constructor is a type of constructor which is
used to create a copy of an already existing object of
a class type. It is usually of the form X (X&), where
X is the class name.he compiler provides a default
Copy Constructor to all the classes.
141
Syntax of Copy Constructor

class-name (class-name &)
{
....
}
As it is used to create an object, hence it is called a
constructor. And, it creates a new object, which is
exact copy of the existing copy, hence it is called
copy constructor.
Pointers to class members

142
Just like pointers to normal variables and functions,

we can have pointers to class member functions and
member variables.
Defining a pointer of class type
We can define pointer of class type, which can be
used to point to class objects.
class Simple
{
public:
int a;
};
int main()
{
Simple obj;
Simple* ptr; // Pointer of class type
ptr = &obj;
143
cout << obj.a;

cout << ptr->a; // Accessing member with pointer
}
Here you can see that we have declared a pointer of
class type which points to class's object. We can
access data members and member functions using
pointer name with arrow -> symbol.
Pointer to Data Members of class

We can use pointer to point to class's data members
(Member variables).
Syntax for Declaration :
datatype class_name :: *pointer_name ;
Syntax for Assignment :

pointer_name = &class_name :: datamember_name ;
Both declaration and assignment can be done in a

single statement too.
144
datatype class_name::*pointer_name =
&class_name::datamember_name ;
Using with Objects

For accessing normal data members we use the dot .
operator with object and -> qith pointer to object.
But when we have a pointer to data member, we
have to dereference that pointer to get what its
pointing to, hence it becomes,
Object.*pointerToMember
and with pointer to object, it can be accessed by
writing,
ObjectPointer->*pointerToMember
Lets take an example, to understand the complete
concept.
class Data
{
public:
int a;
void print() { cout << "a is "<< a; }
145
};
int main()
{
Data d, *dp;
dp = &d; // pointer to object
int Data::*ptr=&Data::a; // pointer to data member

'a'
d.*ptr=10;
d.print();
dp->*ptr=20;
dp->print();
}
Output :
146 a is 10 a is 20
The syntax is very tough, hence they are only used

under special circumstances.
Pointer to Member Functions

Pointers can be used to point to class's Member
functions.
Syntax :
return_type (class_name::*ptr_name)
(argument_type) = &class_name::function_name ;
Below is an example to show how we use ppointer
to member functions.
class Data
{ public:
int f (float) { return 1; }
};
int (Data::*fp1) (float) = &Data::f; // Declaration

and assignment
int (Data::*fp2) (float); // Only Declaration
147
int main(0
{
fp2 = &Data::f; // Assignment inside main()
}
Some Points to remember

You can change the value and behaviour of these
pointers on runtime. That means, you can point it to
other member function or member variable.
To have pointer to data member and member

functions you need to make them public.
148

Oop Notes2

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EdiTed BY: AbDUL QaYooM AbrO

Shah Abdul Latif University

Name: Abdul Qayoom Abro

Benefits of C++ over C Language

1. There is Stronger Type Checking in C++.

What we will cover in Basics of C++

Let us try to understand a little about all these,

are not present in a Female, and some body parts

outside world. We can take our skin as the

else. Then I can walk like I want, this will be called

OOPS Concept Definitions

They are used to define type of variables and

Basic Built in types

char a = 'A'; // character

Other Built in types

Enum as Data type

Here an enumeration of days is defined with variable

 A plain int must have a minimum size of short.

Basic types of Variables

Declaration and Initialization

If a variable is declared and not initialized by default

Some special types of variable

value. For example : addition (+), substraction (-

cout << sizeOf(double); //Will

Lets take an example and see how typedef actually

typedef and Pointers

conditional operator statement

Decision making with if statement

Nested if....else statement

return true, because it performs assignment not

A sequence of statement is executed until a specified

There are 3 type of loops in C++ language

for loop is used to execute a set of statement

Nested for loop

Jumping out of loop

Sometimes, while executing a loop, it becomes

Storage Classes in C++

These are basically divided into 5 different types :

Static variables are the variables which are

As, i is static, hence it will retain its value through

Functions are used to provide modularity to a

Declaring, Defining and Calling Function

Function declaration, is done to tell the compiler

Here, initially the function is declared, without body.

void calc(int x);

But we can change this program to modify the

void calc(int *p)

NOTE : If you do not have a prior knowledge of

More about Classes

Classes do posses more characteristics, like we can

void display(){} //empty function

These access specifiers are used to set boundaries for

B, then class B is subclass of class A. We will learn

Here is an example, we have made a simple class

So its clear from the syntax and example, class

Here A and B are the objects of class Student,

Accessing a data member depends solely on the

Accessing Public Data Members

cout <<"Name and Roll no of A is :"<< A.name <<

Accessing Private Data Members

public: // public accessor and mutator functions

A.setRollno(1); //Rollno initialized to 1

cout<< A.getRollno(); //Output will be 1

Accessing Protected Data Members