The pillow can be so distorted as to cause excessive loading in some spots with litle loading in other spots Consequently, it may be necessary to restrict deformation of the pillow by inserting a plate above and below it while testing, particularly in soft or thin material ‘The measure of a good weld is no leakage at a pre- scribed pressure or when failure occurs in the base metal, The pillow specimens can be tested under cyclic pressures to determine the fatigue strength of the welded joint 5. Projection Welding 5.1 Introduction, Projection welding (PW) is a resis tance welding process that produces a weld by the heat obtained from the resistance to the flow of the welding current. The resulting welds are localized at predete mined points by projections, embossments, or intersec- tions. The point of contact is with a local geometric extension (projection) of one (or both) of the parts. These projections are used to concentrate heat generation at the point of contact. Projection welding can typically be done using lower currents, lower forces, and shorter welding times than a similar spot welding epplication. Projection welding applications are generally classi- fied as either embossed or solid projection welding, ‘These are shown in Figures 23 and 24, Embossed projection welding is generally a sheet-to- sheet joining process in which a projection is stamped or pressed into one or more of the sheets to be joined. Dur- ing welding, heating is initially concentrated at the con- tact point and in the walls of the projection. Early in the process, the projection almost completely collapses back into the original sheet, Weld development proceeds in a manner similar to spot welding whereby @ fused weld nugget is formed at the point of current concentration. Completed embossed projection welds are often indistin- uishable from conventional resistance spot welds. In solid projection welding, the projection may be ma- chined or formed on one of the two components being joined. During resistance heating, the contact point and the projection itself experience a significant increase in temperature. The projection then collapses by both pene- trating the opposing material and by upsetting (or extrud- ing to the periphery). This weld typically resembles a solid state diffusion weld, with a minimal fused zone, rather than a spot weld. Since the projections typically collapse during the projection welding process, the strength of the material being welded, particularly at high temperatures, affects, the projection weldability. Materials that maintain their strengths up to relatively high temperatures permit sub- stantial heating to occur before the projection collapses Premature collapse of the projection resuits in a reduc Ee AWS C1.1M/C1.1:2000 tion in curtent density which reduces the concentrated heat generation from resistance heating. This prevents the projection contact area temperature from increasing high enough to promote satisfactory welding. Bulk resis- tivity, toa lesset degree, also plays a role in projection welding, Increased bulk resistivity has the effect of re- ducing the effectiveness of the projection as a current concentrator. With increasing bulk resistivity, there is a tendency for delocalized heating and general, rather than local, collapse ofthe projection. As a result, high rsis- tivity materials are more difficult co projection weld Materials that ae ideal for projection welding include mild stels and low-alloy, nickel-based materials. These materials have adequate strength at high temperatures, __ Proper resistivity, and readily dissociatable surface ox- 8 emi | ides to promote welding, Stsinles stels and higher alloy content nickel-based materials are more difficult to weld because of their high temperature strength and adherent surface oxides. Copper and copper alloys can also be projection welded, Projection welding is preferred over spot welding because ofthe difficulties these highly con- ductive materials cause in spot welding. Aluminum and aluminum-based alloys are quite difficult to projection weld because of the tenacious aluminum oxide coating associated with aluminum and the low strength of most aluminum alloys at high temperatures (resulting in pre ‘mature projection collapse). Titanium alloys are also dif ficult to weld using projections because of their high fesistivity and low strength at elevated temperatures which promotes premature projection collapse. 5.2 Embossed Projection Welding 5.2.1 Projection Design and Welding Parameters $2.11 Heavy-Gauge Sheet. Projection welding heavy-gauge steels is nominally an embossed projection welding process. However, the process has many of the characteristics of solid projection welding because of the ‘higher apparent material strengths associated with the larger masses. Projection designs, in addition to defining the geometry of the projection, normally provide an an- nular relief for the projection material which is forged or extruded to the side during welding similar to that of solid projection designs. Projection and die geometries for steels ranging from 3.12-6,22 mm (0.123-0.245 in.) are presented in Table 42. Process requirements for form- ing these welds are presented in Table 43. To prevent pre~ flashing of the projection on initiation of the welding cur- rent, upslopes ate recommended. In addition, since weld Porosity is often a concern, forge forces are also recom- mended. All welding schedules shown are single-pulse welding schedules. As with spot welding heavy section steels, however, excessive electrode or die wear may be & concern. In such applications. pulsation welding sched- ules might be recommended to alleviate tooling wear.AWS 01.1M/G1.1:2000 Pe INITIAL CONFIGURATION AFTER WELDING Figure 23—Typical Stack-up Configuration for Embossed Projection Welding of Sheet INITIAL CONFIGURATION AFTER WELDING Figure 24—Typical Configuration for Solid Projection Welding os[AWS C1.1M/CI.1 2000 vaz [irra] zo woe ieor we scr [Geo] uz | Oocso me seo. see scr | Gee] see | (our wz ws ist, 06 soe scr | Goro | sez | torro et ees wwe 68, wwe see [lara] sez | oro ere sor lez res we see | (rez0) | 969 | ooro) eve ser 1re rs lez ase | Geo | oF9 | oven el ur (exo) | 861 9e9 are wes | (red eo ose (coo) | eat seo ut ‘9s | (ooro) ist eve (900) | sot Ie eee ser | ro wl ze » | ww | ¢ uu wu uu uw | ¢ vw ww | (up | uw sss (ovo)crozp | werd s ‘usta FH aL smmpeas SPW 3TH son, supoy sppourig wWiPH ssoU PHU aa young uonsifeng eu .Os TIENIOOU 25-08 OL GSNIGHYH THA1S TOOL —twsenuw ze} gu i ee | re} we 4 yy + LL LL | ] 4 fiom 1 "3 Sashes) s a a eu 52-0) unw ze | Hong dvs NOLLO3POd ET sj9eig eBneg-aeay Jo aBuey e Burplam 40} Seunawoay 1g pue uoRoalorg 2p aiqeL 3S