UNIT – I

WIND TUNNELS
PART - A

·0 What are units and dimension?

Unit generally DIMENSIONS

S.No Quantity
adopted MLT SYSTEM FLT SYSTEM

Geometric

1. Length M L L

2. Area M2 L2 L2

3. Volume M3 L3 L3

Kinematic
5 Time Sec T T

6 Velocity M/sec LT-1 LT-1

(linear)

7 Velocity Rad / sec2 T-1 T-1

(angular)

8 Acceleration M/sec LT-2 LT-2

(linear)

9 Acceleration Rad /sec2 T2 T2

(angular)

10 Discharge Cum /sec L3 T-1 L3T-1

12 Kinematic M/sec2 L2 T-1 L2T-1

velocity

Dynamic
13 Mass Kg M FL-1 T2

14 Force Newton MLT-2 F

15 Weight Newton MLT-2 F

16 Mass density Kg /cum ML-3 FL-4T2

17 Specific weight Newton/cum ML-2T2 FL-3

18 Dynamic viscosity Newton /cum ML-1T-1 FL-3T

19 Surface tension Newton/m MT-2 FL-1

21 Pressure Newton/m2 ML-1T2 FL-2

26 Power Newton /sec ML2T3 FLT-1

2. Differentiate between fundamental units and derived units.

The fundamental or primary units are the simplest in their form possessing a single
dimension. When the units of measurements of the primary quantities are defined, the
measurements of all other quantities can be easily obtained.

Example: Length (L), Time (T), Mass (M), Temperature ()

The derived secondary quantities possess more than one dimension, and are expressed by a
combination of dimensions.

Example: Velocity (LT-1), linear acceleration (LT-2), force (MLT2) etc.

3. What do you mean by dimensional analysis?

The process of obtaining a relation between a number of quantities by the use of

dimension is known as dimensional analysis

Consider the equation, S = ut +1/2 at 2

Performing a dimensional analysis:

[L] = [LT-1] [T] + [LT-2][T2]= [L] + [L]

The above equation is a dimensionally homogeneous equation i.e. the dimensions of

every term on each side of the equation are identical.

4. What is a dimensionally homogeneous equation? Give examples?

An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the dimensions of every term

on each side of the equation are identical. Every equation representing a physical phenomenon
derived from an analytical approach will satisfy this condition. Such equations are independent
of the system of units.

Consider the equation V2 = U2 + 2as

Where, V and u are the final initial velocities of a body moving along a straight line, a is the
acceleration and s is the corresponding displacement.
Performing dimensional analysis.

[LT-1]2 = [LT-1]2 + [LT2] [L]

[L2T-2] = [L2T2] + [L2T2]

5. What are the two systems adopted to express derived units? (or) What are the methods of
dimensional analysis?

In dimensional analysis, if the number of variable involved in a physical phenomenon are

known, then the relation among the variables can be determined by the following two methods.

·1 Rayleigh’s method and

·2 Bucking ham’s/ theorem

Rayleigh’s method is used for determining the expression for a variable of three (M, L, T) or
maximum four (M, L, T,). If the number of independent variables becomes more than four, then
it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable. But these difficulties can be
overcome by Buckingham’s theorem.

6. Why Buckingham’s - theorem is considered superior over the Rayleigh’s method for
dimensional analysis?

The Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis becomes more laborious if the variables
are more than the number of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T). This difficulty is overcome by
using Buckingham’s - theorem in which dimensional analysis can be done for n variables. If
there are n variables (independent and dependent variables) in a physical phenomenon and if
these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), then the variables are arranged into
(n – m) dimension less terms ( called as - terms)

7. What do you mean by repeating variables? How are the repeating variables selected for
dimensional analysis?

Repeating variables those which are present in all terms used in Buckingham - theorem.
Number of repeating variables should be equal to number of fundamental units.

Rules to follow for selection of repeating variable are:

1. These are to be selected taxing one from geometric characteristic [e.g. length (i), area (A),
breadth (b), depth (d), volume (v)], one from fluid characteristic [density (T), dynamic viscosity ()
etc] and one from flow characteristic [velocity (v), acceleration (a), acceleration due to gravity (g)
discharge (Q), speed (N) etc]

2) T, L, V or L, d, V, or , I, v, or , d, v are the most preferable combination.

3) Dependent variable should never be chosen as repeating variables.

4) Any two repeating variables should not have the same dimensions.

5) The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental dimensions.

8. What do you mean by dimensionless numbers? Name some of it.

Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia
force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force.
As this is a ratio of two forces, it will be dimensionless number. These dimensionless numbers
are also called non – dimensional parameters.

The following are the important dimension less numbers:

·3 Reynolds numbers
·4 Froude’s number
·5 Euler’s number
·6 Weber’s number
·7 Mach’s number

9. What are the different laws on which models are designed for dynamic similarity?

Model laws or laws of similarity are the laws on which the models are designed for
dynamic similarity. Models are designed on the basis of ratio of the force, which is dominating in
the phenomenon.

The following are the model laws:

·8 Reynolds model law

·9 Froude model law
·10 Euler model law
·11 Weber model law
·12 Mach model law

10. Explain the terms: distorted models and undistorted models. What is the use of distorted
models?

Undistorted Models:Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically similar to
their prototypes or in other words the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype is same. The behaviour of the prototype can be easily predicted from the results of
undistorted model.

Distorted Model:

A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its prototyped model.

Different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted. For example, incase to rivers,
harbours, reservoirs etc. two different scale ratios, one for horizontal dimensions and other for
vertical dimensions are taken. Thus the models of revivers, harbors and reservoirs will become
distorted models.

The followings are the advantages of distorted models.

·13 The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately.

·14 The cost of the model can be reduced.
·15 Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.

11. What do you mean by model analysis?

Model analysis is the means of asserting and eliminating certain undesirable conditions
through model experiments and research that results in improvements in the existing works.
Safe and economic design and construction of new works and knowledge on many aspects of
hydraulic engineering can be achieved.

Model analysis are made for two purposes:

·16 to obtain information about the likely performance of the prototype, and
·17 to help in the design and to avoid costly mistakes

12. Write the drawbacks of analytical methods.

The following are the disadvantages of analytical methods used for study and analysis of
many problems in fluid mechanics.

·18 It involves a number of approximations and assumptions and hence application of the
analytical methods are restricted.
·19 It involves highly complicated equations which cannot be solved.
·20 The solutions to various complex flow patterns cannot be obtained by analytical
methods alone.
·21 It is impossible or impracticable in some cases to make a satisfactory and complete
mathematical analysis of the problems

13. What you mean by hydraulic similitude?

The observations made on the performance of the model are useful to predict the
performance of the prototype. Hence it is very necessary that the model should represent the
prototype in every respect i.e. the model should represent the prototype should have similar
properties. The similarity between a prototype and its model is called similitude.

For absolute similitude between a model and the prototype the following types of
similarities should exist.
 ·22 Geometric similarity
·23 Kinematics similarity and
·24 Dynamic similarity

14. What are the demerits of distorted models?

The following are the demerits of distorted models:

·25 Due to unequal horizontal and vertical scales the pressure and velocity distribution
are not truly reproduced in the model.
·26 The wave pattern in the model will be different from that in the prototype due to
depth distortion.
·27 Slopes, bends and earth cuts are not truly reproduced.

15. What do you mean by scale effect?

This is a defect which occurs in certain models due to which the computed properties of
the prototype from model experiments deviate much from the actual properties of the
prototype.For example, a model cannot match with prototype if it large depths, high velocities,
surface tension factor, flow conditions and force. Here the models do not have exact properties
with prototype. Hence, the scale effect occurs.

16. What are the different types of forces acting in moving fluid?

Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid:

For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on fluid mass may be any one, or a combination of
several of the following forces :

·28 Inertia Force Fi.

·29 Viscous force Fv.
·30 Gravity force Fg.
·31 Pressure force Fp.
·32 Surface tension force,
·33 Fs Elastic force Fe.
·34 Inertia Force (F1) :
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and acts in the
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. It is always existing in the fluid flow
problems.

·35 Viscous Force (Fv) :

It is equal to the product of shear stress () due to viscosity and surface area of the flow. It is
present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role to play.

·36 Gravity Force (Fg) :

It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid. It is
present in case of open surface flow.

·37 Pressure Force (Fp) :

It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the flowing fluid. It
is present in case pipe flow.

·38 Surface Tension Force(Fs) :

It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.

·39 Elastic Force (Fe) :

It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.

For a flowing fluid, the above – mentioned forces may not always be present. And also the
forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal magnitude. There are always
one or two forces which dominate the other forces. These dominating forces govern the flow of
fluid.

PART - B

1. (a) State Buckingham’s -theorem.

(b) The efficiency of an depends on density , dynamic viscosity of the fluid, angular velocity
diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express in terms of dimensionless parameters.
(A.M.I.E., Winter, 1976).
2. Using Buckingham’s - theorem, show that the velocity through a circular orifice is given by

where H is the head causing flow, D is the diameter of the orifice, is

co-efficient of viscosity, is the mass density and g is the acceleration due to gravity. (A.M.I.E.,
Winter, 1977)
3. A pipe of diameter 1.5m is required to transport an oil of sp. Gr. 0.90 and viscosity 310 -2 poise
at the rate of 3000 litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15cm diameter pipe using water at 20 oC.
Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model. Viscosity of water at 20 oC=0.01 poise.
4. A ship 300m long moves in sea- water, whose density is 1030 kg/m 3, A1:100 model of this ship
is to be tested in a wind tunnel around the model is 30m/s and the resistance of the model is
60N. Determine the velocity of ship in sea- water and also the resistance of the ship in sea –
water. The density of air is given as 1.24 kg/m 3. Take the kinematic viscosity of sea – water and
air as 0.012 strokes and 0.018 strokes respectively.

5. The pressure drop in an aero plane model of size of its prototype is 80 N/cm 2. The model
is tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in the prototype. Take density of air =
1.24 kg/m3. The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.

6. Explain the following non – dimensional numbers.

a) Reynolds number b) Froude’s number
c) Euler’s number d) Weber’s Number
e) Mach’s number