Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126

Accumulation, organic carbon and dry matter

concentration of sediment in commercial
channel catfish ponds
James A. Steeby a,∗ , John A. Hargreaves b ,
Craig S. Tucker c , Sue Kingsbury c
aThad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center, Mississippi State University,
P.O. Box 239, Belzoni, MS 39038, USA
b Aquaculture Research Station, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
c Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center, Mississippi State University,

P.O. Box 197, Stoneville, MS 38776, USA

Received 20 May 2003; accepted 14 October 2003

Abstract

Sediment depth and organic carbon (OC) concentration were measured in sediment cores (n = 675)
collected from 45 commercial channel catfish ponds in northwest Mississippi from April to September
in 1998 and 1999. Ponds had been in continuous catfish production from 14 days to 21 years. Sediment
depth ranged from 1 to 95 cm and was heterogeneously distributed within ponds: least in the shallow
end (26.3 cm) and greatest in deeper areas (33.7 cm). Mean sediment depth increased with pond age,
although the rate of sediment accumulation was greatest in the first year (12.5 cm per year). Organic
carbon concentration varied slightly within ponds ranging from 0.76 to 3.43% of dry matter (DM).
Mean organic carbon concentration in the upper 2 cm of sediment (1.77%) was significantly greater
than in the deeper sediment layer (1.55%). Mean dry matter content in the upper 2 cm of sediment
averaged 24.2% of total wet weight. Mean dry matter for the lower sediment fraction was 37.8% of
total wet weight. Despite large inputs of organic matter from feed and primary production, sediment
organic carbon concentrations did not increase with pond age.
© 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Aquaculture; Sediment accumulation; Organic carbon; Dry matter

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-662-247-2915; fax: +1-662-247-3823.

E-mail address: jsteeby@ext.msstate.edu (J.A. Steeby).

0144-8609/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2003.10.001
116 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126

1. Introduction

Earthen ponds are the most common production system used for freshwater aquaculture in
the world. Most aquaculture ponds are constructed by forming raised earthen levees around
the perimeter of the pond area (Steeby and Avery, 2002). Although earthen levees can
be relatively durable when properly constructed, all embankments are subject to erosion
from waves and, to a lesser extent, rainfall. Levee erosion is particularly problematic in
large ponds (>1 ha) where long fetches can result in large waves during windy periods.
Most commercial ponds used to grow channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus are large (4–8 ha)
and relatively shallow (1–1.5 m deep). Levee erosion has been identified as the primary
internal sediment loading mechanism in ponds without turbid water supplies resulting in
accumulation as ponds age (Munsiri et al., 1995, Avnimelech et al., 1999).
Food-sized channel catfish are usually produced in a “multiple-batch” cropping system
where fish are continuously stocked, harvested, and restocked for many years without drain-
ing the pond (Tucker and Robinson, 1990). Levee erosion over multiple years of continuous
culture ultimately limits the useful life of ponds because levees narrowed by erosion do not
allow safe passage of vehicles. Additionally sediment accumulation decreases capture effi-
ciency during harvest and increases time required to seine-harvest fish from ponds (Steeby
and Lovshin, 1993). Eventually, levee erosion and sediment accumulation become so great
that ponds must be renovated (Steeby et al., 1998).
In addition to inorganic solids derived from levee erosion, sediments that accumulate
in earthen aquaculture ponds also consist of organic material derived from settled primary
production by phytoplankton and solids excreted by fish. Whereas accumulation of inor-
ganic solids physically interferes with fish harvest, accumulation of organic material may
have negative impacts on the biological and chemical environment of ponds. For example,
decomposition of sediment organic matter may remove large amounts of oxygen from the
overlying water, representing a large proportion of overall pond respiration (Costa-Pierce
et al., 1984, Madenjian et al., 1987, Suplee and Cotner, 1996).
The objectives of this study were to define the accumulation rate, distribution, and organic
carbon (OC) content of sediments in commercial catfish ponds. Quantitative description of
sedimentation can improve prediction of pond renovation schedules, which would conse-
quently improve farm-level financial planning.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Ponds

Sediments in 45 ponds on 20 commercial channel catfish farms were sampled. All ponds
were located in northwest Mississippi on the Yazoo–Mississippi river alluvial flood plain.
Water surface area of ponds ranged from 3.6 to 10.1 ha in with an average size of 4.1 ha.
Year(s) of known continuous use was the single criterion by which ponds were selected for
sampling. Pond age was obtained by conducting interviews with farm owners and consulting
pond records. Ponds in operation less than 2 years were assigned an age to the nearest known
month, expressed as a fraction of a year. Ages of ponds older than 2 years were estimated
 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126 117

to the nearest number of complete years in production. Selected ponds ranged in age from
a newly filled pond (<14 days) to 21 years of continuous culture of catfish to market size,
with an average age of 8.5 years.

2.2. Sediment sampling

All sampling was conducted between April and September in 1998 and 1999 when water
temperature exceeded 22 ◦ C. One 5 cm diameter (4.7 cm inner diameter) sediment core was
collected at each of 15 locations throughout each pond. Five cores were collected in each
of three pond bottom locations: near the drain or deep end, the middle, and shallow end.
All samples were collected from ponds in operation, full of water.
Sediment cores were collected manually using a 5 cm diameter, 50 cm long, transparent
plastic, core liner tube. Samples from sediments greater than 45 cm were collected by
connecting two, 50 cm core liner tubes end to end with several wraps of clear packing tape.
The core liner tube was slowly inserted into the sediment until marked resistance indicated
that contact with the original compacted soil was made. The tube was then withdrawn by
placing one hand over the top of the liner tube and pulling upward with the other hand. The
2–5 cm of original pond bottom soil sealed the base of the sediment core in the liner tube
once the core tube was lifted to the pond surface.
Sediment depth was measured to the nearest centimeter by placing a meter stick next to
the clear liner tube. The sediment surface was clearly evident as the point where the water
ended and sediment surface began. The lower sediment boundary layer was the point where
the lighter parent pond soil could be distinguished from the darker accumulated sediment.
Sediments were extruded from core liner tubes by inserting a metal plunger into the
bottom of the tube and extruding the sediment into a short length of 4.7 cm diameter liner
tube placed over the top of the sediment core tube. The short length of tube was marked
with lines at 2 and 13 cm from the end. The upper 2 cm layer of sediment was removed first
followed by the next 13 cm, these are the F + S-layer and M-layer, respectively as termed
by Munsiri et al. (1995). The sediment core was segmented by inserting a wide spatula
between the core tube and the short length of marked core tube (Mudroch and MacKnight,
1991). Each sample was placed into a labeled plastic storage cup and covered.
The effect of core sampling on sediment compaction was assessed in 45 cores collected
from sediments ranging in depth from 2 to 90 cm. After the plastic core tube was inserted
into the sediment as previously described, the sediment–water interface outside the liner
tube was determined by touch and then marked on the outside of the tube. The distance
from this point to the parent layer was recorded as the un-compacted sediment depth. The
un-compacted sediment depth was then regressed against the sediment length in the liner
tube to derive a factor to correct all measurements made in liner tubes. Sample collection
compacted sediments in liner tubes by 24% (R2 = 0.97). Using this factor all sediment
depths measured in liner tubes were adjusted for the effect of compaction during sampling.

2.3. Sediment analysis

Sediment samples were collected and transported from the field (within 3–5 h) at ambient
temperature and refrigerated at 4–5 ◦ C for 1–3 days. Sediment dry weight was determined
118 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126

using all material in the F + S-layer and a 20 cm3 sub-sample of mixed M-layer sediment.
Wet sediment samples were weighed, dried for 24 h at 103 ◦ C, cooled in a desiccator, and
weighed again. Dry sediment samples were then ground using a mortar and pestle to pass
a 60 mesh sieve (0.23 mm opening).
Sediment dry matter (DM) was expressed as a percentage of wet sediment mass:
dry sediment(g)
dry matter (%) = × 100
wet sediment(g)
Organic carbon concentrations in dry, 0.5 g samples were estimated by the Walkley–Black
dichromate oxidation technique without external heating (Boyd and Tucker, 1992). The
Walkley–Black technique does not completely oxidize all organic matter but was selected
because it correlates well with carbon as determined by other methods and because it
differentiates between inorganic carbon (carbonate) and organic carbon (Ayub and Boyd,
1994). Average sediment organic carbon concentration (expressed on a dry soil basis) was
calculated for each pond based on fifteen samples each of the F + S and M layers for each
pond.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Differences in mean sediment depth and organic carbon concentration in the F + S and M
layers by pond location were evaluated using analysis of variance (PROC GLM in SAS) with
means separated by Tukey’s HSD. Differences were considered significant at P < 0.05.
Regression models were fitted using spreadsheet software, PROC GLM and PROC NLIN
in SAS. Regression modeling based on all data points was the preferred method. Where
variance in data was unequal, modeling was conducted on the means, as they are unbiased
population estimates. Model outcomes with R2 < 0.3 were not considered for illustration
or discussion.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Sediment accumulation

Sediment depth ranged from 1 to 95 cm, and varied with location within ponds and with
pond age (Fig. 1). Most catfish ponds are constructed with the bottom sloping toward the
drain to facilitate draining. Although the slope is low (usually <0.1%), the ponds are large
and water depth in new ponds may vary by as much as 25–40 cm from the shallow end to
the deep end near the drain. Mean sediment depth was significantly less in the shallow areas
of ponds (26.3 cm) than in the deep (33.7 cm) and middle areas (33.4 cm), which did not
differ (Table 1). Unequal sediment deposition can be attributed in part to the placement and
operation of paddlewheel aerators, which are usually placed at the shallow end of the pond.
Aerators used in commercial catfish farming produce locally swift currents that distribute
oxygen over a wide area and maintain high oxygen transfer rates. Water currents produced
by aerators can resuspend sediments in the shallow end of ponds that are subsequently
deposited in deeper areas as aerator-induced currents dissipate.
 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126 119

100

0.46
90 Mean accumulation = 12.51x
2
R = 0.92
80

70
Sediment depth (cm)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Duration of continuous use (y)

Fig. 1. Sediment depth measured in 45 commercial catfish ponds (n = 15 each pond) ranging in age from 14 days
to 21 years (∆ = each pond mean).

Heterogeneous distribution of sediments within ponds has implications for harvesting

and pond draining. On the one hand, sediment redistribution by aerator currents helps to
maintain adequate water depth and minimal sediment depth in the shallow end of ponds.
This condition facilitates fish harvest because the final steps of harvest usually take place in
the shallow end and aerators at that end are needed to supply oxygen to fish concentrated in
nets before load-out. Shallow water depth and deep sediments hinder the final steps in the
harvest process by restricting the mobility of farm workers in the pond. On the other hand,
removal of sediments from the shallow end of ponds and deposition in the deeper (drain)
end changes the original slope of the pond bottom, obstructs the flow of water during the
final stages of pond draining, and may prevent complete draining of the pond. However,

Table 1
Mean organic carbon concentration (%) by pond location, layer and mean corrected sediment depth (cm) by pond
area (n = number of samples)
Location Layer Sediment depth n

F+S n M n

Deep 1.78a 220 1.53b 214 33.7x 225

Middle 1.74a 220 1.55b 211 33.4x 225
Shallow 1.77a 220 1.56b 207 26.3y 225
Overall 1.77a 660 1.55b 632 31.1 675
Means with different letters (layer—a, b and depth—x, y) differ significantly (P = 0.05; Tukey’s test).
120 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126

60
Mean rate of sediment accumulation (cm y )
-1

50

-0.54
Mean rate = 12.56x
40 2
R = 0.94

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Duration of continuous use (y)

Fig. 2. Mean rate of sediment accumulation in 45 commercial catfish ponds (n = 15 each pond) ranging in age
from 14 days to 21 years.

most catfish ponds are drained only when renovation is needed and there are techniques
which allow ponds to be repaired even if they do not drain completely (Steeby et al., 1998).
Mean sediment depth and variation increased with pond age (Fig. 1). Sediment accumu-
lation initially occurs at a rapid rate (Fig. 2), with average depth increasing by 12.5 cm in the
first year. Sediment accumulation rate decreased with pond age: in years 2–6, the accumu-
lation rate was 3 cm per year; in years 6–11, the rate was 1.8 cm per year; in years 11–16 the
rate was 1.3 cm per year; and in years 16–21 the rate decreased to 1.1 cm per year (Fig. 2).
These rates are comparable to those reported for Alabama aquaculture ponds (Munsiri et al.,
1995) where the sediment accumulation rate decreased from 5.85 cm per year in 2-year-old
ponds to 1.23 cm per year in 23-year-old ponds. The rapid rate of sediment accumulation in
new ponds is caused by deposition of easily eroded material from pond levees immediately
following construction or renovation. After ponds are first constructed, a variable period
of time may elapse before levee soils are fully compacted and before levee slopes become
vegetated, and until then, the bare slopes are easily eroded by waves and rain. The rate of
sediment accumulation decreases as ponds age because the susceptibility of pond levees to
erosion decreases as cover grasses become established.

3.2. Sediment dry matter

Dry matter in F + S and M layers varied widely among and within ponds, although it
did not vary appreciably across pond age in either layer. Sediment dry matter in F + S and
M layers decreased rapidly in the first year, but then maintained relatively constant values
 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126 121

Table 2
Summary of dry matter (DM) and organic carbon (OC) content for the F + S and M sediment layer
Layer F+S M

Variable Mean S.D. Min Max Mean S.D. Min Max

DM (%) 24.20 10.10 9.80 62.40 37.76 9.97 12.35 70.78
OC (%) 1.77 0.41 0.76 2.89 1.55 0.33 0.84 3.43

(Fig. 3a and b) despite the increase in sediment depth over time. This approximately equi-
librium condition reflects the dynamic result of physical processes that increase sediment
bulk density (e.g., settling, compaction) and those that decrease sediment bulk density (e.g.,
resuspension). The F + S-layer contained less average dry matter (24.2%) than the M-layer
(37.8%) (Table 2). Similar to other aquaculture pond sediments, bulk density increases and
moisture decreases with increasing sediment depth (Munsiri et al., 1995, Avnimelech et al.,
2001).

3.3. Sediment organic carbon

The mean concentration of sediment organic carbon in the F + S-layer (1.77%) was
significantly greater than in the M-layer (1.55%). The organic carbon concentration in the
F + S-layer was similar to that measured in other aquaculture pond sediments (Table 3)
and was typical of organic carbon concentration in mineral soils. Organic matter concen-
tration in surficial sediments is greater than in deeper sediment layers (Munsiri et al., 1995,
Sonnenholzner and Boyd, 2000) because organic matter from the water column settles to
the sediment surface and may accumulate at a rate greater than losses from decomposition.
Sediment organic carbon concentrations in the F + S and M layers varied only slightly
by location within ponds but did not change over time (Fig. 4a and b). The lack of a
trend in sediment organic carbon concentration over time is surprising given the large

Table 3
Sediment organic carbon concentration in aquaculture ponds
Location Description Organic carbon (%) n Source
Mean Range

Alabama, US Fish ponds S-layer 2.63 2.5–3.0 18 Munsiri et al., 1995

Ecuador Brackish water shrimp pond 2.38 0.25–14 74 Sonnenholzner and
Boyd, 2000
Alabama, US Fish ponds M-layer 2.26 0.25–3.3 18 Munsiri et al., 1995
Mississippi, US Commercial catfish ponds 1.80 0.95–2.75 32 Tucker, 1985
Thailand Brackish water shrimp pond 1.79 0.5–10 346 Boyd et al., 1994
Various locations Fresh water ponds 1.78 0.6–8 358 Boyd et al., 1994
Mississippi, US Commercial catfish ponds 1.77 0.76–2.89 660 This study
F + S-layer
Mississippi, US Research catfish ponds 1.73 1.6–1.8 18 Balnath, 1995
Mississippi, US Commercial catfish ponds 1.55 0.84–3.43 632 This study
M-layer
122 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126

70
y = -3.84Ln(x) + 30.22
2
R = 0.31
60
Dry matter in the F+S layer (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
(a) Duration of continuous use (y)

70

60
Dry matter in the M layer (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20

(b) Duration of continuous use (y)

Fig. 3. (a) Dry matter (%) in the upper 2 cm (F + S-layer) of sediment in 45 commercial catfish ponds (n = 15
each pond) ranging in age from 14 days to 21 years. (b) Dry matter (%) in the lower 13 cm of sediment (M-layer)
in 44 commercial catfish ponds (n = 15 each pond) ranging in age from 14 days to 21 years.
 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126 123

3.5
2
y = -0.01x + 0.13x + 1.29
2
3.0 R = 0.36
Organic carbon in the F+S layer (%)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20
(a) Duration of continuous use (y)

3. 5

3. 0
Organic carbon in the M layer (%)

2. 5

2. 0

1. 5

1. 0

0. 5

0. 0
0 5 10 15 20
(b) Duration of continuous use (y)

Fig. 4. (a) Organic carbon (%) in the upper 2 cm (F + S-layer) of sediment in 45 commercial catfish ponds (n = 15
each pond) ranging in age from 14 days to 21 years. (b) Organic carbon (%) in the lower sediment (M-layer) in
44 commercial catfish ponds (n = 15 each pond) ranging in age from 14 days to 21 years.
124 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126

annual input of organic matter derived from catfish feed (∼11,000 kg ha−1 year; Engle and
Kouka, 1996) and phytoplankton gross primary production (1–3 g C m−2 d−1 ; Boyd, 1973).
However, organic matter in fish wastes and dead phytoplankton are of high quality and are
quickly mineralized in the water column and at the sediment surface during the long, warm
growing season (Boyd, 1995, Boyd, 1997), which accounts for the absence of organic matter
accumulation in catfish pond sediments.
A modest increase in organic carbon concentration in the F + S-layer during the first 10
years of pond use was evident (Fig 4a) and was of similar magnitude to that measured in
other catfish ponds (Tucker, 1985). Ten-year simulations of organic matter concentrations
in tropical aquaculture pond sediments (Jamu and Piedrahita, 2001) indicate that in ponds
receiving chicken manure and artificial feed that sediment organic matter concentrations
decrease slightly for the first 4 or 5 years and then increase thereafter. However, sediment
organic matter dynamics in temperate and tropical fish ponds may differ fundamentally.
In temperate channel catfish ponds, organic matter inputs to the sediment (e.g., settled
phytoplankton, fecal solids derived from high protein feed) are of relatively high quality
and easily decomposed. Furthermore, organic matter loading is seasonal, with loading dur-
ing the growing season, and no loading during a cold-season “fallow” period that allows
any accumulated organic matter to decompose under favorable oxygen concentrations. In
tropical aquaculture ponds, organic matter inputs to the sediment are of variable quality.
In many cases, tropical fish ponds are loaded with manures and agricultural by-products
that may accumulate at the sediment surface. Organic matter loading is continuous because
temperatures are favorable for fish growth throughout the year. Thus, conditions are more
favorable for the accumulation of organic matter in tropical fish ponds than in temperate
catfish ponds. Further research is required to substantiate these mechanisms.

4. Conclusion

Sediment is increasingly heterogeneously distributed in commercial catfish ponds as

they age and occupies an increasing proportion of the total pond volume as ponds age.
As ponds age, the end of the pond that is initially the most shallow (farthest from the
drain), where paddlewheel aerators are normally located, becomes the area with the least
sediment accumulation and may eventually have the greatest water depth as sediments are
redistributed to the deeper end. On average, a pond in continuous use for 15 years will
contain 40 cm of sediment. In a 15-year-old pond, sediment accumulation may be so great
that areas with maximum sediment accumulation are covered by less than 25 cm of water
depth.
Sediment organic matter concentration was rarely greater than 3% of dry weight in the F
+ S-layer and rarely greater than 2.5% in the M-layer. Sediment is for the greatest part water,
with dry matter being highest in the lower sediment layer. Despite large inputs of organic
matter from fish feeds and settled phytoplankton primary production, the concentration of
organic carbon did not increase over time in catfish pond sediment and quickly reaches a
mean equilibrium value.
Levee erosion eventually limits the passage of vehicles and the resulting sediment ac-
cumulation creates difficulties in fish harvest and pond draining. Creating new ponds with
 J.A. Steeby et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 30 (2004) 115–126 125

wide levees and more depth will increase construction costs but will help extend the useful
life of a pond. Depending on initial pond depth, ponds in continuous operation for over
10 years should be renovated to restore the levee profile, thus replacing accumulated sedi-
ment back into levee slope. The cost of periodic pond renovation must be included in pond
maintenance budgets over long-term, farm-level financial planning.
The rate of sediment accumulation is greatest in the first year of pond use and decreases
with age suggesting that early establishment of vegetative cover on pond levees is important
for extending the useful life of ponds before renovation is required. Levee erosion and
the rate of sediment accumulation can be reduced by establishing cover grasses as soon
as possible after pond construction. In the southeastern US, varieties of Bermuda grass
(Cynodon dactylon) are preferred as cover grasses because they form course, matted turfs
that spread rapidly by above-ground stolons and below-ground rhizomes. The resulting turf
is resistant to traffic and provides excellent erosion control. Placement of a rock barrier on
levee slopes can reduce soil erosion but this practice is not widely used because of the high
initial cost and difficulty in removal when pond renovation is necessary.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the many commercial catfish producers who allowed access to ponds
for sample collection and assisted in the determination of pond age. Approved for publication
as Journal Article J10426 of the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station,
Mississippi State University.

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