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CH.

1 INTRODUCTION

The financial system plays the key role in the economy by stimulating economic growth,
influencing economic performance of the actors, affecting economic welfare. This is
achieved by financial infrastructure, in which entities with funds allocate those funds to
those who have potentially more productive ways to invest those funds. A financial
system makes it possible a more efficient transfer of funds. As one party of the
transaction may possess superior information than the other party, it can lead to the
information asymmetry problem and inefficient allocation of financial resources. By
overcoming the information asymmetry problem the financial system facilitates balance
between those with funds to invest and those needing funds.

According to the structural approach, the financial system of an economy consists of


three main components:

1. Financial markets,

2. Financial intermediaries (institutions) &

3. Financial regulators.

Each of the components plays a specific role in the economy. According to the functional
approach, financial markets facilitate the flow of funds in order to finance investments by
corporations, governments and individuals. Financial institutions are the key players in
the financial markets as they perform the function of intermediation and thus determine
the flow of funds. The financial regulators perform the role of monitoring and regulating
the participants in the financial system.1

Financial markets studies, based on capital market theory, focus on the financial system,
the structure of interest rates, and the pricing of financial assets. An asset is any resource
that is expected to provide future benefits, and thus possesses economic value.2 Assets
are divided into two categories: tangible assets with physical properties and intangible
assets. An intangible asset represents a legal claim to some future economic benefits. The

1
Sarma V. Nityanand, Banking and Financial System (Foundation Books, C.U.P.I. Pvt.Ltd.)
2
http://www.indianmba.com/Faculty_Column/FC1063/fc1063.html

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value of an intangible asset bears no relation to the form, physical or otherwise, in which
the claims are recorded.

Financial assets, often called financial instruments, are intangible assets, which are
expected to provide future benefits in the form of a claim to future cash. Some financial
instruments are called securities and generally include stocks and bonds.

Any transaction related to financial instrument includes at least two parties:

1. The party that has agreed to make future cash payments and is called the issuer:
2. The party that owns the financial instrument, and therefore the right to receive the
payments made by the issuer, is called the investor.

Financial assets provide the following key economic functions.

 They allow the transfer of funds from those entities, who have surplus funds to
invest to those who need funds to invest in tangible assets;
 They redistribute the unavoidable risk related to cash generation among deficit
and surplus economic units.

The claims held by the final wealth holders generally differ from the liabilities issued by
those entities who demand those funds. They role is performed by the specific entities
operating in financial systems, called financial intermediaries. The latter ones transform
the final liabilities into different financial assets preferred by the public.

Stock Market Banking Sector

Firms Bond Market

Short Term fixed Government


Securities Market

*The structure of Financial System

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CH.2 FINANCIAL MARKET

DEFINITION

A financial Market is a place where people and organization wanting to borrow money
are brought together with those having surplus funds.

A financial market is a market where financial instruments are exchanged or traded.3


Financial markets provide the following three major economic functions:

 Price discovery

Price discovery function means that transactions between buyers and sellers of financial
instruments in a financial market determine the price of the traded asset. At the same time
the required return from the investment of funds is determined by the participants in a
financial market. The motivation for those seeking funds (deficit units) depends on the
required return that investors demand. It is these functions of financial markets that signal
how the funds available from those who want to lend or invest funds will be allocated
among those needing funds and raise those funds by issuing financial instruments.

 Liquidity

Liquidity function provides an opportunity for investors to sell a financial instrument,


since it is referred to as a measure of the ability to sell an asset at its fair market value at
any time. Without liquidity, an investor would be forced to hold a financial instrument
until conditions arise to sell it or the issuer is contractually obligated to pay it off. Debt
instrument is liquidated when it matures, and equity instrument is until the company is
either voluntarily or involuntarily liquidated. All financial markets provide some form of
liquidity. However, different financial markets are characterized by the degree of
liquidity.

3
Das Shubhash Chndra ( The Financial Marketing Regulations)

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 Reduction of transaction costs

The function of reduction of transaction costs is performed, when financial market


participants are charged and/or bear the costs of trading a financial instrument. In market
economies the economic rationale for the existence of institutions and instruments is
related to transaction costs, thus the surviving institutions and instruments are those that
have the lowest transaction costs.

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CH.3 ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FINANCIAL MARKET

Role of Financial Market -

1. Mobilization of savings
2. Investment
3. National growth
4. Industrial development

Functions of the Financial Market –

1. Intermediary Functions
 Transfer of resources - In a financial system the Savings of people are transferred
from households to business organizations. With these production increases and
better goods are manufactured, which increases the standard of living of people.
 Enhancing or Increasing income - The financial system offers convenient modes
of payment for goods and services. New methods of payments like credit cards,
debit cards, cheques, etc. facilitates quick and easy transactions.
 Productive use of fund
 Capital formation - Business require finance. These are made available through
banks, households and different financial institutions. They mobilize savings
which leads to Capital Formation.
 Price determination – Financial Markets allowed for the determination of price of
the traded financial asset through interaction of buyer and sellers.
 Sell Mechanism – Financial Markets provide a mechanism for selling of financial
asset by an Investor so as to offer the benefits of marketability and liquidity of
such assets.

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2. Financial Functions
 Providing the borrowers with funds so as to enable them to carry out their
investment plans.
 To provide the Lenders with earning assets so as to enable them to earn wealth by
investing these assets in profitable ventures.
 To provide liquidity in the market so as to facilitate trading of funds.

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CH.4 CONSTITUENTS OF THE FINANCIAL MARKET

A financial market is a broad term describing any marketplace where buyers and sellers
participate in the trade of assets such as equities, bonds, currencies and derivatives.
Financial markets are typically defined by having transparent pricing, basic regulations
on trading, costs and fees, and market forces determining the prices of securities that
trade.4

Financial markets can be found in nearly every nation in the world. Some are very small,
with only a few participants, while others - like the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE)
and the FOREX markets - trade trillions of dollars daily.

Investors have access to a large number of financial markets and exchanges representing
a vast array of financial products. Some of these markets have always been open to
private investors; others remained the exclusive domain of major international banks and
financial professionals until the very end of the twentieth century.5

Different Constituents of Financial Market

 Primary Markets

A primary market issues new securities on an exchange. Companies, governments and


other groups obtain financing through debt or equity based securities. Primary markets,
also known as "new issue markets," are facilitated by underwriting groups, which consist
of investment banks that will set a beginning price range for a given security and then
oversee its sale directly to investors.

The primary markets are where investors have their first chance to participate in a new
security issuance. The issuing company or group receives cash proceeds from the sale,

4
https://www.investopedia.com/walkthrough/corporate-finance/1/financial-markets.aspx
5
http://www.businessmanagementideas.com/financial-management/financial-markets/3-main-components-
of-capital-market/4114

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which is then used to fund operations or expand the business. (For more on the primary
market, see our IPO Basics Tutorial.)

 Secondary Markets

The secondary market is where investors purchase securities or assets from other
investors, rather than from issuing companies themselves. The Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) registers securities prior to their primary issuance, then they start
trading in the secondary market on the New York Stock Exchange, Nasdaq or other
venue where the securities have been accepted for listing and trading. (To learn more
about the primary and secondary market, read Markets Demystified.)

The secondary market is where the bulk of exchange trading occurs each day. Primary
markets can see increased volatility over secondary markets because it is difficult to
accurately gauge investor demand for a new security until several days of trading have
occurred. In the primary market, prices are often set beforehand, whereas in the
secondary market only basic forces like supply and demand determine the price of the
security.

Secondary markets exist for other securities as well, such as when funds, investment
banks or entities such as Fannie Mae purchase mortgages from issuing lenders. In any
secondary market trade, the cash proceeds go to an investor rather than to the underlying
company/entity directly. (To learn more about primary and secondary markets, read A
Look at Primary and Secondary Markets.)

 Capital Markets

A capital market is one in which individuals and institutions trade financial securities.
Organizations and institutions in the public and private sectors also often sell securities

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on the capital markets in order to raise funds. Thus, this type of market is composed of
both the primary and secondary markets.

Any government or corporation requires capital (funds) to finance its operations and to
engage in its own long-term investments. To do this, a company raises money through the
sale of securities - stocks and bonds in the company's name. These are bought and sold in
the capital markets.

 Stock Markets

Stock markets allow investors to buy and sell shares in publicly traded companies. They
are one of the most vital areas of a market economy as they provide companies with
access to capital and investors with a slice of ownership in the company and the potential
of gains based on the company's future performance.

This market can be split into two main sections: the primary market and the secondary
market. The primary market is where new issues are first offered, with any subsequent
trading going on in the secondary market.

 Bond Markets

A bond is a debt investment in which an investor loans money to an entity (corporate or


governmental), which borrows the funds for a defined period of time at a fixed interest
rate. Bonds are used by companies, municipalities, states and U.S. and foreign
governments to finance a variety of projects and activities. Bonds can be bought and sold
by investors on credit markets around the world. This market is alternatively referred to
as the debt, credit or fixed-income market. It is much larger in nominal terms that the
world's stock markets. The main categories of bonds are corporate bonds, municipal
bonds, and U.S. Treasury bonds, notes and bills, which are collectively referred to as
simply "Treasuries."

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 Money Market

The money market is a segment of the financial market in which financial instruments
with high liquidity and very short maturities are traded. The money market is used by
participants as a means for borrowing and lending in the short term, from several days to
just under a year. Money market securities consist of negotiable certificates of deposit
(CDs), banker's acceptances, U.S. Treasury bills, commercial paper, municipal notes,
euro-dollars, federal funds and repurchase agreements (repos). Money market
investments are also called cash investments because of their short maturities.6

The money market is used by a wide array of participants, from a company raising money
by selling commercial paper into the market to an investor purchasing CDs as a safe
place to park money in the short term. The money market is typically seen as a safe place
to put money due the highly liquid nature of the securities and short maturities. Because
they are extremely conservative, money market securities offer significantly lower
returns than most other securities. However, there are risks in the money market that any
investor needs to be aware of, including the risk of default on securities such as
commercial paper. (To learn more, read our Money Market Tutorial.)

 Cash or Spot Market

Investing in the cash or "spot" market is highly sophisticated, with opportunities for both
big losses and big gains. In the cash market, goods are sold for cash and are delivered
immediately. By the same token, contracts bought and sold on the spot market are
immediately effective. Prices are settled in cash "on the spot" at current market prices.
This is notably different from other markets, in which trades are determined at forward
prices.

The cash market is complex and delicate, and generally not suitable for inexperienced
traders. The cash markets tend to be dominated by so-called institutional market players

6
http://kalyan-city.blogspot.in/2010/09/money-market-concept-meaning.html

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such as hedge funds, limited partnerships and corporate investors. The very nature of the
products traded requires access to far-reaching, detailed information and a high level of
macroeconomic analysis and trading skills.

 Derivatives Markets

The derivative is named so for a reason: its value is derived from its underlying asset or
assets. A derivative is a contract, but in this case the contract price is determined by the
market price of the core asset. If that sounds complicated, it's because it is. The
derivatives market adds yet another layer of complexity and is therefore not ideal for
inexperienced traders looking to speculate. However, it can be used quite effectively as
part of a risk management program. (To get to know derivatives, read The Barnyard
Basics of Derivatives.)

Examples of common derivatives are forwards, futures, options, swaps and contracts-for-
difference (CFDs). Not only are these instruments complex but so too are the strategies
deployed by this market's participants. There are also many derivatives, structured
products and collateralized obligations available, mainly in the over-the-counter (non-
exchange) market that professional investors, institutions and hedge fund managers use to
varying degrees but that play an insignificant role in private investing.

 Forex and the Interbank Market

The interbank market is the financial system and trading of currencies among banks and
financial institutions, excluding retail investors and smaller trading parties. While some
interbank trading is performed by banks on behalf of large customers, most interbank
trading takes place from the banks' own accounts.

The forex market is where currencies are traded. The forex market is the largest, most
liquid market in the world with an average traded value that exceeds $1.9 trillion per day

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and includes all of the currencies in the world. The forex is the largest market in the
world in terms of the total cash value traded, and any person, firm or country may
participate in this market.

There is no central marketplace for currency exchange; trade is conducted over the
counter. The forex market is open 24 hours a day, five days a week and currencies are
traded worldwide among the major financial centers of London, New York, Tokyo,
Zürich, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Singapore, Paris and Sydney.

Until recently, forex trading in the currency market had largely been the domain of large
financial institutions, corporations, central banks, hedge funds and extremely wealthy
individuals. The emergence of the internet has changed all of this, and now it is possible
for average investors to buy and sell currencies easily with the click of a mouse through
online brokerage accounts. (For further reading, see The Foreign Exchange Interbank
Market.)

 The OTC Market

The over-the-counter (OTC) market is a type of secondary market also referred to as a


dealer market. The term "over-the-counter" refers to stocks that are not trading on a stock
exchange such as the Nasdaq, NYSE or American Stock Exchange (AMEX). This
generally means that the stock trades either on the over-the-counter bulletin board
(OTCBB) or the pink sheets. Neither of these networks is an exchange; in fact, they
describe themselves as providers of pricing information for securities. OTCBB and pink
sheet companies have far fewer regulations to comply with than those that trade shares on
a stock exchange. Most securities that trade this way are penny stocks or are from very
small companies.

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 Third and Fourth Markets

You might also hear the terms "third" and "fourth markets." These don't concern
individual investors because they involve significant volumes of shares to be transacted
per trade. These markets deal with transactions between broker-dealers and large
institutions through over-the-counter electronic networks. The third market comprises
OTC transactions between broker-dealers and large institutions. The fourth market is
made up of transactions that take place between large institutions. The main reason these
third and fourth market transactions occur is to avoid placing these orders through the
main exchange, which could greatly affect the price of the security. Because access to the
third and fourth markets is limited, their activities have little effect on the average
investor.

Financial institutions and financial markets help firms raise money. They can do this by
taking out a loan from a bank and repaying it with interest, issuing bonds to borrow
money from investors that will be repaid at a fixed interest rate, or offering investors
partial ownership in the company and a claim on its residual cash flows in the form of
stock.

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CH.5 CONCLUSION

The main function of the financial market is to channel funds between the two groups of
end users of the system: from lenders (‘surplus units’) to borrowers (‘deficit units’).
Besides, a financial system provides payments facilities, a variety of services such as
insurance, pensions and foreign exchange, together with facilities which allow people to
adjust their existing wealth portfolios.

Apart from direct borrowing and lending between end-users, borrowing and lending
through intermediaries and organized markets have important advantages. These include
transforming the maturity of short-term savings into longer-term loans, reduction of risk
and controlling transaction costs. The field of financial markets and its theoretical
foundations is based on the study of the financial system, the structure of interest rates,
and the pricing of risky assets.

The major market players are households, governments, nonfinancial corporations,


depository institutions, insurance companies, asset management firms, investment banks,
nonprofit organizations, and foreign investors.

Financial markets are classified into internal versus external markets, capital markets
versus money markets, cash versus derivative markets, primary versus secondary
markets, private markets versus public markets, exchange-traded versus over-the-counter
markets.

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