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Plant Nutrients
in Desert Environments
With 22 Figures
Springer-Verlag
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Prof. Dr. Arden D. Day
2909 East Seneca St.
Thcson, Arizona 85716, USA
Professor emeritus of Plant Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences,
College of Agriculture, University of Arizona, Thcson, Arizona 85721, USA
ISBN-13:978-3-642-77654-0 e-ISBN-13:978-3-642-77652-6
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-77652-6
Library of Congress Cataloging·in·Publication Data. Day, A. D., Plant nutrients in desert en-
vironments / Arden D. Day and Kenneth L. Ludeke. p. cm. - (Adaptations of desert
organisms) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13:97S-3-642-77654-0
1. Desert plants - Nutrition. 2. Plant nutrients. 3. Desert plants -
Ecology. 1. Ludeke, Kenneth L. II. Title. III. Series. QK93S.D4D39 1992
631.S'l1'09154-dc20 92-32705 CIP
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Dedication and Acknowledgments
1 Introduction ............................... . 1
8 Soil Acidity 31
Figure Index
Plant nutrients are found in a relatively thin layer of soil materials that
covers all of the continents of the entire world. These plant nutrients
provide the necessary food, clothing, and shelter for human existence. As
the population of the world increases, the plant nutrients in desert environ-
ments become more important for the survival of mankind. The primary
plant nutrients are the essential mineral elements in soil materials required
for optimum plant growth (Miller and Turk 1943).
The important factors in the transformation of rock into soil materials
and plant nutrients are climate, vegetation, topography, parent material,
gravity, and time. Since desert regions have a dryer climate than humid
areas, the formation of soil materials and plant nutrients in desert environ-
ments proceeds more slowly than does the formation of soil materials and
plant nutrients in humid environments. Soil materials in desert environ-
ments contain less organic matter than soil materials in humid environments
(Fuller 1975a).
The soil materials that cover the continents of the world continually
change under the forces of climate. They were slowly formed through the
passing of time as a result of gravitation, meteorologic, geologic, and
biologic action on rock. The soil sustains and continually renews life.
Animal and plant residues decay into simpler constituents and as a result,
nutrient elements are made available for new life in a perpetual cycle.
Soil composition differs like the plants and animals differ in physical and
chemical properties. Soils have easily recognizable physical and chemical
characteristics which classify them into distinct bodies in nature. They
acquire their individual properties from various combined forces which act
upon them. This is part of the reason that desert soils differ from soils from
other climatic zones. There is an increasing migration of people into the arid
and semi-arid climates of the world. The rapid development of these arid
and semi-arid lands for food production, home sites, and metropolitan uses,
justifies describing the soils in desert environments. Exotic fruits and off-
season vegetables are a part of almost every household. Desert soils easily
produce these valuable food products. Homeowners and residents who
relocate from harsh, colder climates search for help in the establishment of a
living foothold in a new and fragile environment. To successfully grow
plants every year, man must know comparatively more about arid climate
2 Introduction
soils than he does about humid climate soils. Individuals should be aware of
an ecology that can be easily altered by the invasion of the plow, over-
grazing by domestic animals, and bulldozing by the development speculator.
The effective husbandry of scarce water resources is a necessity in the
desert. New management practices must be mastered and continually
improved to prevent soils from going out of production from salt accumula-
tion, mineral deficiencies, soil crusting, compaction, and drought. Soil
and water management practices necessary to maintain continued plant
growth are complicated and not easily understood in desert environments
(Hambridge 1941; Fuller 1975a; Fig. 1).
2 Plant Nutrients
Ten essential plant nutrient elements that are required in large quantities
for normal plant growth are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous,
potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium. Plant growth
will be limited by a deficient available supply of anyone of these elements
regardless of the abundance of the remaining elements. Early experimental
work up to the year 1900 indicated that only these ten elements were
required by plants, and until only recently, they were considered the
4 Plant Nutrients
Plants are largely made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but some of
the elements that occur in only relatively small amounts are just as essential
to their growth and development as those that compose the greater part of
the plant tissue. Obviously, it is incorrect to speak of one essential element
as being more important than any other essential element without specifying
the viewpoint under consideration, but from the agricultural point of view,
or from the farmer's standpoint, the elements nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium are of major concern. Years of experimental work and practical
experience have proved that the available supplies of these three elements in
soils are more likely to be insufficient for maximum plant growth than are
the supplies of the other essential elements. In fact, there are very few soils
that are not deficient in one or more of these three elements. They assume
agricultural importance by virtue of the fact that (1) they may be rapidly
removed or lost from soils, (2) they may exist largely in unavailable forms in
soil, and (3) the only way to increase the phosphorous and potassium
contents of a soil is to buy them in some form. Consequently , the fertilizer
companies have made these three elements (N, P, and K) the basis of the
composition of commercial fertilizers that may supply anyone, two, or all
three of them (Miller and Turk 1943; Fuller 1975b).
It has already been mentioned that plants must have several elements other
than nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium for proper growth. When
referring to commercial fertilizers, additional elements are considered as
minor elements either because they are needed by plants in small amounts
or because fewer soils are deficient in them. In some soils, however, a
Effects of Plant Nutrient Elements on Plants 5
Thorough knowledge of the various ways in which the nutrient elements are
of value in affecting the growth of plants is of practical interest and im-
portance to the grower. Each plant nutrient performs definite duties in
the plant and no one nutrient can be completely substituted for another.
Although each element performs certain specific functions, they must all
work together to produce the best results. The effect of any particular
nutrient on plant growth is governed by the supply of the other essential
elements, and the effect of anyone element cannot be interpreted on the
basis of the activity of that element alone.
2.2.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogen has received more attention than any other element in studies
relative to plant nutrition. It is found in greater quantities in young, growing
parts of plants than in older tissues and it is especially abundant in the leaves
and seed. Nitrogen is a constituent of every living cell and its contribution to
plant and animal life is essential. Its importance in crop production is
6 Plant Nutrients
2.2.2 Phosphorus
The total supply of phosphorus in soils is relatively small and the available
supply frequently falls short of crop requirements in humid regions. The
presence of phosphorus aids the plant in taking up potassium and it tends
to counteract the effects of excess nitrogen. An excess of phosphorus in
proportion to the supplies of other required nutrients may decrease yields,
especially on lighter soils. This is believed to be caused by the hastening of
the maturation processes and by the consequent reduction in vegetative
growth. Phosphorus-deficient plants tend to have a stunted root system
which decreases their feeding zone and, as a result, they are less able
to withstand adverse conditions. Phosphorus tends to hasten the ripening
processes in plants. In the presence of sufficient available phosphorus, seed
formation begins sooner and crops may mature several days earlier than
where phosphorus is deficient. In general, phosphorus improves the quality
of plants and plant products by stimulating the production of a more
vigorous plant growth, which makes plants more resistant to diseases. The
amount of available phosphorus in desert soils is usually sufficient for
indigenous vegetation. When desert soils are irrigated and the plant density
is increased, phosphorus is sometimes needed for some field crops and
certain landscape plants (Miller and Turk 1943; Fuller 1975b).
2.2.3 Potassium
Potassium is one of the many elements that are essential for higher plant
life. Although its specific physiological role is not clear, potassium is
Effects of Plant Nutrient Elements on Plants 7
Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are well supplied in desert soils. In fact, all
three elements appear in excess of usual plant needs. Iron is the micro-
nutrient most frequently observed to be deficient in calcarious desert soils.
Although most desert soils contain large amounts of iron compounds, the
compounds are quite insoluble and, therefore, are not readily available to
plants. The symptoms of iron chlorosis are usually yellowing of the leaf area
between the veins. Iron deficiencies have been corrected temporarily by use
of iron sulfate. Rarely is zinc found to be deficient in plants grown in desert
soils, although zinc responses have been identified for some fruit trees.
Neither manganese nor copper have been found to be deficient for plants in
arid soils. If deficiencies exist, the symptoms are so slight that they remain
hidden from detection. Desert soils are more likely to contain excesses of
chlorine, boron, and molybdenum than deficiencies.
A balance of micronutrients in the soil is just as important as a balance
of macronutrients. Since desert soils often contain accumulations of nutrients
far in excess of the plant's requirement, it is desirable to point out possible
imbalances that may occur. Iron deficiency may be caused by an excess of
zinc, manganese, and copper. Excess copper or sulfate may adversely affect
the uptake of molybdenum. Excess phosphate may cause a deficiency of
zinc, iron, and copper. Heavy nitrogen fertilization may cause copper or
phosphorus deficiency. Manganese uptake may be limited by high sodium
and potassium content. Boron uptake can be reduced by excess lime.
8 Plant Nutrients
Fig. 2. Mixed vegetables grown in a small farm garden . Fresh vegetables are a good
source of vitamins and minerals in the human diet. The average family can greatly reduce
its food cost by growing a vegetable garden. If irrigation water is available, vegetable
gardens can be grown successfully in most desert environments. (Photo by John Colwell
from Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
The soil-forming factors involved in the development of soils from rock and
rock particles are climate, vegetation, topography, gravity, parent material,
and time (Stefferud 1958; Fuller 1975a).
Climate has a great influence on the characteristics of soils. In desert
areas temperature and moisture (rainfall and irrigation) dominate the pro-
cesses that differentiate soils. Differences between day and night tempera-
tures often range from 30 to 40 OF, which are much greater than the day and
night temperatures in humid climates. Clay soil forms more slowly in arid
areas than it does in humid climates. The annual precipitation in desert
regions only ranges from 3 to 12 in. and it frequently falls as high-intensity,
short-duration rainfall. As a result, soil erosion, moisture run-off, and soil
washing are intense. Since deserts have a dryer climate than do humid areas,
the formation of soil materials in desert environments proceeds more slowly
than does the formation of soil materials in humid environments.
The scarcity of vegetation limits the amount of plant residue available
for soil organic matter production in arid climates. Since nitrogen is carried
in soil organic matter, nitrogen is low in desert soils. Some species of desert
plants accumulate soluble ions, such as sodium salts, and the soil located
under those plants may be highly alkaline and considered unproductive.
Some desert land lies in alluvial valleys and on higher mesas. Topo-
graphy has a major role in desert soil differentiation. Soils in the lower
depressions, which receive moisture run-off from higher levels, frequently
accumulate high concentrations of soluble salts and are less productive than
the adjacent soils. Adequate soil drainage is critical in maintaining high soil
productivity in arid regions. Small topographical changes have greater
influence on plant growth in arid soils than do topographical changes in any
other climatic region.
Parent material is recognized as an initial part of the soil system. It may
be either rock or weathered rock, in-place or transported. Much of the
desert land has been deposited by water or wind. The wind-laid materials
originally were blown out of adjacent alluvial deposits located along river or
stream beds. Physical weathering predominates in arid climates. Soils of
appreciable depth in desert areas form very slowly, if at all, from native rock
under the present limited rainfall. Since soil formation is so slow under these
conditions, the characteristics of the soils are more directly related to the
10 Soil Materials
characteristics of the parent rock material from which they are derived than
are soils in humid climates where weathering and the soil-forming processes
occur at comparatively accelerated rates. Sand dune topography provides an
interesting study of both salinity and plant distribution when compared with
irrigated conditions. Under natural conditions, salinity and vegetation in
large sand dunes may be expected to distribute according to the rainfall
pattern of frequency and intensity. The least amount of salt occurs at the
peak of the sand dune and the most salt accumulation occurs at the bottom
trough between dunes. Natural leaching has moved the salts down into the
dune trough. Observations reveal that the least salt-sensitive plant species
grow at the top of the dune and minimal growth takes place in the trough.
This natural example should not be confused with the furrow irrigation
condition of the microtopography of shallow beds and side-ridge planting
where the reverse conditions exists. Salts accumulate by capillary rise at the
highest, rather than the lowest, point. As a result, the soil in the trough
leaches until the salinity is reduced considerably below that of the ridge.
Time is related to soil formation in arid soils as an interacting function
of climate. The importance of moisture in soil formation is so great that soils
Fig. 3. A sand dune complex at the foot of mountains in Sangre de Christo, Colorado,
USA. Sand dune topography determines the distribution of salinity and vegetation in
desert areas. Salinity and vegetation in large sand dunes distribute according to the
rainfall pattern of frequency and intensity. The least amount of salt occurs at the peak of
the sand dune and the most salt occurs at the bottom trough between the dunes. The least
salt-tolerant plants grow at the top of the sand dune and the most salt-tolerant plants grow
at the bottom of the dune. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Soil Materials 11
of arid lands develop very slowly. The influence of water and vegetation on
accelerating soil development may be clearly demonstrated by comparing
residential or golf turf lying adjacent to virgin desert. In a very few years
the soil under the turf sod develops a distinctly dark organic layer, and
carbonates move down to concentrate at the greatest depth of leaching. In
fine-textured soils, such as loams and clays, a compact layer often develops
below the organic accumulation layer. Under agricultural field conditions,
sandy loam soils accumulate lime (carbonates) in the upper foot, although
under virgin conditions no carbonates were present. The carbonates came
from the irrigation water that was usually well-supplied with lime. Organic
matter accumulation is not pronounced in garden or field cropping con-
ditions. Compaction of the subsoils is a common occurrence in almost all
soils where traffic is necessary and excessive.
Soil materials in desert environments are different from soil materials in
humid regions. A thorough knowledge of the different characteristics of
desert soil materials and the way they respond to mans treatment of them
is necessary for acceptable living in the desert (Miller and Turk 1943;
Hendricks 1985); (Fig. 3).
4 Organic Soil Materials
Most people realize that organic matter benefits soil and that dark-colored
surfaces are more desirable than light-colored surfaces because they contain
more organic matter. Desert soils do not have as dark a surface as soils in
humid climates. Only in a few of the upland soils, where rainfall is higher,
are soil surfaces dark. Some of the best desert soils have red, reddish brown,
and gray-brown surfaces. Organic matter is low in these soils. Rarely does it
exceed 1% by weight in the upper 6 in. of the soil profile. Although the total
amount of organic matter is small in the desert, this small amount exerts a
great influence on soil productivity. The maintenance of even small quantities
of organic matter in soils is essential to continuing high crop yields, pro-
ductive home gardens, and beautiful landscapes (Miller and Turk 1943;
Fuller 1975b).
4.1 Functions
4.2 Composition
When lignin decomposes in the soil, the initial attack of stripping off some
of the functional groups is quite rapid, like the decay of the husk of a
walnut, leaving the more resistant inner shell. A resistant portion remains
that does not resemble the original lignin and degrades slowly to the soil
organic pool called humus. The carbohydrate-like material in soil organic
matter is primarily of microbial origin. Slimes, gums, and organic salts
contribute to this fraction. These act as cementing agents for good soil
structure and react with mineral constituents of soils assisting in nutrient
release. A third major component of soil organic matter are the protein-like
materials. They also originate chiefly from microbial cells and tissues. These
modified protein compounds are the soils resistance to rapid microbial
degradation. It is believed that they originate from both plant phytin and
microbially synthesized phytin-like compounds. Organic phosphates con-
tribute very slowly to the natural phosphate found in soils. Organic phos-
phates, like other organic compounds, are not directly available for plant
absorption and must be mineralized to release inorganic phosphates before
being absorbed by plants.
4.3 Sources
Composts from plant residues also improve the physical properties of soils
when they are applied in sufficient quantity. Homeowners may create
their own organic matter by using an organic compost unit. Success in
making compost in the desert depends on keeping the material moist and
adding small amounts of chemical nitrogen fertilizer, such as urea,
ammonium nitrate, or ammonium phosphate, which enhances decom-
position. Occasional turning and mixing also hastens the decomposition
process. Degradation of the organic source material should proceed until the
compost is crumbly and loses its original identity as plant residue. Addition
of nitrogen fertilizer along with compost provides an excellent combination
for a fertilization and soil-conditioning program.
Wood products, such as sawdust and bark, make good soil mulch. When
they are mixed into the soil, they improve the pore space and waterholding
relationships in clays and heavy loams. Municipal composts have been used
for growing plants in containers, in greenhouses, and around the home.
They contain low amounts of nutrients and, unless specified as being
fortified with nitrogen, require the addition of nitrogen for best results. Peat
moss and sphagnum moss are proven to be excellent sources of organic
materials. Most growers mix them into soils to improve physical conditions
and water relationships. Since they contain no plant nutrients, nitrogen
fertilization is required for obtaining complete mineral balance in the soil.
Green manure derives its name from the green, succulent, and immature
nature of the material of which it is composed. It is any plant residue which
is incorporated into the soil while it is still in the growing stage. The most
commonly used green manure plants are grasses such as barley (Hordeum
vulgare L.) and legumes such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). The legumes
are best suited for green manure because they make nitrogen for the
succeeding crops. The renewal of organic matter in desert soils is largely
dependent upon the utilization of mature plant residues. Mature plant
residues of all kinds are valuable because they contain plant nutrients and
because their decomposition is slower than that of green residues and their
beneficial decaying extends over a longer period of time.
4.4 Management
prepared with animal and/or plant residues but layered with topsoil. Com-
posting is an excellent way to make use of polluting organic wastes, since
any biodegradable material is suitable for processing into compost.
The purpose of using 'organic residues is primarily due to the method of
application. Mulches require no special techniques or equipment in their
use. They are placed on top of the soil at a desirable depth over seedbeds or
around plants. The possibility of mulches floating away during irrigation or
heavy summer storms makes it necessary to provide means for holding them
in place. Mulches perform the following three functions: (1) aid in con-
serving moisture, (2) modify soil temperature in the upper few inches where
root activity concentrates, and (3) keep the soil surface open and porous,
thus favoring water intake and infiltration and seedling emergence and
establishment. Soil conditioning with organic materials is an old and trusted
practice. Gardeners and farmers have known that organic residues and
wastes worked into the soil improve its tilth, aeration, and moisture con-
ditions. The object is to incorporate the residue as deeply into the root
feeding area as possible and mix it with the soil. Peat moss, compost, and
manures are mixed with desert soils at or near the time of planting.
Fig. 4. Plowing under sorghum stubble with a seven-bottom moldboard plow. Desert soils
are very low in organic matter. The addition of organic matter to desert soils increases
crop production. The amount of organic matter in desert soils can be increased by
plowing under the plant residues of the previous crop. (Photo by John Colwell from
Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Maintenance 17
4.5 Maintenance
Desert soils are very low in organic matter under virgin conditions; how-
ever, they can be very productive. Some of the highest crop yields in the
world have been recorded from desert soils. These soils often show an
increase in organic matter when placed under irrigated agriculture. This is
caused by the large amount of crop residues entering the soil as compared
with the lack of crop production under virgin conditions. Soils of home
gardens, lawns, golf turfs, and landscaped areas in general are often con-
siderably higher in organic matter than the same soils are when under
natural conditions in the absence of irrigation (Fuller 1975b; Fig. 4).
5 Soil Moisture
their field capacity very quickly, the presence of a water table near the
surface will greatly prolong the time required for drainage. If the soil is
saturated to a depth of many feet, drainage of the surface layer to field
capacity will be much slower than it will be if only the top few feet are
saturated. A fine-textured soil overlying a coarse-textured soil will have
a higher field capacity than a uniform ally fine-textured soil. Since field
capacity is related to the soil profile and to soil structure, laboratory deter-
minations will not always indicate what the field capacity will be under field
conditions (Kramer 1949).
The moisture content of the soil at the time when the leaves of plants
growing in that soil first become permanently wilted has been designated as
the wilting point, wilting coefficient, wilting-percentage, and permanent-
wilting percentage. According to modern usage, it is called the permanent-
wilting percentage. Although water absorption is too slow for plant growth
at moisture contents below the permanent-wilting percentage, plants are
able to absorb water from the soil until it is approximately air-dry or until
they have died from desiccation. The permanent-wilting percentage does not
mark any definite limit in the movement of water from soil to plant. It
simply marks the moisture content at which absorption becomes too slow to
replace the water lost by transpiration and the leaves wilt. Many plant
species can survive for considerable periods of time in soils that are drier
than the permanent-wilting percentage (Kramer 1949).
of soil from within a few hours to 2 or 3 days after rain or irrigation (Kramer
1949).
Since capillary water is the principal source of moisture for plants, its
movement in the soil is of great interest. When water is applied to dry soil
by rainfall or irrigation, it moves downward partly under the influence of
gravity and partly by capillarity. A very limited amount of horizontal move-
ment also occurs by capillarity. The force that causes capillary movement is
largely the difference in the surface tension between films that have different
thicknesses and angles of curvature, since movement proceeds from thicker
to thinner films. If these forces are expressed in terms of tension, water
moves along a gradient from a region where the forces holding water are
low to a region where the forces are higher. Water always moves along a
Fig. S. Furrow irrigation in Texas, USA. In desert areas, supplemental irrigation water is
necessary for profitable field crop production. Furrow irrigation is a popular irrigation
system used to apply irrigation water to field crops that are grown in rows. The crop
plants are grown in rows on the top of beds and the irrigation water is applied in the
furrows between the beds. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
22 Soil Moisture
gradient of decreasing free energy. Its free energy is highest in free water,
lower in moist soil, and still lower in dry soil. Movement of capillary water is
most rapid in sandy soils and slowest in clay soils at saturation (Kramer
1949).
As the soil dries out, the water films become discontinuous and capillary
movement ceases. Any water movement in air-dry soils must be in the form
of vapor. Under field conditions, the soil atmosphere is always saturated,
except in the surface layer, which occasionally becomes air-dry. Movement
of water vapor is along vapor-pressure gradients and it is affected by the
relative temperatures and vapor pressures of various horizons of the soil and
of the soil and air. The movement of water in the form of vapor is very
important in semiarid regions where there is no direct connection between
the water table and the capillary water in the upper soil layer (Kramer 1949;
Fig. 5).
6 Soil Aeration
The gaseous phase of soils serves simultaneously as a pathway for the intake
of the oxygen that is absorbed by plant roots and soil microorganisms and
also as a pathway for the escape of the carbon dioxide that they produce.
This two-way process is called soil aeration. Soil aeration may become
critical when the water content of soils becomes too high, because the excess
water displaces the soil air (Black 1957).
Soil is porous. The volume of soil that is not occupied by solid soil
particles is called pore space. If soil were Swiss cheese, the holes would be
pore space. Pore space is defined in terms of the percentage of the total
soil volume. Approximately 50% of the soil volume is pore space, which
contains air and water. The main difference between soils in humid and arid
climates is in the proportion of pore space holding air or water. Moisture
occupies a greater percentage of the pore space for a longer period of time
where rainfall is abundant than where it is scarce. Most soils are aerobic
(they contain sufficient air to supply oxygen for favorable chemical and
biological processes). Under certain high rainfall conditions, however, soils
may be waterlogged in which the pore space is fully occupied by water
for different periods of time during which time anaerobic processes (not
requiring oxygen) become dominant. Aerobic conditions favor root growth.
Roots die in soil waterlogged for a too long period of time. Anaerobic
conditions are less likely to occur under arid conditions than under humid
conditions (Fuller 1975a).
During the decomposition of plant residue and soil organic matter,
oxygen is used by the microorganisms and carbon dioxide is released. In
uncompacted desert soils where vegetation is sparse and organic matter is
low, the demand for oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide in the surface
layer is lower than in soils in humid climates. Thus, the proportion of
oxygen to carbon dioxide is usually higher in desert soils than it is in humid
soils. The small differences in the composition of soil air between desert
soils and humid soils is of little practical significance in plant growth when
compared with other factors, such as temperature and moisture. The dif-
ferences between daytime and nighttime temperatures are greater in arid
areas than in humid areas. Soil heat is lost to the atmosphere more rapidly
at night in desert areas than in humid areas. Conversion accounts for as
much as half of the loss of heat from the soil to the air at night. Although
24 Soil Aeration
the surfaces of desert soils become hot, the soil is a good insulator. A few
feet below the soil surface the temperature changes very little between
summer and winter. Most plant roots grow deep into the cool soil to avoid
the heat of the surface soil. Soil animals also find excellent air conditioning
in deep burrows in desert soils (Fuller 1975a).
Soil air has quantitatively the same composition as atmospheric air. Both
types of air contain nitrogen, oxygen, inert gases, and carbon dioxide.
Substances such as methane and hydrogen, if present, occur in quantities
too small to be detected by ordinary methods. From the quantitative stand-
Fig. 6. An earthworm and earthworm castings in a fertile organic soil. The most
important group of the larger animals that inhabit the soil is the common earthworm.
These organisms prefer a moist environment with an abundance of organic matter and a
good supply of available calcium. The holes left in the soil by earthworms increase soil
aeration and soil moisture drainage. The presence of active earthworms in the A horizon
of a soil indicates that the soil is a productive agricultural soil. (Photo by Grant Heilman
Photography, Inc.)
Soil Aeration and Plant Growth 25
point, the main difference in composition between soil air and atmospheric
air is in the content of carbon dioxide. Atmospheric air contains about
0.03% carbon dioxide. Air extracted from surface layers of soil in which
aeration is thought to be adequate contains from 0.2 to 1% carbon dioxide.
The atmosphere contains about 21 % oxygen. Soil air contains less oxygen
than atmospheric air, but the difference between the two is relatively small
unless the soil has been enriched with carbon dioxide to a greater extent
than the usual 0.2 to 1%. Under aerobic conditions, the volume of carbon
dioxide produced in the soil is approximately equal to the volume of oxygen
consumed. The sum of the carbon dioxide and oxygen percentages is
approximately the same in the soil air as in the atmosphere. The extent to
which soil air differs in composition from atmospheric air is determined by
the rate at which oxygen is consumed and other gases are produced, and
by the rate of gaseous interchange between the soil and the atmosphere.
Respiration by plant roots and microorganisms is the principal cause of
oxygen absorption and carbon dioxide production by soils (Black 1957).
Plant roots remove ions from the surrounding solution by different pro-
cesses. The first process may be called "active transport". Active transport
takes place as a result of carrier molecules in a protoplasmic membrane that
combine with the ions at the outer membrane surface, transport them to the
inner surface, and release them there as a result of a chemical change. The
second mechanism by which ions are removed from the surrounding solution
is "passive permeation". Passive permeation is the free diffusion of the ions
of the solution into the root external to the membrane across which active
transport occurs. The third mechanism by which plant roots remove ions
from the surrounding medium is by "exchange adsorption". Roots and soils
28 Exchangeable Bases
Fig. 7. Orange trees in Horida, USA growing in a fertile sandy loam soil. The term
"exchangeable bases' refers to the sum of the bases (calcium, magnesium , potassium, and
sodium) in exchangeable form expressed as mg Eq/IOO g of soil. Soils in most desert
environments contain more exchangeable bases and less exchangeable hydrogen than do
soils in humid areas. Soils in the desert southwestern USA have the right proportion of
exchangeable bases to exchangeable hydrogen for the production of very high quality
citrus fruits (oranges, grapefruit, and lemons) . (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography,
Inc.)
Exchangeable Bases and Plant Nutrition 29
into the outer space of plant roots, from which they may be absorbed by
active transport. Cations held in exchangeable form by the soil are not freely
diffusible and they must be replaced by other cations before they may be
taken up by plant roots. Exchangeable bases are very important in plant
nutrition in desert environments (Black 1957; Fig. 7).
8 Soil Acidity
clay. In other words, a ton of lime is more effective on sandy soil than on
clay soil if both are initially at the same level of acidity (Pearson 1967).
Most crops grow well if the soil pH is between 6 and 8. Alfalfa (Medicago
sativa L.), for example, demands a pH of about 6.5 or higher and thrives
best at pH values between 7 and 8. Azaleas (Rhododendron L.), on the
other hand, grow poorly if the pH is above 5.5 or 6 and thrive when the pH
is between 3.5 and 4. Although liming is generally desirable if acid soils are
to be made productive, there are times when liming is not advisable, even
for crops which favor a neutral reaction. An example of this can be observed
in producing potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) . Although potatoes usually
seem to do best as the pH approaches 7, if the land is infested with scab-
disease organisms, it may be desirable to encourage acidity because these
organisms cannot tolerate very strongly acid soils, whereas the potato can.
Fig. 8. Planting corn and applying commercial fertilizers and soil amendments in the
USA. Most soils in humid regions are acid as a result of losses by leaching and crop
removal of such basic elements as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. In desert regions,
soils are usually alkaline. The degree of activity or alkalinity is expressed as pH values. At
planting time, the soil pH should be adjusted to the crop being grown by the application
of appropriate commercial fertilizers and/or soil amendments. (Photo by John Colwell
from Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Soil Acidity 33
Where the danger of scab is great, sulfur may be added to soils to reduce the
pH to about 5. The soil organisms change the sulfur to sulfuric acid. In
desert environments, soil acidity is seldom a problem (National Plant Food
Institute 1962; Pearson 1967; Fig. 8).
9 Soil Alkalinity
caustic effect of high alkalinity - hence the name "black alkali" . The
accumulation of saline and alkali salts in arid regions is due to high evapora-
tion rates which exceed precipitation so that moisture in the soil is brought
upward to the surface rather than leaching downward. The salts are carried
upward with the rising moisture. There are three major approaches to the
reclamation of alkali and saline soils. Of greatest importance is the establish-
ment of adequate drainage coupled with over-irrigation to leach the salts
through the soil. Where leaching is not practical , the growing of tolerant
crops is recommended. The third method consists of adding organic matter
to the soil. Frequently desert soils have poor soil structure and the addition
of organic matter helps to improve soil structure. In reclaiming alkali soils, a
soil amendment, such as gypsum, may have to be added to increase the
solubility of calcium and make leaching of the sodium ions from the soil
possible. Many studies have been conducted to determine the tolerance of
crop plants to salinity and alkalinity and lists of tolerant crops have been
Fig. 9. Alkaline soil deposits in a desert area in California, USA. Most alkaline soils
occur in arid regions where they are found in low-lying areas where evaporation
concentrates the salts received from more elevated locations in surface water, ground
water, or irrigation water. Since the low-lying areas are most easily cultivat.ed and
irrigated, they have the greatest agricultural potential. A farmer with an alkaline soil
problem should consult the list of alkaline-tolerant crops before choosing crops for his
particular farm . (Photo by Alan Pitcairnom Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Soil Alkalinity 37
The nitrogen content in desert soils is lower than the nitrogen content in
humid soils because the amount of organic matter, the carrier of nitrogen, is
lower in desert soils. The native nitrogen in desert soils is primarily in the
organic form as a part of the soil organic matter. Very little mineral nitrate
(N0 3 ) is present at anyone time in unfertilized soils. Small but continuous
amounts of mineral nitrate are released by microbial conversions from
insoluble organic matter sources. Ammonium nitrogen (N~) is either not
detected in native desert soils or it is present only in traces, because of its
high rate of conversion into nitrate by the soil microfiora, its absorption by
plants, and its high rate of volatilization into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen undergoes many changes in the soil. The principal changes
include immobilization, mineralization, nitrification, denitrification, fixation,
and translocation. Nitrogen exists in the soil primarily in an immobilized
state of organic combination as a component of plant, animal, and microbial
residues. During the decomposition of organic matter, nitrogen is liberated
for plant uptake only when the supply is greater than that required for use
by the microorganisms. Nitrogen will continue to be recycled by the soil
organisms until the carbon content decreases to a level where the C/N ratio
falls below about 30: 1. This lowering of the C/N ratio takes place through
40 Nitrogen as a Plant Nutrient
Plant cells require nitrogen for their formation and functions. The nucleus,
for example, is a nitrogen-containing structure in living plant cells. Nitrogen
is essential in plant chlorophyll and in the formation of protein compounds.
Nitrogen in Plants 41
Nitrogen occurs primarily in the organic form in plants, although some may
be present in the inorganic form as ammonium, nitrite, or nitrate. The
percentage of nitrogen in different plant parts will vary with the age, type of
tissue, kind of plant, and even the time of day. Excluding the leaves, the
aerial parts of most plants contain more nitrogen than the roots. The plant
nitrogen content varies most in the leaves and least in the roots.
Plant response to nitrogen includes: (1) encouragement of vegetative
growth (stems and leaves), (2) assurance of a favorable rate of growth and
development, (3) an increase in the intensity of green coloring, (4) an
increase in the protein content of different plant parts, and (5) favorable
seed production. An adequate supply of available nitrogen is essential for
maximum plant growth. Either an excess or a deficiency of nitrogen may
limit plant production. An abundance of available nitrogen in the soil
produces a rank growth of foliage, stems, and leaves, and it stimulates
vegetative growth at the expense of flower, fruit, and root development in
some plants. An unusual increase in leaf area is one of the most striking
effects of an abundant supply of nitrogen. Nitrogen also is one of the most
important factors in the growth rate of the leaves. The size of most plants
is thus largely a measure of the rate of nitrogen metabolism. With an
abundance of nitrogen, the water content of the tissues of plants is in-
creased. And increased succulence in plant parts is believed to be caused by
an increased production of protoplasm which is highly hydrated, and a lower
rate of transpiration in those plants receiving a high nitrogen supply com-
pared with plants having a limited nitrogen supply. High nitrogen fertil-
ization, therefore, makes plants more susceptible to freezing. Nitrogen
should be withheld late in the growing season, just as is water, to help
"harden-off" plants in preparation for cold weather.
An excess of available nitrogen salts in the soil may kill plants. Plants
wither, turn brown, and dry up. Excess soluble nitrogen is particularly
hazardous to seedlings when it is placed too close to the seed row by the
sidedress method of application. The toxicity is due to an excess of total
salts, rather than to any specific toxicity of nitrogen itself. When plants are
not killed, excess nitrogen limits root extension and development. Some
grain plants grown with excess nitrogen are delayed in maturing and the
ripening process occurs prematurely before sufficient food materials can be
transferred from the vegetative parts to the seeds or grain. Thus the seeds or
grain that are produced are shriveled and light in weight. An insufficient
supply of available nitrogen results in light green or yellow leaves, stunted
plants, limited branching of annual plants, and small flowers and fruit. The
lower leaves on the stem dry and drop earlier than usual. A decreased
amount of protoplasm is formed, and a general reduction in stems and
leaves occurs. Yields from crop plants decline rapidly when nitrogen is
deficient (Black 1957; National Plant Food Institute 1962; Fuller 1975b).
42 Nitrogen as a Plant Nutrient
The two forms of soil nitrogen that are available to plants are inorganic and
organic. The two forms of atmospheric nitrogen available to plants are
combined and elemental. The most common forms of soil nitrogen absorbed
by plants are ammonium (NH4) and nitrate (N0 3 ). These ionic forms
originate from inorganic salts (fertilizers) or as a product of organic matter
decomposition. Some plants grow equally well with either nitrates or
ammonium salts as a source of nitrogen, and other plants, although they will
assimilate ammonium salts in the absence of nitrate, seem to grow better
when nitrates are applied. From the standpoint of the assimilation of these
two forms, ammonium requires a lower expenditure of energy by the plant
Fig. 10. A stunted ear of com caused by an extreme soil nitrogen deficiency. Plant growth
is limited more often by a deficiency of soil nitrogen than by a deficiency of any other
plant nutrient. The nitrogen content in desert soils is lower than the nitrogen content in
humid soils because the amount of organic matter, which is the carrier of nitrogen, is
lower in desert soils. Nitrogen is the fertilizer nutrient most often needed in desert
agriculture. (Photo by Barry L. Runk from Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Forms of Nitrogen Utilized by Plants 43
nitrogen, and phosphorus is not lost from the root zone by leaching, as is
true for nitrogen. More than 90% of applied phosphorus fertilizer moves
less than 3 cm from its placement in the soil. Liquid phosphorus fertilizer
applied on the soil surface remains within 12cm of the surface, even in
sandy soils. The slow movement of soluble phosphorus applied to desert
soils makes it necessary to place it down into the root zone if it is to be of
maximum use to plants. Surface applications of phosphorus are of little
value until they are plowed or spaded into the plant root zone. Small
amounts of phosphorus in the organic forms of microbial and plant debris do
move downward in soil; however, the process is very slow. Roots, dying and
decaying in the soil, contribute to the distribution of phosphorus throughout
the soil profile. One reason why home garden plants and field crops require
phosphorus fertilizer is because the plant residues are removed from the soil
during harvest. Under natural conditions, plant residues remain in the soil
where they are produced and, therefore, become a part of a phosphorus
recycling process, which concentrates phosphorus in the surface layers of the
soil. Much of the phosphorus in fertilizers applied to desert soils reacts with
the soil and is unavailable for immediate plant use; however, it does
become available to plants over a period of time. Only a small part of the
phosphorus in soils is removed in plant residues each year. Therefore,
phosphorus fertilization is not needed as frequently as nitrogen fertilization.
Home gardens may not need phosphorus additions more often than once
every 2 or 3 years (Fuller 1975b).
reduced, (6) foliage may become purple, and (7) leaf margins may turn
brown. Different plant species have different abilities to absorb phosphorus
from soil or fertilizer. For example, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) rarely
responds to phosphorus in lint yield, whereas beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
often require additional phosphorus during growth. Vegetable crops usually
respond to phosphorus but ornamental shrubs seldom respond. Young citrus
trees often respond to phosphorus; however, mature trees seldom show a
response. The need for available soil phosphorus in the early stages of plant
growth is relatively great. The root system is small during the early stages
of growth, the feeding area is limited, and a greater concentration of
phosphorus per unit of root volume is needed. Young plants also demand
more phosphorus than mature plants. Most plants have obtained 50% of
their phosphorus needs by the time they have reached 20% of their entire
growth. Fast-growing plants maturing during the warm summer months
usually respond more to phosphate applications than do the same plants
when growing more slowly during the cooler winter months (National Plant
Food Institute 1962; Fuller 1975b).
Most plants have the ability to absorb and store great quantities of phos-
phorus in their tissues, even in excess of their needs. Plant cells contain both
inorganic and organic forms of phosphorus. Desert soils usually supply
soluble calcium phosphates to plants. Phosphorus deficiencies may be
corrected by using phosphorus fertilizers which provide additional phos-
phorus for plant growth in the form of P2 0 S (National Plant Food Institute
1962; Fuller 1975b; Fig. 11).
12 Potassium as a Plant Nutrient
in noncalcareous soils carbonic acid has very little effect on its solubility.
Exchangeable potassium is more easily replaced in calcareous soils than it is
in noncalcareous soils. Nonexchangeable potassium is higher in calcareous
soils than it is in non calcareous soils (Fuller 1975b).
Potassium is one of the many elements that are considered essential for
higher plant life . Although its specific physiological role is not clear,
potassium influences plant growth in the following ways: (1) it imparts
increased vigor and disease resistance in plants, (2) it produces strong, stiff
stalks, and reduces lodging, (3) it increases the plumpness of the grain and
seed, (4) it is essential in the formation and transfer of starches, sugars, and
Fig. 12. Potassium-deficient corn in the USA. The relative abundance of available
potassium in desert soils is one of their most outstanding and distinguishing
characteristics. In desert areas, potassium fertilizers are seldom needed except in sandy
soils. In potassium-deficient soils many plants have the following potassium-deficiency
symptoms: (1) the young plants are weak and tend to lodge, (2) the leaf margins turn
yellow and/or brown, (3) the plants are more susceptible to diseases and insects, and (4)
the seeds are small and shriveled. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Potassium in Plants 51
oils, and (5) it imparts winter hardiness in legume plants and also many
other crops.
Potassium moves readily throughout plants. It is prominently present in
all actively growing tissues. Most plants deficient in potassium exhibit the
following distinct and well-characterized symptoms: (1) plants grow very
slowly, (2) the margins of the leaves turn brown, beginning with the older
leaves, (3) the seeds and fruits are small and shriveled, (4) the stalks are
weak, and (5) the clovers and alfalfa have characteristic white spots along
their leaf margins. Plants differ in their overall requirements for potassium
and in their ability to absorb it from the soil. The potassium requirement
may be more critical at one physiological growth stage than it is at another
stage. For example, potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) may show no
symptoms of potassium deficiency during the early stages of growth, but
during later stages potassium deficiency may become critical. The critical
stage for potassium, however, is not the same for all plants. Most fertilizers
provide potassium in the form of potash (K20). Potassium chloride, fre-
quently called muriate of potash, (60-62% K2 0) is the most popular
potassium fertilizer grade and it accounts for about 95% of the potassium
fertilizers used in commercial agriculture (National Plant Food Institute
1962; Fuller 1975b; Fig. 12).
13 Plant Nutrients in Desert Soils
A general understanding of desert soils and the plant nutrients that they
contain may be obtained from a brief review of the desert areas in the
southwestern USA. Within this general region there are many individual
desert areas, surrounded by semiarid grasslands, and subhumid forests. The
margins of deserts cannot be clearly defined because they expand during dry
years and contract during wet years. For convenience, geographers have
classified the southwest desert as two large land areas, called the Sonoran
and Chihuahuan Deserts, based on differences in vegetation. The Yuma
subdesert, which represents the extremely dry and hot Sonoran Desert, has
a mean annual rainfall of about 8cm. It is selected for detailed description
to represent what is meant by a true desert. The soils of this selected area
are representative of those in other desert valley floors throughout arid
environments (Fuller 1975a).
invaded by seas, lakes, and rivers. The valley soils were laid down by river
water and are called alluvial soils. These soils are fine-textured and very
fertile. The terrace and plain soils were formed by wind-blown particles
from the river bottoms, are sandy in texture, and are called aeolian. Near
the mountains, broad, alluvial fans (water-laid deposits) of geologic debris
accumulate in different degrees of particle size (rocks, stones, gravel, sand,
and silt), depending on the volume and rate of flow of water in the out-
washes from the mountains. The soils of the Yuma Subdesert, for the most
part, have developed on either water-transported or wind-transported
material. Under strictly desert conditions, weathering is more of a physical
process than a chemical process. Physical weathering of soil materials
includes fracturing by expansion and contraction as a result of heating and
cooling and wind and sand abrasion. The physical weathering processes in
desert environments are usually much slower than the chemical weathering
processes that predominate in humid climates (Arnon 1972; Fuller 1975a).
The differences that exist among soils are as great as the differences among
trees, birds, or insects. Soil composition varies within a single climatic
region almost as much as among different climatic regions. Wide differences
exist in fertility and productivity. Even when brought to the same fertility
level by adding nutrients, different soils do not necessarily produce
identically. Soil variations are inherited during formation from differing
geologic parent materials and/or from the differing conditions under which
soils develop. Soils vary in depth of the surface organic layer and total depth
to parent material. Some soils in the desert southwest are as fertile in the
subsoil as they are in the surface layers. Unlike the more developed humid-
climate soils, removing the topsoil of desert valleys by cutting, filling, and
leveling does not necessarily impair its productivity and may even improve
it. Where soils are shallow because of underlying caliche, rock, gravel, sand,
or hardpan, stripping the surface exposes a poor medium which always
creates a problem for growing plants. A knowledge of soil and water
behavior is essential for successful gardening in an arid climate. Although it
is well known that a scarcity of water will cause salts to accumulate in soils,
plants may be damaged by excessive watering. Without provision for
drainage, excessive water in most soils creates a waterlogged condition in
the subsoil which leaves plants stunted and yellow (chlorotic). When over-
watering is continued, a high water table may develop. Salts move up from
the subsoil water by capillary action and collect on or near the surface. Such
soils soon become so salty that plants grow poorly or fail to grow (Fuller
1975a).
Mineral matter constitutes the bulk of soils in the desert southwest. Mineral
materials originate from rock. When rocks are reduced to small particle
sizes by weathering, they form soils. Not all minerals change chemically
by weathering. The primary minerals that remain relatively unaltered by
weathering do so because of their chemical and structural nature. Precious
stones like rubies, garnets, and zircons are examples of primary minerals
that are resistant to weathering. Secondary minerals, called clays, form from
the less resistant rock material. Soils are organized bodies containing both
56 Plant Nutrients in Desert Soils
Fig. 13. Native vegetation in a desert area in Arizona, USA. Except for nitrogen, many
desert soils contain sufficient plant nutrients for profitable field crop production, if
supplemental irrigation water is applied, as needed, throughout the growing season. If
desert soils are deficient in plant-available nitrogen, the best time to apply nitrogen
fertilizer is at planting time. (Photo by Alan Pitcairn from Grant Heilman Photography,
Inc.)
The soil moisture or soil solution in desert environments differs from that in
humid regions in its salt content, that is usually expressed as parts per
million of dissolved solids. The presence of salts makes it necessary to be
alert concerning the quantity and quality of water used for irrigation. The
management of irrigation water in a desert climate is so critical that it has
'become a science. Slight changes in total salt content and/or in kind of salt
(sodium, calcium, etc.) may make the difference between plant growth and
no growth (Fuller 1975a).
Fig. 14. The Rio Grande River in Texas, USA . The single most important requirement
for profitable commercial agriculture in most desert environments is the availability of
sufficient irrigation water. The presence of a fresh water river in desert areas is the best
source of irrigation water. An outstanding example of a profitable commercial agricultural
industry is the commercial agriculture in the Rio Grande River Valley in the southwestern
USA. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Soil Moisture in Desert Environments 59
About 90% of the entire weight of a living herbaceous plant is water. The
remaining 10% is dry matter and it consists primarily of three elements:
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. A small but important fraction of the
dry matter consists of other elements that are indispensable for growth.
Although soil may supply a large number of minerals, only 13 (in addition to
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) have been proven to be absolutely essential
for higher plant life and growth. These 13 essential elements are divided into
two categories on the basis of the abundance with which they are required
by plants. The major elements are required in relatively large amounts and
are usually expressed as parts per hundred (%) per unit of dry matter.
The major elements include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and sulfur. Minor elements are required in very small quantities
and are usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per unit of dry matter.
The minor elements include boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, and zinc (Janick et al. 1969).
62 Plant Nutrients Required for Growth
The three essential fertilizer elements needed in plant nutrition are nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Of the three foregoing essential fertilizer
elements, nitrogen is the most important in desert environments. Amino
acids, which are the building blocks of plant protein, and many other plant
substances contain nitrogen. Although nitrogen accounts for only 1 or 2% of
the dry weight of a plant, nitrogen-containing compounds make up about
25% of the dry weight. Excess nitrogen delays maturity and fruiting in some
plants by promoting vegetative growth. Severe nitrogen deficiencies may
also delay maturity and reduce crop yields. High-nitrogen plants may be less
fruitful than low-nitrogen plants. Nitrogen causes plants to grow rapidly,
resulting in a high proportion of succulent, fleshy plant tissue in contrast to
stiff fibrous tissue. As a result, herbaceous plants with a high nitrogen
content are often blown over or lodged, as they approach maturity. Plant
material with a high nitrogen content is more susceptible to freezing injury
than is plant material with a low nitrogen content. Nitrogen-deficiency
symptoms are easily identified. Leaves of nitrogen-deficient plants are
usually very light green, but may be yellow or red because when chlorophyll
is deficient the color of other pigments shows through. The leaves are also
small. Lower leaves are usually the first to show discoloration, and may turn
yellow and drop off before the topmost leaves have lost their intense green
color. Individual branches may die and the entire plant is stunted. Nitrogen
is found in both organic and inorganic compounds in the soil. Soil nitrogen
is most abundant in climatic regions that favor the accumulation of organic
matter, such as the grasslands. Mineralization of nitrogen (the change from
an organic to an inorganic form by the decomposition of organic matter)
must take place before nitrogen can be absorbed and used by plants. The
forms of nitrogen most usable by plants are the ammonium (NH4) and
nitrate (N0 3 ) ions. Ammonium nitrate (NH4N03 ) is widely used as a
fertilizer because it is composed of both ions. Nitrogen fixation is the
transformation of atmospheric nitrogen into forms available to plants and it
is accomplished by symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules on the roots
of legume plants. Nitrogen fertilizers may be either organic or chemical.
Organic matter has been used as fertilizer for thousands of years. Legume
crops have been used to add nitrogen to soil for many years. Ammonium
sulfate contains 20.5% nitrogen. It is called acid-forming fertilizer because
the sulfate can be transformed to sulfuric acid. It is usually obtained as a
by-product of coke ovens, but is also made from ammonia. Anhydrous
ammonia (dry ammonia) is a gas at temperatures at which plants grow but it
becomes a liquid when cooled and put under pressure. It may be injected
into the soil as a gas or as a liquid and it may be added to irrigation water.
Ammonium nitrate contains 33.5% nitrogen and it is usually used in the
form of pellets. It is one of the most widely used nitrogen fertilizers.
Essential Elements in Plant Nutrition 63
Fig. 15. Side-dressing com with anhydrous ammonia nitrogen fertilizer in the USA. The
three essential fertilizer elements needed in plant nutrition are nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium. Of the three foregoing essential fertilizer elements, nitrogen is the most
important in desert environments. When row crops like com are grown , a portion of the
nitrogen fertilizer is usually applied in the form of an inorganic nitrogen fertilizer at
planting time and an additional application of nitrogen is applied as a side-dressing to the
young plants in the form of anhydrous ammonia . (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography,
Inc.)
lower layer, mainly because it is removed from the upper layers by plants.
With increasing depth, potassium becomes more abundant and more
uniformly distributed throughout soils. When potassium fertilization is
required, about 95% of all potassium is applied in the form of potassium
chloride (KCl). Potassium may be applied to soils in mixed fertilizer and
also as separate materials. The relative abundance of available potassium
in desert soils is one of their most outstanding and distinguishing charac-
teristics. The native soils in most desert environments contain sufficient
potassium for the profitable production of most field crop plants (National
Plant Food Institute 1962; Janick et al. 1969; Fuller 1975b; Fig. 15).
16 Plant Nutrients in Municipal Wastewater
Small grains (barley, oats, and wheat) provide high quality hay for beef and
dairy cattle. They can be grown in the summer in the cooler climates and
during the winter months in desert environments. Normal rainfall is not
sufficient in desert regions to provide maximum hay production from small
grains. Supplemental irrigation water is often not available or too expensive
for agricultural use. Six experiments were conducted over a 2-year period in
Arizona, USA, to compare hay production from small grains irrigated with
municipal wastewater with hay obtained from small grains irrigated with
well water and fertilized with different amounts of commercial fertilizer
(Day and Tucker 1960). Each of three small grain crops (barley, oats, and
wheat) was studied in two experiments for 2 years.
When barley was irrigated with well water and fertilized with recom-
mended commercial fertilizer, it produced 6.3 kg/ha of air-dry hay. When
barley was irrigated with municipal wastewater with no additional fertilizer,
it produced 5% more hay than did barley grown with well water and
recommended commercial fertilizer. Barley was more sensitive to the pre-
sence of detergents and higher accumulation of soluble salts in wastewater
than were oats and wheat.
Oats irrigated with well water and fertilized with recommended com-
mercial fertilizer produced 3 kg/ha of air-dry hay. When oats were irrigated
with municipal wastewater with no additional fertilizer, they produced 126%
more air-dry hay than did oats grown with well water and recommended
commercial fertilizer. Oats utilized the fertilizer nutrients in wastewater
more efficiently in the production of hay than did barley. Oats were less
Irrigation with Municipal Wastewater 69
Small grains (barley, oats, and wheat) can be grown successfully for grain
productions in the southwestern USA and in similar desert environments
throughout the world. Normal rainfall is not sufficient for maximum grain
production from small grains in these semi-arid areas and supplemental
irrigation water is not available. Experiments were conducted in the USA to
determine if municipal wastewater can be used successfully as supplemental
irrigation water to produce grain from small grains in desert environments
(Day et al. 1962). Each of three small grain crops (barley, oats, and wheat)
was studied for a 2-year period.
Average grain yields from barley, oats, and wheat irrigated with well
water and fertilized with recommended commercial fertilizer were 2933,
2195, and 1864kg/ha, respectively. Average grain yields from barley, oats,
and wheat irrigated with municipal wastewater with no additional fertilizer
were 16, 20, and 32% higher, respectively, than grain yields from the same
crops irrigated with well water and fertilized with recommended commercial
fertilizer. These data indicated that all three small grain crops utilized the
fertilizer nutrients in municipal wastewater, efficiently, in the production of
high grain yields.
The principal grain quality factor that determines the price received for
grain on world markets is bushel weight. High bushel weight grain sells at a
premium. The average bushel weights of grain from barley, oats, and wheat
irrigated with municipal wastewater with no additional fertilizer were equal
to or higher than the average bushel weights of grain from the same grain
crops irrigated with well water and fertilized with recoptmended commercial
fertilizer. These data indicate that grain from barley, oats, and wheat
irrigated with municipal wastewater will sell for the same price as grain from
the same crops irrigated with well water and fertilized with recommended
commercial fertilizer.
Most of the grain from barley, oats, and wheat is used for livestock
feed. The two principal livestock feed quality characteristics used in
70 Plant Nutrients in Municipal Wastewater
evaluating grain quality are: (1) total protein percentage and (2) total
digestible laboratory nutrients (DLN) percentage. The average protein and
DLN percentages in grain from barley, oats, and wheat irrigated with
municipal wastewater with no additional fertilizer were the same as the
protein and DLN percentages in grain from the same crops irrigated with
well water and fertilized with recommended commercial fertilizer. These
data suggest that grain from barley, oats, and wheat irrigated with municipal
wastewater with no additional fertilizer has the same livestock feeding
quality as grain from the same crops irrigated with well water and fertilized
with recommended commercial fertilizer.
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is the legume plant that produces the highest
quality hay for livestock feed in the world. Alfalfa grows very well in many
humid climates and also in most desert environments. The influence of
municipal wastewater on the growth and yield of hay from alfalfa was
studied in field experiments in the USA (Day et al. 1982). The crop was
planted in October of each year at a seeding rate of 22.4 kg/ha. Approxi-
mately 150 cm of irrigation water were applied in flood irrigations each year.
The response of alfalfa to two irrigation treatments: (1) well water from
local wells (control) and (2) municipal wastewater and well water in a 50: 50
mixture was compared by sampling the first harvest in selected fields. The
hay was harvested when 10% of the alfalfa stems had one or more flowers.
Alfalfa irrigated with the wastewater and well water mixture produced
taller plants and higher yields of hay than did alfalfa grown with well water
alone. Total protein in the hay and in vitro dry matter disappearance
(IVDMD) of the hay was the same for alfalfa grown with both sources of
irrigation water. When municipal wastewater was mixed with well water
high in total soluble salts, the salt content of the mixture was reduced and
the quality of the irrigation water was improved. The higher yields obtained
when alfalfa was irrigated with the wastewater and well water mixture than
when grown with well water alone probably resulted from lower concentra-
tions of soluble salts and higher concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous
in the mixture than were present in the well water. Municipal wastewater
can be used effectively as a source of irrigation water and plant nutrients in
the commercial production of high quality alfalfa hay, making more regular
well water available for domestic purposes in the southwestern USA and
also in similar environments throughout the world.
162.5 Cotton
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is the most important crop grown for lint
or fiber in the world and it grows best in desert environments. The influence
Irrigation with Municipal Wastewater 71
of municipal wastewater on the growth, yield, and quality of lint from cotton
was studied in field experiments in the USA (Day et al. 1981). The crop was
planted in April and harvested in November each year. Approximately
122 cm of irrigation water were applied in furrow irrigation each year.
Two sources of irrigation water were used: (1) well water from local wells
(control treatment) and (2) municipal wastewater and well water in a 50:50
mixture. The well water contained 4600 ppm total soluble salts and 22 ppm
total nitrogen (N). The wastewater and well water mixture contained
3400 ppm total soluble salts and 40 ppm total N. The suggested fertilizer rate
for cotton in the area, 56kg/ha of N fertilizer, were applied prior to planting
the cotton that was irrigated with well water, increasing the total N to
334 kg/ha. No N was applied to the cotton that was irrigated with the
wastewater and well water mixture, although the total N applied was
488 kg/ha. All other cultural practices were similar for cotton grown with the
two irrigation treatments.
Cotton grown with the wastewater-well water mixture was taller and it
produced more seed cotton and lint cotton than cotton irrigated with only
well water. The lint quality characteristics of cotton grown with the two
irrigation treatments were similar. The quality of irrigation water is in-
fluenced by salt concentrations, which lower the desirability of water for
irrigation. The lower concentrations of salts present in the wastewater and
well water mixture indicated that the mixture was of a higher quality than
well water alone. The wastewater-well water mixture, therefore, was more
desirable for irrigating cotton than was well water. The use of municipal
wastewater in the commercial production of cotton uses a municipal waste
material effectively in commercial agriculture and makes more well water
available for domestic purposes.
Fig. 16. Beef cattle grazing on an irrigated pasture in a desert area in Colorado, USA.
Municipal wastewater (sewage effluent) can be used very effectively as irrigation water to
produce pasture forage for beef cattle in desert areas. Properly treated municipal
wastewater contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are the principal
fertilizer elements needed for plant growth . Most crop plants utilize the plant nutrients in
municipal wastewater as effectively as they utilize the plant nutrients in commercial
inorganic fertilizers. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Future Prospects 73
Katterman and Day (1989) reported that anaerobically digested sewage sludge
contained two chromatographically separated components of cytokinin-like
activity, that served as active plant growth agents, in addition to consider-
able quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and .potassium, which are the prin-
cipal fertilizer nutrients needed for plant growth. The presence of these two
cytokinin-like growth agents in sewage sludge was suggested as one possible
76 Plant Nutrients in Sewage Sludge
reason why some field crops produce higher yields of plant products,
when fertilized with sewage sludge, than can be explained on the basis of
the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the sludge.
Sewage sludge contained more organic matter than did inorganic fertilizers.
When desert soil was fertilized with sewage sludge, the additional organic
matter increased the water-holding capacity, decreased water-runoff,
improved aeration, and resulted in a more desirable soil structure for plant
growth.
Most grass and/or turf species may be fertilized effectively with dry sewage
sludge from municipal sewage treatment plants. One of the best-known
areas for fertilization of grass and turf with dry sewage sludge is the south-
western USA, where sun-dried sludge has been incorporated as a filler in
mixed fertilizer for over 25 years. The economical use of radiant energy for
drying sewage sludge in a series of shallow ponds makes the management
of sludge in desert regions attractive. The application of dry sewage sludge
to grass and turf species is an environmentally safe way to dispose of a
municipal waste and provide needed fertilizer for effective plant growth in
most desert environments throughout the world (Fuller and Tucker 1977).
17.3.2 Wheat
17.4.1 Wheat
Heavy metal concentrations in wheat hay, grain, and straw were low in both
fertilizer treatments. Cadmium and nickel levels were below detectable
limits. When wheat was grown to maturity, more heavy metals accumulated
in the grain than in the straw. Liquid sewage sludge was used effectively as a
source of fertilizer in the production of high yields of high quality hay, grain,
and straw from wheat in the desert environment in the southwestern United
States.
Since 1984, liquid sewage sludge from Tucson, Arizona, USA, has been
applied to farm lands as an alternative to disposal in landfills. Present
guidelines by the Arizona Department of Health Services (ADHS) for land
application of sewage sludge dictates that application rates be limited to the
nitrogen requirement of the crop to be grown. However, projected increases
in sewage sludge and limitations in land areas for disposal may require
higher application rates than those presently recommended.
Detailed greenhouse experiments were conducted in Arizona, USA, to
study the effects of liquid sewage sludge loading rates on the vegetative
growth, yield, and quality of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grain and straw
(Day et al. 1989). The liquid sewage sludge had a pH of 7.6, 1.5% total
solids, 9% total N, 5.4% phosphoric acid, and 0.4% potash on a dry weight
basis. The plant-available N in the sewage sludge was estimated to be 6.8%.
The sewage sludge loading rates consisted of seven treatments, each
replicated four times as follows: (1) check (a soil with no fertilizer applied),
(2) recommended N for barley (112kgN/ha from ammonium nitrate), (3)
liquid sewage sludge in amounts to provide the recommended plant-available
N (112 kg N/ha) , and (4) sewage sludge rates to provide plant-available N in
amounts equal to 2,3,4, and 5 times the recommended N rate. Each sludge
treatment was mixed with 20 kg of soil, using a cement mixer, and placed in
plastic pots 25 cm in diameter and 40 cm deep. For the inorganic N treat-
ment, ammonium nitrate was applied 3 cm below the soil surface at planting.
Barley was planted in December each year and thinned to nine plants per
pot 1 week after seedling emergence. Shallow and frequent hand watering
was continued throughout the growing season, to prevent moisture stress
and to minimize leaching. The grain and straw were harvested by hand at
maturity.
Barley responded more in vegetative growth than in grain yield to
increases in sewage sludge loading rates. Vegetative growth and grain yields
were similar whether barley was fertilized with inorganic N or equivalent
amounts of plant-available N from sewage sludge. Sewage sludge loading
rates more than three times the recommended plant-available N rate
decreased barley stands in the seedling stage. Dying seedlings exhibited
chlorosis and tip-burn, similar to symptoms of salt toxicity. Surviving plants
80 Plant Nutrients in Sewage Sludge
17.4.3 Cotton
Most modern cities are faced with problems of sewage and sewage disposal.
Liquid sewage sludge from sewage processing plants contains considerable
quantities of the three fertilizer elements needed for plant growth: (1)
nitrogen, (2) phosphorus, and (3) potassium. If liquid sewage sludge could
be used effectively as a source of plant nutrients in the commercial pro-
duction of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), it would solve an important
pollution problem and provide essential clothing and food for an increasing
population.
Experiments were conducted in Arizona, USA, to compare the plant
growth, seed cotton yield, and cotton lint quality of cotton fertilized with
liquid sewage sludge and inorganic fertilizer (Day et al. 1987b; Day et al.
1988). Two fertilizer treatments were compared: (1) recommended nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) for cotton from inorganic sources and (2) sewage
sludge to provide the recommended amount of plant-available N for cotton.
Seedling emergence, plant establishment, plant height, and seed cotton
yield for cotton grown with liquid sewage sludge were similar to seedling
emergence, plant establishment, plant height, and seed cotton yield for
cotton grown with recommended inorganic fertilizer. Most lint quality
characteristics were similar for cotton fertilized with liquid sewage sludge
and inorganic fertilizer. Fertilization of cotton with liquid sewage sludge
tended to increase vegetative growth, increase lint yield, delay lint maturity,
and decrease lint qUality. Cotton can utilize liquid sewage sludge as a source
Future Prospects 81
of fertilizer in the production of high yields of high quality lint, with only
minor changes in field crop culture. When liquid sewage sludge is used
as a fertilizer for cotton production, in arid environments, additional
inorganic fertilizers are made available for the production of food for human
consumption.
The future of liquid sewage sludge is very encouraging in the desert environ-
ments throughout the world. Anaerobically digested liquid sewage sludge
contains considerable quantities of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and
82 Plant Nutrients in Sewage Sludge
Fig. 17. Injection of liquid municipal sewage sludge into agricultural soil in the USA.
Anaerobically digested liquid sewage sludge from sewage treatment plants is a good
source of plant nutrients in the production of crop plants. Liquid sewage sludge can be
injected into agricultural soils, below the soil surface, and provide both fertilizer and/or
irrigation water for the production of high yields of plant products in desert environments.
(Photo by Larry Lefever from Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
potassium (K), which are the principal fertilizer elements needeq for plant
growth. Most crop plants utilize the plant nutrients in liquid sewage -sludge
as effectively as they utilize the plant nutrients in commercial inorganic
fertilizers. When liquid sewage sludge is used to irrigate and/or fertilize crop
plants, a municipal waste material is disposed of in an environmentally safe
manner and more regular irrigation water and inorganic fertilizers are made
available to irrigate and/or fertilize food crops for human consumption
(Fig. 17).
18 Plant Growth in Desert Environments
The dry (desert) regions of the world constitute about one-third of the total
land area. They are divided almost equally into arid and semi-arid regions.
The dry regions occur in five large zones, separated from each other by
oceans or wet equatorial zones. The largest of the five is the North African-
Eurasian dry zone, extending from the west coast of Africa eastward into
India. The other dry zones are in South Africa, western North America,
western South America, and most of Australia (Arnon 1972).
84 Plant Growth in Desert Environments
Under arid conditions the physical, chemical, and biological processes of soil
formation occur more slowly than in humid climates. The plant cover is
dispersed and of low productivity. As a result, rock minerals break down
slowly, profile characteristics are not well developed, and soil organic matter
and soil nitrogen are always at a low level. Leaching is also at a low level
and there is usually an excessive accumulation of soluble salts in the soil.
The fertility cycle under desert conditions is practically a closed system, with
plant nutrients circulating at a very slow rate. The breakdown and decom-
position of plant residues is extremely slow under arid conditions and nitrifi-
Soil Fertility and Its Maintenance 85
cation is inhibited. Plant nutrients may accumulate in the soil during a cycle
of very dry years that may produce a lush growth of plants when rains do
finally occur. This may give a mistaken impression of soil fertility because
poor plant growth frequently occurs after two or three good rainfall seasons
in succession. The farmer has a great influence on the level of fertility of his
soils. Practically all agricultural operations affect soil fertility for better or
for worse, according to the way in which they are executed. Tillage can
improve soil structure or just as effectively destroy it. Chemical fertilizers
are one of the most efficient means of increasing the productivity of the soil,
but their incorrect use may cause great damage to soil fertility. Irrigation
can make the desert bloom; however, it can also transform fertile areas into
deserts, in which even desert plants may fail to become established. No
single factor is capable of raising the fertility of the soil to its highest
potential level if other relevant factors are neglected (Arnon 1972).
Most desert soils contain the principal fertilizer nutrients needed for
plant growth. The primary source of soil nitrogen is the inexhaustible supply
obtained directly or indirectly from the atmosphere. The amount of nitrogen
in the plowed-layer of cultivated soils usually ranges from 0.02 to 0.4% by
weight. Most of the nitrogen in the soil is in the organic form. It is generally
assumed that organic matter in the soil contains about 5% nitrogen, of
which only a small amount becomes available to plants each year. The
rate at which nitrogen becomes available to plants depends on the rate of
mineralization of the organic matter in the soil. In desert soils, nitrogen is
the principal fertilizer nutrient needed for optimum plant growth. Most of
the soil phosphorus is in the inorganic form and its original source is the
apalite group of minerals. The organic compounds containing phosphorus
are derived from the decay of animal and plant bodies. The total amount of
phosphorus in soil is usually less than the total amounts of nitrogen and
potassium. Desert soils usually contain sufficient available phosphorus for
most field crop plants. Of the macronutrients, potassium is usually most
abundant in desert soils and it is very seldom ever needed as a fertilizer
additive for most crop plants. The calcium content of desert soils varies
more than does that of any other element. Calcium produces several specific
effects, which result in the improvement of soil structure and in increased
crop production. There is usually a close relationship between calcium and
magnesium in arid soils. Magnesium carbonate is usually found in mixtures
with calcium carbonate. Magnesium deficiencies are rare in arid-land soils.
Large amounts of sodium may accumulate in the soils of arid and semi-arid
regions. Excess sodium in the soil may damage the soil structure and reduce
crop yields. Deficiencies of minor elements are very rare in desert soils
(Black 1957; Arnon 1972).
86 Plant Growth in Desert Environments
The elements that are essential in relatively large amounts for the growth
of plants are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, calcium, and magnesium. The farmer is concerned mainly with the
supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, in the form of fertilizers.
The other elements that are also essential for plant growth and are required
by plants in relatively large amounts are sulfur, calcium, and magnesium.
These are, however, usually present in the soil in sufficient amounts for crop
production, or they are added incidentally by using commercial fertilizers
supplying N, P, or K, or in the water used for irrigation. The essential
micro-nutrients iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, and molybdenum,
are usually present in many arid soils in sufficient amounts to supply the
needs of crop plants. The high proportion of calcium that is typical of many
arid soils may, however, hinder absorption of iron and magnesium, and
cause deficiencies even when these two elements are present in the soil in
sufficient amounts. Other micro-nutrients, such as sodium, cobalt, silicon,
and vanadium, are not essential for all plants, but may be for some (Black
1957; Arnon 1957).
Thousands of new, improved varieties of the principal field crops are devel-
oped and released yearly by plant breeders allover the world. Introducing
ready-made varieties into desert regions is the cheapest and most effective
way of replacing inefficient varieties that are used in traditional agriculture.
When crop species are introduced into a new region free from their natural
enemies, they may be more successful than in their country of origin. Even
for countries with an advanced agriculture, the introduction of improved
varieties, and varieties with special characteristics required for breeding
work is an essential part of any breeding program. Very few varieties of
the major crop species grown in the USA originated within the borders
of the country. Even the hard red wheats, which are grown extensively
in the United States, were derived from plant introductions. The same is
true for oats, rye, and sorghum. Wheatgrass was introduced from Siberia,
soybeans were introduced from Asia, and cotton was introduced from
Mexico. An introduction service must be established that is capable of
testing new introductions for adaptability, disease resistance, and techno-
logical suitability, according to scientific procedures. The introduction of
new varieties of crops, if carried out without the necessary safeguards and
supervision, may cause untold damage by introducing at the same time
insect pests, diseases, or weeds that were previously nonexistent in the
Crop Introduction and Improvement 87
Fig. 18. Young citrus trees growing in a desert area in Arizona, USA. Citrus trees
(oranges, grapefruit, and lemons) grow very well in many desert areas in the southwestern
USA. When supplemental irrigation water is applied to the fertile desert soils, high yields
of high quality citrus are produced. In desert areas where citrus is adapted, its cultivation
has transformed former areas of wasteland into highly productive areas of commercial
agriculture . (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
As the world population increases, more people are choosing to make their
homes in the desert environments throughout the world. As new population
centers develop, there is a great demand for city parks, golf courses, and
other recreation areas. The landscaping of new home sites and all types of
recreation areas require large quantities of plant nutrients for their success-
ful establishment and maintenance. Interest in home gardening is at its
highest level since the Victory Garden Era of World War II. Victory
Gardens were encouraged to offset the shortages in commercial production,
processing, and transportation of fruits and vegetables during the war years.
The current high interest in home gardening is attributed to the increasing
cost of food which has resulted from higher energy and labor costs in
producing, processing, and transporting food. In urban areas, next door
neighbors often do not get acquainted with each other. However, if neigh-
bors have home gardens, they have much in common to talk about, to
share, to compare, and to exchange in terms of information, ideas, plant
materials, products, successes, and failures. The present interest in home
landscaping and gardening has created a great demand for plant nutrients in
desert environments and also in humid regions (Hayes 1977).
Our view of the earth from a car window in many cities shows land with
most of the natural vegetation removed. Spaces are filled with buildings,
roads, and construction machinery. Any open areas are tan and gray-
colored, or blacktopped and covered with cars. Green plants are forgotten
in this landscape and the few plants that are present grow with great
difficulty. This need not be the vista confronting people in their cities, or
wherever they live and work. We must set new priorities for land use and
create new landscapes with the many uses of green plants. We must educate
the new generations to the benefits of having plants in their lives. Green
plants in the countryside seem so simple and abundant. They appear to grow
everywhere and survive all kinds of changes. Under the protection and
comforts of indoor living we forget the ruthlessness of the outdoors. We
90 Urban Utilization of Plant Nutrients
retain only the memories of the balmy days of late spring and the chilling
nights of fall. Plants growing in our landscapes are adapted to survive in
changing environments (Black et al. 1970).
A farmer knows how suddenly the weather can change. An emerging
crop of seedlings or a field of maturing produce can be wiped out in
minutes. Thunderstorms, driving rains, and abrupt changes in temperatures
are considered natural calamities. Much of the information on the function
of plants is lost prior to reaching people. Most people know that plants are a
counterpart of animals. They remember vaguely that, if the two types of
organisms are combined in the proper manner, plants will provide for the
support of animals and vice versa.
Green plants that are introduced into a town or city have many ad-
vantages over their counterparts in the wild. We can select plants from a
specific clone instead of randomly picking them from a seedling population.
We can train plants for transplanting to a specific site. We can position
plants in their own especially selected urban micro-climate. If all of the
interests of plant scientists and gardeners were focused on adapting plants to
urban environments, plants may lift the spirits of mankind in the future
family environment (Hayes 1972).
Home gardens may be grown successfully in full sun and away from tree
roots. Only a few garden sites are free from the shade cast by walls, fences,
or trees, and are also free from foraging tree roots. Thus, gardening often
becomes an exercise in compromise, where people learn to live with site-
imposed restrictions and settle for somewhat less than optimum garden
performance and yield.
Home gardeners should look beyond the traditional concept of a single
plot as a vegetable and/or fruit garden. Frequently, two or more small plots
have advantages over a single garden. Small plots are also easier to dress-up
with flowers to make them blend into the general homestead landscape. If
space permits, a separate orchard and berry plot is preferred over a combi-
nation garden and orchard and berry plot. Toxic pest control sprays from
fruit trees and berries may drip on vegetables. In addition, certain kinds
of berries spread aggressively and invade nearby rows of vegetables. Site
selection for fruit or nut trees is more critical than it is for vegetables,
berries, and bush fruits because orchards are not portable. One cannot
move an orchard around like a vegetable garden. The location of fruit or nut
trees and the form, flower, and foliage color of the varieties chosen may
have a significant impact on the homestead landscape. Fruit, nut, and citrus
trees change in size and form as they mature. During the winter months,
Food Costs, Landscape Homesteads, and Improve Neighborliness 91
deciduous trees are barren because of leaf loss, and citrus trees lose color
and some of their foliage. Most professional landscapers prefer not to
integrate fruit or nut trees in a landscape plan but would rather set them
along the back or side of the property, where they are screened by more
graceful trees or large shrubs. A survey for potential garden and orchard
sites on your property may prove disappointing, but you have options
today that were not open a few years ago. Gardens in urban areas have
experienced a resurgence in popularity. In addition, container gardening
now permits vegetable and fruit culture where no suitable plots of soil exist.
Home gardens reduce food costs, landscape homesteads, and encourage
neighborliness in urban environments. Every home garden and/or orchard
depends upon the extensive use of plant nutrients for its success (Hayes
1977).
Fig. 19. An outstanding home in a desert area in California, USA. As the world
population increases, more people are choosing to make their homes in the desert
environments throughout the world. As people move from the cities to the country, there
is an increased interest in home landscaping and home gardening which has created a
great demand for plant nutrients. The current high interest in home gardening is
attributed to the increasing cost of food which has resulted from higher energy and labor
costs in producing, processing, and transporting food . (Photo by Grant Heilman
Photography, Inc.)
92 Urban Utilization of Plant Nutrients
Large areas of land are disturbed in the desert environments throughout the
world. The removal of earth, rock, and overburden soil materials in the
recovery of underground minerals disturbs millions of hectares of land
annually. The abandonment and/or relocation of agricultural farm land and
livestock feeding operations leaves vast areas in need of reclamation. Inter-
state, intrastate, and local highway networks occupy large geographical
areas that must be revegetated. The effective rehabilitation of the foregoing
types of disturbed lands requires large quantities of plant nutrients (Dean
1971; Beatty et al. 1979).
dry climates, dust pollution from barren road cuts, medians, and highway
slopes is associated with many multicar accidents each year (Beatty et al.
1979).
plant height, and forage yield between soil materials, mulching treatments,
and soil moisture treatments. The Gila loam soil, barley straw mulch, and
optimum soil moisture treatment produced the highest number of stems per
unit area, the tallest plants, and the highest yield of forage. Plants were
more vigorous and produced more forage when soil mulch (incorporated
organic matter mulch) was used than when soils were not mulched. Barley
straw and Russian thistle were of similar value as mulching materials.
Within soil materials and within mulching treatments forage yields were
significantly higher with optimum soil moisture than they were when soil
moisture was limited (Day and Ludeke 1987; Day and Ludeke 1988).
experimental design was a split-split plot with soil materials as main plots,
seeding treatments as subplots, and soil-moisture treatments as sub-subplots,
with four replications. The plot size was 4 m square. The coal mine soil
was leveled with a bulldozer to conform to the surrounding topography.
Undisturbed soil and coal mine soil were both disked with a double-disk
harrow to produce a satisfactory seedbed for planting. Both soil materials
were fertilized with 560 kg/ha of 16-20-0 commercial fertilizer prior to
planting. The forest litter was obtained, at random, from the surface 10 cm
on the Coconino National Forest. After it was uniformally mixed, the forest
litter was broadcast over the surface of the soil materials and incorporated
into the surface of the soil material with hand rakes. Irrigation water was
applied immediately after planting and as needed throughout the growing
season with a sprinkler irrigation system. The following data were obtained
at the end of the growing season each year: (1) seeds germinated (emerged) ,
Fig. 20. Copper mine tailings that have been contoured to prevent wind erosion in
Arizona, USA. Large areas of land are disturbed annually in desert areas in the western
USA by the mining and milling of copper. The primary purpose for reclaiming copper
mining wastes in dry regions is to stabilize the spoil material and prevent it from being
moved by winds and flash floods. A second objective for reclamation is to revegetate the
barren soil materials, so that they will blend into the surrounding landscape and minimize
visual pollution. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
98 Plant Nutrients for Disturbed Land Reclamation
(2) seedlings established, (3) plant height, and (4) percent ground cover. All
data were analyzed using the standard analysis of variance. Germination,
seedling establishment, plant height, and ground cover on undisturbed soil
and coal mine soil were higher when forest litter was applied than when it
was not applied and when natural rainfall was supplemented with sprinkler
irrigation than when rainfall was not supplemented with irrigation. Appli-
cations of forest litter and supplemental irrigation may insure the successful
establishment of vegetation on areas disturbed by open-pit coal mining in
many desert environments throughout the world (Whyte 1987; Day and
Ludeke 1990; Fig. 20).
21 Desert Environments Offer
an Outstanding Future Potential
During the next 100 years, University of Arizona scientists will develop
plants that will be adapted to life in arid and semi-arid lands and that will
yield products necessary to support quality human life and industry. In
addition, agricultural animals will be developed to live more comfortably
and to be more productive in desert environments. Research programs
in the College of Agriculture Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station
(AAES) already emprace today's advanced biotechnology. AAES scientists
are leading the way, with other university scientists beyond the frontier, into
a new era of genetic engineering. Plant research includes cell fusion, micro-
culture, and gene transplants. Embryo recovery and transfer will become a
focus of the animal scientists. These advanced investigations in Arizona,
USA, may playa very important role in the improvement of life for plants,
animals, and people in desert environments during the next century (Haney
et al. 1985).
The success story of American agriculture is the envy of the world. Between
1950 and 1980, total US crop production doubled, with a 5% increase in
cropland and a 63% reduction in labor use. US farmers were so productive
that agricultural policies were dominated by farm surplus problems. After
World War II, rapid development and application of such yield-increasing
technologies as fertilizer formulation and delivery, plant variety improve-
ments, moisture conservation, and irrigation occurred. The impact of these
technologies on the nations food and fiber production, however, peaked in
the mid-1970s.
US farmers are more export-dependent today than they have ever been.
The domestic demand for farm products is about half what the United States
is capable of producing. The available improved farm technology around the
world has caused a world over-production crisis. Until the 1960s, few
countries outside of the United States experienced rising crop yields. Today,
record crop yields are occurring annually in all of the grain-producing
countries. Much of the increased crop production throughout the world has
100 Desert Environments Offer an Outstanding Future Potential
Who lives on a few acres in the country? These rural residents are a very
diverse group ranging from computer analysts, chiropractors, carpenters,
salesmen, to professors. The land on which they live ranges in size from
enough for a rural residence with a large back yard to small-scale farms
involving a number of acres. The 1970s brought renewed interest in the
country lifestyle. The rural movement is not a simple phenomenon. There
are many objectives, resources, and situations involved and the implications
for the future are very complex. There is no such thing as an average
resident on a few acres in the country. Some are involved in agriculture,
operating a few acres on a part-time basis. Some are willing to make the
material sacrifices necessary to achieve a preferred rural lifestyle. Others
have enough wealth to afford this lifestyle without income from the land.
People live in the country and own a few acres for a variety of reasons.
Their objectives might be anyone of the following: (1) to use the acreage
solely as a residence, (2) to pursue hobbies or recreational activities, (3) to
reduce the family's food cost by gardening, (4) to provide an alternative
lifestyle for meeting food and energy needs, or (5) to provide an extra part-
time source of income by selling produce from the acreage or engaging in
102 Desert Environments Offer an Outstanding Future Potential
some other sideline. Most rural residents sell less than $1000 worth of
agricultural produce each year. Their primary interest is the pastoral setting
for their home. Many view the few acres on which they live as an extended
backyard. They are frequently city folks buying up old farmhouses that are
surrounded by a few acres. Many rural residents are called gardeners. These
are people who may sell some of their produce but they are primarily
interested in reducing their family's food bill by growing their own food.
They often use their land for an extensive vegetable garden, some fruit
trees, one or two head of livestock, and a few chickens. Although country
living may be practiced anywhere, it is especially satisfying in the desert
environments throughout the world (Hayes 1978).
As the world population increases, more people are choosing to make their
homes in the desert environments throughout the world. As new population
centers develop, there is a great demand for city parks, golf courses, and
other recreation areas. The landscaping of new home sites and all types of
recreation areas requires large quantities of plant nutrients for successful
establishment and maintenance. As mankind looks into the future, the
desert environments throughout the world offer a delightful place in which
to live, work, and play (Hayes 1971, 1983; Whyte 1987; Figs. 21, 22).
Fig. 21. An irrigated family farm in a desert area in the southwestern USA. As many
successful business men approach retirement age, they invest in a small family farm, so
that they can spend their retirement years in the peace and quiet of country living. A
family farm also provides additional income during retirement years. Family farms in
desert environments provide a greater opportunity to enjoy country living than do family
farms in humid areas. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.)
Fig. 22. A modem city established in a desert environment in the southwestern USA. As
the world population increases, more people are choosing to make their homes in arid
areas. The landscaping of new home sites and all types of recreation areas require large
quantities of plant nutrients for their successful establishment and maintenance. As
mankind looks into the future, the desert environments throughout the world offer a
delightful place in which to live, work, and play. (Photo by Grant Heilman Photography,
Inc.)
Desert Environments Attract People 103
Glossary of Agronomic Terms
(Martin et al. 1976)
Reaction (of soil) The degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil expressed
as pH.
Replication Multiple repetition of an experiment.
Respiration The process of absorption of oxygen and giving out of
carbon dioxide.
Root The part of the plant (usually subterranean) which
lacks nodes.
Runner A creeping branch or stolon.
Sand Small rock or mineral fragments having diameters
ranging from 0.05 to 2 mm.
Seed The ripened ovule enclosing a rudimentary plant and
the food necessary for its germination.
Seedling The juvenile stage of a plant grown from seed.
Semiarid climate A climate which usually has an annual precipitation of
between 25 and 50cm.
Shoot A stem with its attached members.
Silage Forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial
fermentation in a tight container.
Silt Small mineral soil particles of a diameter of 0.002 to
0.05mm.
Single cross The first generation hybrid between two inbred lines.
Soil The natural medium for the growth of land plants on
the surface of the earth, composed of organic and
mineral materials.
Sow To place seeds in a position for growing.
Spike An unbranched inflorescence in which the spikelets
are sessile on the rachis, as in barley and wheat.
Spikelet The unit of inflorescence in grasses, consisting of two
outer glumes and one or more florets.
Stamen The pollen-bearing organ of a flower.
Stand The density of plant population per unit area.
Sterile Incapable of sexual reproduction.
Stigma The part of the pistil that receives the pollen.
Stolon A modified creeping stem above ground that produces
roots.
112 Glossary of Agronomic terms
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