Signal Generation

Modern electronic communications systems have many applications that require stable,
repetitive waveforms (both sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal). In many of these applications, more than one
frequency is required and often these frequencies must be synchronized to each other. Therefore, signal
generation, frequency synchronization, and frequency synthesis are essential part of an electronic
communications system.

Oscillators
The definition of oscillate is to fluctuate between two states or conditions. Therefore, to
oscillate is to vibrate or change, and oscillating is the act of fluctuating from one state to another. An
oscillator is a device that produces oscillations. There are many applications for oscillators in electronic
communications, such as high-frequency carrier supplies, pilot supplies, clocks, and timing circuits.
In electronic applications, an oscillator is a device or circuit that produces electrical oscillations.
An electrical oscillation is a repetitive change in a voltage or current waveform. If an oscillator is self-
sustaining, the changes in the waveform are continuous and repetitive; they occur at a periodic rate . A
self-sustaining oscillator is also called free running oscillator. Oscillators that are not self-sustaining
require an external input signal or trigger to produce a change in the output waveform. Oscillators that
are not self-sustaining are called triggered or one-shot oscillators. Essentially, an oscillator converts a dc
input voltage to an AC output voltage. The shape of the output waveform shape as long as it repeats at
periodic intervals.

There are basically types of Oscillators

 1. Sinusoidal Oscillators – these are known as Harmonic Oscillators and are generally a “LC
Tuned-feedback” or “RC tuned-feedback” type Oscillator that generates a purely sinusoidal
waveform which is of constant amplitude and frequency.
 2. Non-Sinusoidal Oscillators – these are known as Relaxation Oscillators and generate
complex non-sinusoidal waveforms that changes very quickly from one condition of stability to
another such as “Square-wave”, “Triangular-wave” or “Sawtoothed-wave” type waveforms.

Feedback Oscillators
A feedback oscillator is an amplifier with a feedback loop (a path for energy to propagate from
the output back to the input). Free-running oscillators are feedback oscillators. Once started, a feedback
oscillator generates an ac output signal of which a small portion is fed back to the input, where it is
amplified. The amplified input signal appears at the output and the process repeats; a regenerative
process occurs in which the output is dependent on the input, and vice versa.
According to the Barkhausen criterion, for a feedback circuit to sustain oscillations, the net
voltage gain around the feedback loop must be unity or greater, and the net phase shift around the loop
must be a positive integer of 360o
There are four requirements for a feedback oscillator to work: amplification, positive feedback,
frequency determination, and a source of electrical power.
1. Amplification. An oscillator circuit must include at least one active device and be capable of
voltage amplification. In fact, at times it may be required to provide an infinite gain.
2. Positive feedback. An oscillator circuit must have a complete path for a portion of the
output signal to be returned to the input. The feedback signal must be regenerative, which

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 means it must have the correct phase and amplitude necessary to sustain oscillations. If the
phase is incorrect or if the amplitude is insufficient, oscillations will cease. If the amplitude is
excessive, the amplifier will saturate. Regenerative feedback is called positive feedback,
where “positive” simply means that its phase aids the oscillation process and does not
necessarily indicate a positive(+) or negative(-) polarity. Degenerative feedback is called
negative feedback and supplies a feedback signal that inhibits oscillations from occurring.
3. Frequency-determining components. An oscillator must have frequency determining
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, or crystals to allow the frequency of
operation to be set or changed
4. Power source. An oscillator must have a source of electrical energy such as a power supply.

Figure below shows an electrical model for a feedback oscillator circuit (I,e., a voltage amplifier
with regenerative feedback). A feedback oscillator is a closed-loop circuit comprised of a voltage
amplifier with an open-loop voltage gain (Aol), a frequency-determining regenerative feedback path with
a feedback ratio (β), and either a summer or a subtractor circuit. The open-loop voltage gain of the
amplifier with the feedback path open circuit. The closed-loop voltage gain (Acl) is the overall voltage
gain of the complete circuit with the feedback loop closed and is always less than the open-loop voltage
gain. The feedback ratio is simply the transfer function of the feedback network (i.e. the ratio of its
output to its input voltage). For a passive feedback network, the feedback ratio is always less than 1.

For self-sustained oscillations to occur, a circuit must fulfil the four basic requirements for oscillation
outlined previously, meet the criterion of equation and fit the basic feedback circuit model. Although
oscillator action can be accomplished in many different ways, the most common configurations are used
RC phase shift networks, LC tank circuits, quartz crystals, or integrated-circuit chips. The type of oscillator
used for a particular application depends on the following criteria;
1. Desired frequency of operation
2. Required frequency stability
3. Variable or fixed frequency operation
4. Distortion requirements or limitations
5. Desired output power
6. Physical size
7. Application (i.e., digital or analog)
8. Cost
9. Reliability and durability
10. Desired accuracy

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RC Oscillator – Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator
In an RC Oscillator circuit the input is shifted 180o through the amplifier stage and 180o again
through a second inverting stage giving us “180o + 180o = 360o” of phase shift which is effectively the
same as 0o thereby giving us the required positive feedback. In other words, the phase shift of the
feedback loop should be “0”.
In a Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator or simply an RC Oscillator, we make use of the fact that a
phase shift occurs between the input to a RC network and the output from the same network by using
RC elements in the feedback branch

The circuit on the left shows a single Resistor-Capacitor Network whose output voltage “leads” the input
voltage by some angle less than 90o. An ideal single-pole RC circuit would produce a phase shift of
exactly 90o, and because 180o of phase shift is required for oscillation, at least two single-poles must be
used in an RC oscillator design.

However in reality it is difficult to obtain exactly 90 o of phase shift so more stages are used. The amount
of actual phase shift in the circuit depends upon the values of the resistor and the capacitor, and the
chosen frequency of oscillations with the phase angle ( Φ ) being given as:

RC phase angle

fr is output frequency in Hertz

R is resistance in ohms
C is capacitance in farads
N is the number of RC stages

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Problem: The circuit is to be a 3-stage RC oscillator which will therefore consist of three resistors and
three 1nF capacitors. As the frequency of oscillation is given as 6.5kHz, the value of the resistors is?

LC Oscillator – Inductor-Capacitor Oscillator

The LC oscillators frequency is controlled using a tuned or resonant inductive/capacitive (LC) circuit with
the resulting output frequency being known as the Oscillation Frequency. By making the oscillators
feedback a reactive network the phase angle of the feedback will vary as a function of frequency and
this is called Phase-shift. LC Oscillators are commonly used in radio-frequency circuits because of their
good phase noise characteristics and their ease of implementation.

LC oscillators are oscillator circuits that utilize tuned LC tank circuits for the frequency determining
components. Tank-circuit operation involves an exchange of energy between kinetic and potential.

Basic LC Oscillator Tank Circuit

The circuit consists of an inductive coil, L and a capacitor, C. The capacitor stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field and which produces a potential (static voltage) across its plates, while the inductive
coil stores its energy in the form of an electromagnetic field. The capacitor is charged up to the DC supply
voltage, V by putting the switch in position A. When the capacitor is fully charged the switch changes to
position B.

The charged capacitor is now connected in parallel across the inductive coil so the capacitor begins to
discharge itself through the coil. The voltage across C starts falling as the current through the coil begins
to rise. This rising current sets up an electromagnetic field around the coil which resists this flow of

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current. When the capacitor, C is completely discharged the energy that was originally stored in the
capacitor, C as an electrostatic field is now stored in the inductive coil, L as an electromagnetic field
around the coils windings.

As there is now no external voltage in the circuit to maintain the current within the coil, it starts to fall as
the electromagnetic field begins to collapse. A back emf is induced in the coil (e = -Ldi/dt) keeping the
current flowing in the original direction.

This current charges up capacitor, C with the opposite polarity to its original charge. C continues to
charge up until the current reduces to zero and the electromagnetic field of the coil has collapsed
completely.

The energy originally introduced into the circuit through the switch, has been returned to the capacitor
which again has an electrostatic voltage potential across it, although it is now of the opposite polarity. The
capacitor now starts to discharge again back through the coil and the whole process is repeated. The
polarity of the voltage changes as the energy is passed back and forth between the capacitor and
inductor producing an AC type sinusoidal voltage and current waveform.

This process then forms the basis of an LC oscillators tank circuit and theoretically this cycling back and
forth will continue indefinitely. However, things are not perfect and every time energy is transferred from
the capacitor, C to inductor, L and back from L to C some energy losses occur which decay the
oscillations to zero over time.

This oscillatory action of passing energy back and forth between the capacitor, C to the inductor, Lwould
continue indefinitely if it was not for energy losses within the circuit. Electrical energy is lost in the DC or
real resistance of the inductors coil, in the dielectric of the capacitor, and in radiation from the circuit so
the oscillation steadily decreases until they die away completely and the process stops.

Then in a practical LC circuit the amplitude of the oscillatory voltage decreases at each half cycle of
oscillation and will eventually die away to zero. The oscillations are then said to be “damped” with the
amount of damping being determined by the quality or Q-factor of the circuit.

Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.

Then the frequency at which this will happen is given as:

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Problem: An inductance of 200mH and a capacitor of 10pF are connected together in parallel to
create an LC oscillator tank circuit. Calculate the frequency of oscillation.

The Hartley Oscillator

One of the main disadvantages of the basic LC Oscillator circuit is that they have no means of controlling
the amplitude of the oscillations and also, it is difficult to tune the oscillator to the required frequency. If
the cumulative electromagnetic coupling between L1 and L2 is too small there would be insufficient
feedback and the oscillations would eventually die away to zero.

Likewise if the feedback was too strong the oscillations would continue to increase in amplitude until they
were limited by the circuit conditions producing signal distortion. So it becomes very difficult to “tune” the
oscillator.

However, it is possible to feed back exactly the right amount of voltage for constant amplitude oscillations.
If we feed back more than is necessary the amplitude of the oscillations can be controlled by biasing the
amplifier in such a way that if the oscillations increase in amplitude, the bias is increased and the gain of
the amplifier is reduced.

If the amplitude of the oscillations decreases the bias decreases and the gain of the amplifier increases,
thus increasing the feedback. In this way the amplitude of the oscillations are kept constant using a
process known as Automatic Base Bias.

One big advantage of automatic base bias in a Voltage Controlled Oscillator, is that the oscillator can be
made more efficient by providing a Class-B bias or even a Class-C bias condition of the transistor. This
has the advantage that the collector current only flows during part of the oscillation cycle so the quiescent

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collector current is very small. Then this “self-tuning” base oscillator circuit forms one of the most common
types of LC parallel resonant feedback oscillator configurations called the Hartley Oscillator circuit.

In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and the base of a
transistor amplifier. As far as the oscillatory voltage is concerned, the emitter is connected to a tapping
point on the tuned circuit coil.

The feedback part of the tuned LC tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the inductor coil or even two
separate coils in series which are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as shown.

The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a split-inductance oscillator because coil L is centre-tapped. In
effect, inductance L acts like two separate coils in very close proximity with the current flowing through
coil section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.

An Hartley Oscillator circuit can be made from any configuration that uses either a single tapped coil
(similar to an autotransformer) or a pair of series connected coils in parallel with a single capacitor as
shown below.

Basic Hartley Oscillator Design

When the circuit is oscillating, the voltage at point X (collector), relative to point Y (emitter), is 180oout-of-
phase with the voltage at point Z (base) relative to point Y. At the frequency of oscillation, the impedance
of the Collector load is resistive and an increase in Base voltage causes a decrease in the Collector
voltage. Then there is a 180o phase change in the voltage between the Base and Collector and this along
with the original 180o phase shift in the feedback loop provides the correct phase relationship of positive
feedback for oscillations to be maintained.

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The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the “tapping point” of the inductor. If this is moved
nearer to the collector the amount of feedback is increased, but the output taken between the Collector
and earth is reduced and vice versa. Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the
transistor in the normal manner while the capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors.

Where L= L1a + L1b

C = C1

Problem: A Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 0.5mH each, are designed to
resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor that can be adjusted between 100pF and 500pF. Determine
the upper and lower frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley oscillators bandwidth.

The Colpitts Oscillator

The Colpitts Oscillator, named after its inventor Edwin Colpitts is another type of LC oscillator design. In
many ways, the Colpitts oscillator is the exact opposite of the Hartley Oscillator . Just like the Hartley
oscillator, the tuned tank circuit consists of an LC resonance sub-circuit connected between the collector
and the base of a single stage transistor amplifier producing a sinusoidal output waveform.

The basic configuration of the Colpitts Oscillator resembles that of the Hartley Oscillator but the
difference this time is that the centre tapping of the tank sub-circuit is now made at the junction of a
“capacitive voltage divider” network instead of a tapped autotransformer type inductor as in the Hartley
oscillator.

The Colpitts Oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider network as its feedback source. The two
capacitors, C1 and C2 are placed across a single common inductor, L as shown. Then C1, C2 and L form
the tuned tank circuit with the condition for oscillations being:XC1 + XC2 = XL, the same as for the Hartley
oscillator circuit.

The advantage of this type of capacitive circuit configuration is that with less self
and mutual inductance within the tank circuit, frequency stability of the oscillator
is improved along with a more simple design.

As with the Hartley oscillator, the Colpitts oscillator uses a single stage bipolar
transistor amplifier as the gain element which produces a sinusoidal output.
Consider the circuit below.

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Basic Colpitts Oscillator Circuit

The emitter terminal of the transistor is effectively connected to the junction of the two
capacitors,C1 and C2 which are connected in series and act as a simple voltage divider. When the power
supply is firstly applied, capacitors C1 and C2 charge up and then discharge through the coil L. The
oscillations across the capacitors are applied to the base-emitter junction and appear in the amplified at
the collector output.

Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner while
the additional capacitors act as a DC-blocking bypass capacitors. A radio-frequency choke (RFC) is used
in the collector circuit to provide a high reactance (ideally open circuit) at the frequency of oscillation, ( ƒr )
and a low resistance at DC to help start the oscillations.

The required external phase shift is obtained in a similar manner to that in the Hartley oscillator circuit
with the required positive feedback obtained for sustained undamped oscillations. The amount of
feedback is determined by the ratio of C1 and C2. These two capacitances are generally “ganged”
together to provide a constant amount of feedback so that as one is adjusted the other automatically
follows.

The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is determined by the resonant frequency of
theLC tank circuit and is given as:

where CT is the capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series and is given as:.

The configuration of the transistor amplifier is of a Common Emitter Amplifier with the output signal
180o out of phase with regards to the input signal. The additional 180o phase shift require for oscillation is
achieved by the fact that the two capacitors are connected together in series but in parallel with the
inductive coil resulting in overall phase shift of the circuit being zero or 360o.

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The amount of feedback depends on the values of C1 and C2. We can see that the voltage acrossC1 is
the the same as the oscillators output voltage, Vout and that the voltage across C2 is the oscillators
feedback voltage. Then the voltage across C1 will be much greater than that across C2.

Therefore, by changing the values of capacitors, C1 and C2 we can adjust the amount of feedback
voltage returned to the tank circuit. However, large amounts of feedback may cause the output sine wave
to become distorted, while small amounts of feedback may not allow the circuit to oscillate.

Problem: A Colpitts Oscillator circuit having two capacitors of 24nF and 240nF respectively are
connected in parallel with an inductor of 10mH. Determine the frequency of oscillations of the circuit,.

Clapp Oscillator. A clapp oscillator circuit is identical to the Colpitts Oscillator shown in Figure 2-6a
except with the addition of a small capacitor Cs placed in series with L1. The capacitance of Cs is made
smaller than C1a aor C1b, thus providing a large reactance. Consequently, Cs has the most efect in
determining the frequency of the tank circuit. The advantage of a Clapp oscillator is that C1a and C1b can
be selected for an optimum feedback ratio while Cs can be variable and used for setting the frequency of
oscillation. In some applications Cs incorporates a negative temperature coefficient that improves the
oscillator’s frequency stability.

Frequency Stability
Frequency Stability is the ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed frequency and is of primary
importance in communications systems. Frequency stabilty is often stated as either short or long term.
Short-term stability is affected predominantly by fluctuations in dc operating voltages, whereas long-
term stability is a function of component aging and changes in the ambient temperature and humidity.
In the LC tank circuit and RC phase shift oscillators are susceptible to both short – and long-term
variations. In addition, the Q factors of the LC tank circuits are relatively low, allowing the resonant tank
circuit to oscillate over a wide range of frequencies.
Frequency stability is generally given as a percentage of change in frequency (tolerance) from
desired value. For example, an oscillator operating at 100kHz with a tolerance a + 5% stability will
operate at a frequency of 95 kHz to 105 kHz. Commerial FM broadcast stations must maintain their
carrier frequencies to within +2kHz of their assigned frequency, which is approximately a 0.002%
tolerance. In commercial AM broadcasting, the maximum allowable shift in the carrier frequency is only
+ 20 Hz.
Several factors affect the stability of an oscillator. The most obvious are those that directly
affect the value of the frequency determining components. These include changes in inductance,
capacitance, and resistance values due to enviromental variations in temperature and humidity and
changes in the quiescent operating point of transistors. Stability is also affected by ac ripple in dc power
supplies. The frequency stability of RC or LC oscillators can be greatly improved by regulating the dc
power supply and minimizing the environmental variations. Also, special temperature independent
components can be used.

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Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators are feedback oscillator circuits in which the LC tank circuit is replaced with a
crystal for the frequency-determining component. The crystal acts in a manner similar to the LC tank,
except with several inherent advantages. Crystals are sometimes called crystal resonator and they are
capable of producing precise, stable frequencies for frequency counters, electronic navigation systems.
Radio transmitters and receivers, televisions, videocassette recorders (VCR), computer system clocks,
and many other applications too numerous to list.
Crystallography is the study of the form, structure, properties, and classifications of crystals.
Crystalloraphy deals with lattices, bonding and the behavior of slices of crystal material that have been
cut at various angles with respect to the crystal’s axes. The mechanical properties of crystal lattices
allow them to exhibit the piezoelectric effect. Sections of the crystals that have been cut and polished
vibrate when alternating voltages are applied across their faces. The physical dimensions of a crystal,
particularly its thickness and where and how it was cut, determine its electrical and mechanical
properties.

Piezoelectric effect. Simply stated, the piezoelectric effect occurs when oscillating mechanical
stresses applied across a crystal lattice structure generate electrical oscillations and vice versa. The
stress can be in the form of squeezing (compression), stretching (tension), twisting(torsion), or shearing.
If the stress is applied periodically, the output voltage will alternate. Conversely, when an alternating
voltage is applies across a crystal at or near the natural resonant frequency of the crystal, the crystal will
break into mechanical oscillations. This process is called exciting a crystal into mechanical vibrations. The
mechanical vibrations are called bulk acoustic waves (BAWs) and are directly proportional to the
amplitude of the applied voltage.
A number of natural crystal substances exhibit piezoelectric properties: quartz, rochelle salt, and
tourmaline and several manufactured substances such as ADP, EDT, and DKT. The piezoelectric effect is
most pronounced in Rochelle salt, which is why it is the substance commonly used in crystal
microphones. Synthetic quartz, however, is used more often for frequency control in oscillators because
of its permanence, low temperature coefficient, and high mechanical Q.

Crystal cuts. In nature, complete quartz crystals have a hexagonal cross section with pointed
ends, as shown in Figure 2-7a. Three sets of axes are associated with a crystal: optical, electrical, and
mechanical. The longitudinal axis joining points at the ends of the crystal is called the optical or Z-axis.
Electrical stresses applied to the optical axis do not produce the piezoelectric effect. The electrical or X-
axis passes diagonally through opposite corners of the hexagon. The axis that is perpendicular to the
faces of the crystal is the Y or mechanical axis. Figure 2-7b shows the axes and the basic behavior of a
quarts crystal.
If a thin flat section is cut from a crystal such that the flat sides are perpendicular to an electrical
axis, mechanical stresses along the Y-axis will produce electrical charges on the flat sides. As the stress
changes from compression to tension, and vice versa, the polarity of the charge is reversed. Conversely,
if an alternating electrical charge is placed on the flat sides, a mechanical vibration is produced along the
Y-axis. This is the piezoelectric effect and is also exhibited when mechanical forces are applied across the
faces of a crystal cut with its flat sides perpendicular to the Y-axis. When a crystal wafer is cut parallel to
the Z axis with its faces perpendicular to the X-axis, it is called an X-cut crystal. When the faces are
perpendicular to the Y-axis, it is called a Y-cut crystal. A variety of cuts can be obtained by rotating the
plane of the cut around one or more axes.

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 Crystal wafers are generally mounted in crystal holders, which include the mounting and
housing assemblies. A crystal unit refers to the holder and the crystal itself.. Figure 2-7d shows a
common crystal mounting. Because a crystal’s stability is somewhat temperature dependent, a crystal
unit may be mounted in an oven to maintain a constant operating temperature.
The relationship between crystal’s operating frequency and its thickness is expressed mathematically as

Where h= crystal thickness (inches)

fn = crystal natural resonant frequency (hertz)

This formula indicates that for high-frequency oscillation the quartz wafer must be very thin.
This makes it difficult to manufacture crystal oscillators with the fundamental frequencies above
approximately 30 MHz because the wafer becomes so thin that it is exceptionally fragile, and
conventional cutting and polishing can only be accomplished at extreme costs. This problem can be
alleviated by using chemical etching to achieve thinner slices. With this process, crystals with
fundamental frequencies up to 350 MHz are possible.

Overtone crystal oscillator. As previously stated, to increase the frequency of vibration of a

quartz crystal, the quartz wafer is sliced thinner. This imposes an obvious physical limitation; the thinner
the wafer, the more susceptible it is to damage and the less useful it becomes. Although the practical
limit for fundamental-mode crystal oscillators is approximately 30 MHz, it is possible to operate the
crystal in an overtone mode. In the overtone mode, harmonically related vibrations that occur
simultaneously with the fundamental vibration are used. In the overtone mode, the oscillator is tuned to
operate at the third, fifth, seventh, or even the ninth harmonic of the crystal’s fundamental frequency.
The harmonics are called overtones bacause they are not true harmonics. Manufacturers can process
crystals such that one overtone is enhanced more than the others. Using an overtone mode increases
the usable limit of standard crystal oscillators to approximately 200MHz.

Temperature coefficient. The natural resonant frequency of a crystal is influenced somewhat by

its operating temperature. The ratio of the magnitude of frequency change (Δf) to a change in
temperature (Δ C) is expressed in hertz change per megahertz of crystal operating frequency per degree

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Celcius (Hz/MHz/oC). The fractional change in frequency is often given in parts per million (ppm) per C.
For example, a temperature co efficient of +20Hz/MHz/oC is the same as +20ppm/C. If the direction of
the frequency change is the same as the temperature change (i.e., an increase in temperature causes an
increase in frequency and a decrease in temperature causes a decrease in frequency), it is called a
positive temperature coefficient. If the change in frequency is in the direction opposite to the
temperature change (i.e an increase in temperature causes a decrease in frequency and a decrease in
temperature causes an increase in frequency), it is called a negative temperature coefficient.
Mathematically, the relationship of the change in frequency of a crystal to a change in temperature is

Where Δf = change in frequency (hertz)

k=temperature coefficient (Hz
fn= natural crystal frequency (MegaHertz)
Δc= change in temperature (degrees Celcius)
and

Problem
For a 10 MHz crystal with a temperature coefficient k= +10Hz/MHz/oC, determine the frequency
of operation if the temperature is
a. Increases 10oC
b. Decreases 5oC

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