US Army Corps of Engineers, ERDC, CERL; IEA ECBCS Annex 46

Energy Efficient Technologies for Government Buildings

Chicago, IL

"Water and Energy Conservation at

Military Facilities”

Amy Vickers
Author, Handbook of Water Use and Conservation
Amy Vickers & Associates, Inc.
Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

January 28, 2009

 AGENDA
• Introduction
• Economics of Water and Energy Conservation
• Facility Water Balance–and Priorities
• Water and Energy Saving Options
– Alternative Water Sources, Graywater & Reuse
– Leakage
– Plumbing Fixtures
– Commercial Kitchens
– Commercial Laundries
– Landscape, Turf & Irrigation
 U.S. Water Reality:
Higher Temperatures, Chronic Drought.

Photo: Smithsonian
“…population growth, particularly
in arid regions of the country,
may soon face a limiting
obstacle—the availability of
fresh water. In fact, water
managers in 36 states
expect water shortages to
occur within the next 10
years under even normal
conditions. In many parts of
the country, drought conditions
are giving an early indication
of what may occur on a much
more widespread basis in the
future.”

–U.S. General Accountability

Office, 2005
 TOTAL U.S. WATER DEMANDS IN 2000Š
AVERAGE 408 BILLION GALLONS PER DAY
Irrigation-
Thermoelectric Agriculture
Power 33%
48%

Only 4%
micro-
irrigation

Public Supplies
11%

Industrial Up to 50%
Domestic wells, 5% used on
livestock, lawns
aquaculture,
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, "Estimated Use
of Water in the United States in 2000" (2005) mining
3%
“Fixing Leaks Can Avert World Water Woes, Expert Says”
–Stockholm, August 22, 2006, Reuters

Water System Leakage and Losses, Worldwide

Est. Avg. Losses

Country Service Area of Total Water
Supplied
United States nationwide 10% to 30%
Albania nationwide up to 75%
Canada Kingston, Ontario 38%
Czech Republic nationwide 20% to 30%
Denmark Copenhagen 3%
England nationwide 950 mgd
London 244 mgd
France Paris 30%
nationwide up to 50%
Japan Fukuoka 5%
Jordan nationwide 48%
Kenya Nairobi 40%
Singapore nationwide 5%
South Africa Johannesburg 42%
Tshwane (Pretoria) 24%
Spain nationwide 24% to 34%
Taiwan nationwide 25%
Taipei 42%

Source: Sandra Postel and Amy Vickers, "Boosting Water Productivity"

(Chapter 3), State of the World 2004 (W.W. Norton, New York, 2004).
 The High Cost of High Water Use:
Conservation vs. New Infrastructure

Demand-side (conservation/efficiency)
• $0-$1.0 million/mgd
Supply-side (new source development)
• Surface/Ground, $1-3 million/mgd
• Reuse, $1-5 million/mgd
• Desalination, $3-10+
– Plus: O&M, solid and chemical wastes,
adverse marine environment impacts
Photo: Canyon Ferry, OR, usbr.gov
Economics of Water & Energy Efficiency:
CII Facility Perspective
• Water and wastewater costs
– 10% to 15% of O&M at most CII facilities
– Not always recorded as line item O&M expense
– Self-supplied large facilities may not meter
• Energy costs
– Often significantly higher than water and sewer
– Usually purchased, real cost is known
• Chemical and labor costs
– Need end use disaggregation
• Answers: Walk-through audit, data analysis
 Water & Sewer Rate Sampler
Combined Water &
City Sewer Cost,
1000/gals

Memphis, TN $2.43
Chicago, IL $2.81
Savannah, GA $3.34
El Paso, TX $3.56
Biloxi, MS $3.98
Portland, ME $11.67
San Francisco, CA $12.76
Boston, MA $12.96
Atlanta, GA $13.28
Seattle, WA $14.28

Source: NUS Consulting Group, 2008.

 Electricity Rate Sampler

Source: Average Retail Price of Electricity to Ultimate Customers by End-Use Sector, by State (Sept. 2008).
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table5_6_a.html
 Innovations in Water Savings: 2009

• Technology boom, but not all proven

• Pricing, rebates
• Standards
– EPA WaterSense
– USGBC, LEED
– Trade and NGO water efficiency standard-
setting
– Alliance for Water Efficiency (AWE)
• Federal, state and local regulatory
 Common Definitions
• Water Efficiency
– Minimization of water used to accomplish a task
• Water Conservation
– Elimination or minimization of water loss, waste or use
• Alternative Water Sources (AWS_)
– Rainwater, stormwater, condensate, cooling blowdown
• Graywater (domestic/residential)
– On-site treated or untreated domestic effluent
(excluding toilet and some other wastewater) for
nonpotable reuse (toilet flushing, landscape irrigation)
• Water Reuse (commercial/industrial/instiutional)
– On-site wastewater that is captured and reused
• Reclaimed Water (also “recycled” and “reuse”)
– Municipal treated wastewater effluent (nonpotable)
 Typical Water End Uses at CII Sites

Plumbing Cooling
Fixtures
Heating

Maintenance, Lawn &

other Landscape
Process
Laundry Leaks
Kitchen

Source: Amy Vickers, “Handbook of Water Use and Conservation” (WaterPlow Press)
Alternative Water Sources (AWS),
Graywater, Recycled and
Reclaimed Water
Quality of AWS, Graywater, Recycled and
Reclaimed Water Varies, Determines Use
• Rainwater, Stormwater, and Graywater (domestic)
– Toilet and urinal flushing, garden and landscape irrigation,
vehicle washing, ornamental fountains and ponds
• Recycled Water in Industry
– Product cooling, rinsing and washing
– End-use and -product specific
• Treated Graywater and Reclaimed water (industrial)
– Cooling and heating systems, construction sites, dust
suppression, landscape irrigation, some agricultural irrigation
• Important note: State and local public health, plumbing
and other regulations vary–consult authorities before
using nonpotable sources.
 Reclaimed Water
• Quality of municipal
reclaimed water and
wastewater determine
reuse applications
– TSS, TDS, ammonia,
bacteria, nutrients, etc.
• Municipal reclaimed water
– San Antonio River Walk
– Residential irrigation
– Golf and playing field turf
Photo: Amy Vickers (San Antonio River Walk, TX)
– Cooling
– ‘Toilet to tap’ blending with
potable
 Cooling Towers: Wastewater Reuse
Photo: Amy Vickers
• Municipal reclaimed water
– Cool dozens of U.S. power plants
• Condensate reuse for makeup
• Increase cycles of
concentration
– Filters and treatment controls
– Ozone
• Drift reduction, improved
controls
• So. Nevada Water Authority
– $8 per kgal saved annually
– rebates up to 50% cost
– Average 45% water savings
 Condensate Recovery & Reuse
• Mechanical conditioning equipment generate steady, large
volumes of condensate as warm humid air cools
– AC, dehumidifers, refrigeration units
• Condensate yield: So. TX climate example
– 0.1 to 0.3 gal/ton-hour operation of cooling equipment
– 1 ton-hour = cooling from a 1-ton AC/hour
– Higher ambient humidity = higher condensate recovery
• Treated cooling tower and boiler make-up, RO feed
– Reduced chemical, membrane maintenance costs
– Caution: landscape irrigation?
• Nonpotable water applications
– Contains dissolved contaminants, bacteria
– Processes involving biological treatment
• Biocides needed, e.g., chlorine feed, ozone, UV
 AC Condensate, Stormwater and Rainwater
Reuse: Wal-Mart, McKinney, TX
• Condensate from AC and refrigeration
• Stormwater from 2-acre parking lot
• Bioswales first filter condensate and
stormwater, then store in on-site
treatment pond (right)
• Rooftop rainwater harvested directly
into pond
• Pervious parking lot pavement
• Native grass, drought-tolerant
plantings
– Self-seeding wildflowers irrigation-and
fertilizer-free
• Drip irrigation
Source: Wal-Mart (2005), http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=646&contId=5636
And http://www.distributedenergy.com/november-december-2005/wal-mart--green.aspx
 Leakage
• Dripping faucet
– 1.0 to 25 gal/hour . . .
– . . . 8760 to 219,000 gal/year
• Toilets/urinals
– Broken flush valve
– > 40 gal/hour
• Steam traps
– 1000s gal/day
Source: Opflow (AWWA).
http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/01news/2008/wate
rpapertext/textpaperii.htm
– Property damage
• Closed buildings
– Shut-off water supply
• Water distribution, service lines
 Kirtland AFB (NM)
108-mile Water Distribution Leak Detection Survey

• 31 leaks identified
• 179 million gal/year water
savings
– 16% of total usage (2006)
• $328,000/year water cost
savings (if purchased)
• $250,000/year sewer cost
savings
Source: rssWeather.com. • $593K project and repair cost
http://www.rssweather.com/climate/New%20Mexico/Albu
querque/ – $695/mile
– $91/FT burst pipe
• 2-year payback
 Kirtland AFB
Leak Detection Tools

1. Leak noise data

logging devices
were attached to
water lines (every
0.25 mi) to pick up
leak signals
Source: http://halmapr.com/news/hwm/
• Leak monitoring
(wired and wireless)
2. Portable listening
devices were used
to actively survey
water lines
– Pinpoint actual leaks

Source: http://www.subsurfaceleak.com/ld12_prod_pg.html
 Radford Army Ammunition Plant (VA)
Secretary of the Army Energy and Water Management
Award Winner (2008)

• 16% steam leakage repaired along

57-mile distribution system
– Infrared aerial imaging identified hot spots
– GPS, computerized maintenance mgmt
system (CMMS) will hasten future repairs
• Savings
– $1.2 million electricity (3,638 MBTU)
– 202,489 MBTU (coal, electric, distillate
Photo: AITSCAN,
http://www.aitscan.com/steamleakfindir.php
fuel)
– 700 tons coal fly ash disposal
– 229 tons SO2, 89 tons NO2, 5 tons
particulates
– 28 million gallons of water
 Plumbing Fixtures
• Toilets
• Urinals
• Showerheads
• Faucets
New York City 2008 Green Bldg. Competition
• Battery Park City Conservancy Maint. Facility
(LEED Platinum’08)
– Treated blackwater will wash vehicles
– Treated graywater for toilet flushing
• Projected saving 97kgal/year (47%)
• The Visionaire, 250-res units (LEED Platinum’08)
– Green roof =70% stormwater savings
• West Harlem Educational Action, Inc.
– Treated graywater for landscapes, toilet flushing
• The Bowery Hotel
– Rainwater harvesting, treated stormwater
– 100m tons CO2 savings/year (112 cars)
 Plumbing Fixtures
• Toilets: Beyond the HET 1.28 gal/flush
– Federal: ≤1.6 gpf
– EPA WaterSense label: ≤ 1.28 gpf
– Dual-flush 0.9 gpf/1.6 gpf, 0.6/1.28 gpf
– Sink Basin/Toilet Tank Combination Unit
– 1.0 gpf = “bottom line” min. water required for a full flush
• Urinals
– Federal: ≤1.0 gpf
– EPA WaterSense label: ≤ 0.5 gpf
– One-pint (0.125 gal)
– Water-free; Cartridge and barrier media replacement
– NEW: Microbial sanitizer block makes urinals flush-free
• Flush valves removed
 Incinerating Toilets: Untapped Potential
• No water!
• Sterile ash
• High nutrient destruction
• Energy and venting costs
– Solar panel option
– Short vent distances (residential)
• Significant other benefits
– Reduced waterway pollution loads
– PPCPs solution?
• Needed: Comparison study to
water-based fixtures
Source: http://www.inspect-ny.com/septic/altincinerate.htm
– Water quality benefits
– Public works, treatment plant sizing
 Plumbing Fixtures
• Faucets
– Max. 0.5 gpm public/non-residential lavatories
• Max. 0.25 gpm metering faucets
– Max. 2.2 gpm (60 psi) residential/hotel/hospital rooms
– EPA WaterSense label: min 0.8 gpm to max. 1.5 gpm
(home bathroom sink or aerator)
– Energy-free sensor controlled high-efficiency faucets
– Undersink vandal-resistant flow controls (schools)
• Showerheads
– Federal: ≤ 2.50 gpm (80 psi)
– For sale: 1.5 gpm to 2.0 gpm
– EPA WaterSense label: under development
• Green Plumbers
– Training programs for pro-water conservation plumbers
 Commercial Kitchens
• Ice machines
• Food steamers
• Pre-rinse spray valves
• Dishwashing
 Commercial Ice Machines
• 15 to 50+ gallons of water make 100 lbs of ice
– The clearer the ice, the more water used
• Cubes, clear-hard no mineral residue (drinks)
• Nuggets (soft drink machines, hotels)
• Flakes, cloudy-soft (salad bars, display)
• Old: Water-cooled compressors
– Older units used 160-180 gals/100 lb for cooling alone
– Once-through cooling discharges warm water
– Chilled water loop recirculated back to system
– Wastewater can also be recirculated to a cooling tower
loop or condensate collection system for reuse
Commercial Ice Machines
• Air-cooled compressors
– 70% of air-cooled
machines use ≤ 20
gal/100 lb ice (ARI)
• Cost and product type
considerations
– Ice type, condensate
reuse options
– CEE Tier 3 model
standards = most water-
and energy-efficient
 Ice Machine
Life-Cycle Cost
Calculator:
Water-cooled
vs. Air-Cooled,
600 lbs/day

*Source: Food Technology Service Center, http://www.fishnick.com/saveenergy/tools/calculators/icemachinecalc.php

 Commercial Food Steamers
• Boiler-based steamers: separate boiler
or steam generators use water to create
steam – later rejected as condensate
– Avg. 407 gal/day, 41 gal/hour
– 89 kWh/day
• Connectionless steamers: small
reservoir of heated water in bottom of
cooking compartment. No water rejected
to a drain.
– Avg. 14 gal/day, 2 gal/hour
– 17 kWh/day
• Savings: 90+% water, 80% energy
Source: http://www.comparesteamers.com/
• Tip: Also use insulated hot food holding
cabinets
 MWD Rebate Program:
“Save an average of
81,500 gal/year”

Note: Some manufactures

market "boilerless" or
"connectionless" without regard
to the water efficiency of the
equipment. Hence, not all food
steamers labeled as
"connectionless" or "boilerless"
are water-efficient. Check
listings and ratings: Food
Service Technology Center
(fishnick.com) and Consortium
for Energy Efficiency )
cee1.org)

Source: Metropolitan Water District of So. Calif. http://www.mwdsaveabuck.com/devices_01.php?id_dvce=1

 Pre-Rinse Spray Valves (PRSV)
Savings: 1.6 gpm vs. 3.0 gpm

Source: Food Service Technology Center, http://www.fishnick.com/saveenergy/tools/watercost/

Newer PRSV use ≤ 1.5 gpm, retail $45-$75. Plus . . .

 NEW: Waterless PRSV
• Pre-cleaning station use vacuum
tube to suck waste off plates and
cookware, including FOG
• Compostable food bucket,
biodegradable liner
• Biodegradable degreaser
• 230-volt vacuum pump, 4.5 amps
• Saves
– Water
– Energy
– Grease buildup in drains, sewer lines,
septic
Source: Eco-Vac EV-200 Commercial Work Station,
http://eco-vac.com/
• Cost (appx.): $25,000
 Commercial (Rack) Dishwashers
• ~65% of kitchen water demand
• #1 water savings: full loads only!
• Conveyor washers < 1.0 gal/rack
– Conventional use 4 to 20 gal/rack
– 25+% water savings
• Rinse volume water savings =
Photo:
most energy savings
http://www.worlddishwashers.com/pimages/5263_oim
g_GC01059577_CA01187336.jpg
• Stationary (counter) dishwashers
water and energy savings
– Insulation, efficient rinse nozzles,
sensors for movement, dirt, and
heat boosting
Source: Alliance for Water Efficiency, www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org
ENERGY STAR Commercial Dishwasher
Energy & Water Performance Requirements

Source: ENERGY STAR, http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=comm_dishwashers.pr_crit_comm_dishwashers

 Commercial
Clothes Washing & Laundries
 Clothes Washers - Single Units
• High-efficiency clothes washers (HEW)
– Modified water factor range ≤4.5 to 7.5
• Water savings ≤ 75% vs. conventional
• Best: ~ 13 gal/load vs. 35-45 gal/load
– Modified energy factor range ≤ 1.80 to 2.2
• Energy savings ≤ 85% vs. conventional
• Best: ~ 180 kWh/yr vs. 930 conventional
– Cost bite: $1200 vs. $600
• 3 to 6 year payback (consumers)
• New: 1-cup wash, Univ. of Leeds (UK)
Source: Daily Mail (UK),
– 2% water demand vs. conventional
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/arti
cle-1025043/Spin-dry-The-washing- – Plastic chips absorb and remove dirt, stains
machine-needs-just-cup-water.html
• Good for 100 washes
– 2009 possible market entry
 Commercial Clothes Washers -
Reuse and Recycle Systems
Partial Reuse
• Final rinse water reused next wash cycle, 30% savings
• Holding tank, treated effluent
• Reuse wash water for rinse cycle, 10%-90% savings
– Requires nanofiltration or RO, membranes; expensive
– Discharges some TSS, TDS,BOD, other
Ozone Technology
• Ozone disinfection, 10%-25% water savings
– 40%-60% energy savings; light soil only, handling issues
“Total” Reuse
• “Complete capture” vendor claims 80% water, energy
savings (So. FL), 1.1 year payback ($310k system cost)
• Illawarra Linen Service (Sydney Water, AU), reclaimed
 Laundries: Water Efficiency Benchmarks
• Washer extractors, 35-800 lb
capacity
– 2 to 4 gal/lb
– 30% water savings reusing final rinse
water, reduced rinse cycles
– Logic control systems
– Speed adjustments save energy
• Tunnel (continuous batch)
washers, 1000+ lb
– 1.1 to 1.8 gal/lb
Source: American Laundry News,
http://www.americanlaundrynews.com/article.cf
– 60% to 70% water and steam savings
m?articleId=17886 with counter current washing (rinse
back to wash cycle)
• Hot water waste heat exchangers
– ≤ 60% energy recovery
• Paybacks: 1-5 years
Landscape, Turf & Irrigation
Photo: Amy Vickers (Maui High Performance Computing Center, HI, 2008)
 CONCEPTUAL VIEW
LAWN AND LANDSCAPE WATER USE
12

10

0
Worst/Extreme Average Xeriscape/ WaterSense/ Best/Rainfall
Top Users Irrigator BMPs LEED Only
Benchmark
Source: Amy Vickers & Associates, Inc.
Source: Arbor Day Foundation, http://www.arborday.org/media/map_change.cfm
 –Amy Vickers, Journal AWWA, Feb07

1. Limit the number of watering days per week–or month.

• Maximum 1-day/week or 2-days/week, automatic systems
2. Reduce area allowed for irrigation.
3. Upgrade landscape water conservation standards (eg,
Xeriscape)
4. Stop the escalating lawn chemical-watering cycle.
5. Promote natural lawns and landscapes: Irrigate by
rainwater only–and only when it rains.
Playing Field & Turf
• Read meters!
• Leak repair
• Sprinkler heads,
distribution uniformity,
pressure corrections
• Reprogram irrigation
controller, WBIC
• Rain shut-off
• Hose shut-off nozzle
• Native plants, grass
• Pool, water features
• Water savings: 10%-25%
Photos: Amy Vickers (Univ. of Connecticut, 2007)
 “Smart” ET/Weather Controllers (WBIC),
Soil Moisture Sensors, Rain Shut-offs
• “How much water are we really
going to save by putting a
‘smart’ controller on a dumb
irrigation system?” –
irrigation industry executive
• “Smart” weather controllers
– Some increase water use!
• Soil moisture sensor
– Best for moist soil conditions
– Installation matters; trained
professionals
• Rain shut-off performance
problems
Univ. Florida/IFAS Plant Science Research Units, Citra and Gainesville, FL (Photos by Amy Vickers)
 Natural, Irrigation-free lLandscapes
• Prairie Crossing, IL.
• 400 single family home
subdivision
– Only 2 homes irrigate
– Lawn chemicals discouraged
• 30-acres common area turf
irrigated 3x/year
• Organic farm, drip
• Community pond, swimming
and recreation
• Emphasis on community, home
environment

Photos: Amy Vickers (Prairie Crossing, IL, 2007)

Rainwater Harvesting (RWH): Always ‘Green”?
• Remember: Nature wastes
nothing
– Rainfall replenishes aquifers,
lakes, and rivers that provide
essential return flows, wildlife
habitat, fisheries. Not “free”!
• Don’t use RWH to create what
nature never intended Photo: Rainwater Harvesting Digest, http://www.rwh.in/

– Wetlands, mosquito ranches

– Plastic loads (endocrine
disruptors)
• Note: Some states’ water laws
restrict or prohibit RWH
• Use rainwater wisely: only
where water is truly needed
Photo: Edwards Aquifer Authority, San Antonio, TX.
http://www.lid-stormwater.net/images/cistern4.jpg
 The Rise of Urban & Suburban Farming
• Urban farms: micro-irrigation,
careful cultivation
• Shanghai: 60% fruits, veggies
• Havana: 50%-80% vegetables,
largely organic
Farmers at the Organiponico de Alamar, a neighborhood
agriculture project in Havana, weed the beds.
– “The Power of Community:
(Photo by John Morgan). http://globalpublicmedia.com/articles/657
How Cuba Survived Peak
Oil” (Sundance Film Award)
• “For Sale: Condo w/Chicken
Coop” (WSJ.com, may07)
– Organic farm part of Prairie
Crossing subdivision,
Grayslake, IL
Prairie Crossing organic farm store, Grayslake, IL.
(Photo: Amy Vickers, Oct07).
SUVS and green lawns
… forever?
 References & Resources
• Alliance for Water Efficiency, http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/
• American Refrigeration Institute (ARI), Air-
Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute,
http://ari.org/

• Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), http://www.cee1.org/

• East Bay Municipal Utility District, “Watersmart
Guidebook 2008: A Water-Use Efficiency Plan
Review Guide for New Businesses.”
http://ebmud.com/conserving_&_recycling/non_residential/WaterSmart%20Guidebook/

• EPA WaterSense Program,

– http://www.epa.gov/watersense/index.htm

• Food Technology Service Center,

http://www.fishnick.com/saveenergy/tools/calculators/icemachinecalc.php
 References & Resources
• Kirtland AFB. Richardson, Clifford. Chugach
Management Services, JV. Clifford.Richardson.ctr@kirtland.af.mil

• Seneviratne, M. “A Practical Approach for

Commercial and Industrial Facilities” (Elsevier:
Butterworth–Heinemann, 2007).
• U.S. Army, Fort Carson (CO). Clark, Scott.
scott.b.clark@us.army.mil

• U.S. Army, 30th Annual Secretary of the Army Energy and

Water Management Awards, Radford Army Ammunition
Plant, http://army-energy.hqda.pentagon.mil/docs/30th_sa_award_summaries.pdf
• Vickers, Amy. “Handbook of Water Use and
Conservation” (WaterPlow Press), http://www.waterplowpress.com/
 Amy Vickers
Amy Vickers & Associates, Inc.
441 West Street, Ste G
Amherst, MA 01002

Tel. 413/253-1520
ava-inc@amyvickers.com

www.waterplowpress.com