Small and micro-hydro
developments in Southern Africa
by Wim Jonker Klunne, CSIR
Approximately 10% of the global hydropower potential is located on the African continent, with the majority of that in Sub-Saharan Africa.
However, only a low 4 to 7% of this potential has been developed [1, 2]. Generally, hydropower potential figures stated refer to large scale
hydropower only. For the African continent no proper statistics are available on the potential for small and micro scale hydropower. Common
understanding is that the rate of development of small and micro hydro is even lower than for large scale hydropower.
Small hydropower can play a pivotal role in
providing energy access to remote areas
in Africa, either in stand-alone isolated
mini grids or as distributed generation
in national grids. The potential role of
small hydropower in eradicating energy
poverty has been recognised by a number
of national governments and bi- and
multilateral donors. Examples are the
new draft energy strategy for the World
Bank, which does specifically highlight
small scale hydropower as an important
component of future World Bank activities
in Africa [3], Belgian support for small
hydro development in Mozambique [4]
and EU support for a regional microhydro
project in Mozambique, Zimbabwe and
Malawi [5].
The large knowledge base on technical
aspects of microhydro in general does
suggest a proper understanding of the
technology. However, the relatively small
number of small and micro hydropower
projects implemented in the region does
not reflect the enormous potential for the
technology, suggesting that other barriers
than the technology itself still persist.
Although small hydropower projects have
been implemented in several countries
on the continent, information on the
current state of affairs is scattered and
incomplete. To a (ver y) limited extend
information is available on technical
details of implemented projects, however,
information on implementation models
followed and their successfulness is
not available in most cases [6,7].
Basic technical information on existing
hydrostations might be available, but is
definitely not complete nor consistent over
the different information sources. This lack
Fig. 1: Farm near Sabie.
of information does severely hamper the
possibility to learn from past experiences
and is a barrier to large uptake of small
and micro level hydro on the continent [8].
Defining small and micro hydropower
At this stage no internationally agreed
definitions of the different hydro sizes exist.
A generic distinction though is between
“large” hydro and “small” hydro. The most
generally accepted definition of “small”
has been set by the World Commission on
Dams, which set the upper limit for small
hydro at 10 MW of installed capacity,
although large countries as China and
India tend to put the limit higher at
50 MW and 25 MW respectively. Recently
some international donors seem to use
a maximum capacity of 15 MW when
referring to small hydro.
Within the range of small hydro, distinction
can be made between mini hydro
(often limited to an installed capacity of
maximum 1 MW), micro hydro (below 300
or 100 kW depending on the definition)
and pico hydro (below 20, 10 or 5 kW),
each with its own specific technical
characteristics. Micro and pico hydro
installations are mostly found in developing
countries for energy provision to isolated
communities where the national electricity
grid is not available, whereas mini hydro
tends to be grid connected. Micro and
pico hydro can also differ from mini hydro
due to the extended possibility of using
local materials and labour in the case of
first two, while mini hydro typically involves
more traditional engineering approaches
and will usually need for example heavy
access roads for delivery of materials and
electro-mechanical equipment.
Fig. 2: Friedenheim powerhouse.
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Small and micro hydropower in southern
Africa
Small hydropower is a proven, mature
technology with a long track record,
including in Africa. The gold mines at
Pilgrims' Rest (South Africa), for example,
were powered by two 6 kW hydro turbines
as early as 1892, complemented by a
45 kW turbine in 1894 to power the first
electrical railway [9]. In several southern
African countries church missions did
build small hydropower installations, like in
Tanzania where church missions installed
more than 16 small hydropower systems
during the 1960s and 70s that are still
operating [10]. Another example is large
scale commercial farmers in the Eastern
Highlands of Zimbabwe that installed hydro
stations as early as the 1930s [11].
Many countries in Africa do have a rich
histor y of small scale hydropower, but
over time large numbers of these stations
have fallen in disrepair. Some because
the national grid reached their location,
some because a lack of maintenance or
even pure neglect. Recently initiatives have
seen the light in a number of countries
in Africa to revive the small hydro sector,
either through international development
agencies or through private sector led
initiatives. Particular in Central Africa
(Rwanda), East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania
and Uganda) as well as Southern Africa
(Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe) new
initiatives are focusing on implementing
small hydropower projects, while in South
Africa the first new small hydro station in
20 years was opened in 2009, with more
under development.
Barriers
Most of the challenges facing small
hydropower exploitation are not specific
to hydropower but generic for all types of
renewable energy and rural electrification
projects. General barriers for renewable
energy projects are the absence of
clear policies on renewable energy,
limited available budget to create an
enabling environment for mobilising
resources and encouraging private sector
investment, and the absence of long-
term implementation models that ensure
delivery of renewable energy to customers
at affordable prices while ensuring that the
industry remains sustainable.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Fig. 3: Friedenheim trash screen.
Looking specifically at small hydropower
development, the following barriers can
be identified:
Po l i c y a n d r e g u l a t o r y f r a m e w o r k :
Unclear or non existence of policies and
regulations that govern the development
of (small) hydropower. In some countries
hydropower developments under a
certain threshold are not regulated at all,
while in other countries it might be part
of a broader regulator y framework for
rural electrification in general. Generic
frameworks often lack clarity on a number
of hydropower specific issues like access
to water and water infrastructure and the
associated payments.
Financing: Hydropower developments
are faced, even more than other sources
of renewable energy, with high up-front
costs and low O&M costs, something
most available financing models do not
favour. Nearly all of the new developments
on the continent are relying in one
form or the other on donor financing.
Development of alternative financing
models, including tapping into alternative
funding sources, is needed to facilitate
small hydro developments.
Capacity to plan, build and operate
hydropower plants: National and regional
knowledge and awareness on the potential
of small hydro in rural electrification is
missing or ver y minimal. This includes
knowledge at political, government and
regulatory entities, as well as knowledge on
local production of parts and components.
Data on hydro resources: Linked to the
limited knowledge about the technology
is the lack of proper resource data on
water availability and flow on which hydro
developments can be based.
Current experience and the way forward
From the analysis of a number of the
current initiatives it has been very clear
that microhydro developments need to
be embedded in a national program
for capacity building and industrial
development to foster a new industry to
emerge. Particular attention needs to
be given to governance issues related
to hydro stations as experience from the
Fig. 4: Friedenheim water inlet.
described projects suggests that linkages
with ongoing economic activities will
ensure proper management of the system.
Very clearly the inclusion of entrepreneurs/
private sector developers could benefit
the sustainability of the systems, although
this does in most case also come with
requirements from the financiers of these
private developers which have shown in
the case of Rwanda a tendency to favour
developments that feed in to the national
grid as this ensure a steady income stream
for the enterprise. Several African countries
have establish renewable energy feed-
in tariffs that support the establishment
of small scale hydropower linked to the
electricity grid. For remote locations
without access to the national grid rural
electrification agencies and/or funds,
like in Tanzania, do provide the needed
legislative and financial incentives for the
uptake of remote hydropower.
To enhance the uptake of microhydro
technology local stakeholders (private
sector, financial sector, government
entities, etc) need to be made aware of
the opportunities for the technology and
coordinated efforts need to be initiated to
get this technology thriving again.
Situation in South Africa
In the “Baseline study on Hydropower in
South Africa”, which was developed as part
of the Danish support to the South African
Department of Minerals and Energy, Barta
[12] investigates the installed capacities
of hydropower in South Africa and the
potential for new developments. He
concludes that twice the installed capacity
of the present installed hydropower
capacity below 10 MW can be developed
in the rural areas of the Eastern Cape, Free
State, KwaZulu Natal and Mpumalanga. In
a later publication Barta [13] does include
new insights in the potential of small
hydropower in South Africa by including the
hydro potential of water transfer systems
and gravity fed water system and mentions
a total potential of 247 MW of which 38 MW
has been developed.
Currently approximately 40 MW of small
scale hydropower is in operation in
South Africa [14], while a number of
plants are currently in advance stages
of development. Examples of the plants
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Fig. 5: Svinurayi pelton runner.
in operation are the Friedenheim hydro
station (2 MW) in Nelspruit that supplies
electricity to the local municipality under
a PPA, the Lydenburg hydro plant (2,6 MW),
which is owned by the Thaba Chweu Local
Municipality and operated on their behalf
by a private operator and the recently
commissioned Bethlehem hydro station.
In the micro range a substantial number
of systems is in operation in the KwaZulu
Natal and Eastern Cape region, primarily
supplying individual farmers.
Next to the operational plants, South Africa
has a few existing small scale installations
that are currently not in operation but
could be refurbished to working order, like
Belvedere (2,2 MW), Hartbeespoort (37 kW)
and others [13].
Government support for renewable energy
is governed through the 2003 Renewable
Energy White paper, which sets a target
of by 10 000 GWh of renewable energy
to be achieved by 2013 [15]. No specific
targets were set in this White Paper for the
different renewable energy technologies
and very little has been done to ensure
the countr y will reach this target. An
update process for the White Paper was
started in 2009 with support of the REMT
programme, but has not resulted in an
updated White Paper and/or target. In
2010 the Department of Energy presented
the Integrated Resource Plan (IRP2010),
outlining the electricity generation mix for
the period up to 2030. According to the
policy adjusted development plan that
was approved by cabinet, the countr y
will see 17,8 GW of renewable energy as
part of the energy mix in 2030. The main
source of hydropower in the IRP2010 will
come from imported electricity (approx.
5,2 GW by 2030), while local, small scale
hydropower shares an allocation of
125 MW with landfill gas based electricity
[16].
In March 2009 the energy regulator (NERSA)
announced Renewable Energy Feed-In
 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Fig. 6: Tungu-Kabiri opening spillway. Fig. 7: Mantsonyane in Lesotho. Fig. 8: Svinurayi turbine.

Tariffs (REFIT) for a selected number of Water Affairs and National Treasury intent African region do see different levels of
renewable energy technologies. Small to address the small scale hydro sector small hydropower development, with
scale hydropower (between 1 and 10 MW) outside the current bidding process. particular Zimbabwe and Mozambique
qualified for a REFIT of ZAR 0m94/kWh [17]. National Treasury is currently in the process showing promising developments. An
However, unclarity around the legal status of appointing the transaction advisers overview of the full region can be found
of the REFIT and who would be the buyer for this particular task and once this is in [23].
of the electricity produced prevented completed the Department of Energy is Zimbabwe has currently a number of small
PPAs from being signed for this tariff. The expected to provide guidance on the 21 hydro plants under development, with
REFIT review in 2011 did see adjustments small dams that were identified within the the 5 MW Great Zimbabwe project the
in the REFITs based on adjusted figures National Water Resources Infrastructure for most advanced, while in Mozambique
for inflation, costs of capital and other potential hydro development. government agency Fundo National
assumptions. The REFIT for small hydro de Energia (FUNAE) is in the process of
power was revised downwards with more Situation in neighbouring countries
testing different funding models for small
than 28% to ZAR 0,671/kWh [18]. The neighbouring countries in the southern hydropower.
During the same time as the REFIT review,
the South African government announced
its intention to start a competitive bidding
process for renewably generated
NEW MULTIFUNCTION
electricity. Initially it was understood that
the bidding process would focus on non- TRANSDUCERS
price criteria as local content, project
readiness, job creation potential etc., with
the price set according to the REFIT rates. TRANSDUCERS WITH DISPLAY
However, when the Request for Proposals
was issued in August 2011, it became clear
that the bids would be evaluated on a two-
stage procurement evaluation process
that includes qualifying criteria based on
economic development requirements, as
well as price. This effectively side tracked
the REFIT process [19].

In the Renewable Energy Independent FEATURES:

Power Producer Procurement Programme
• Bright digital display • True RMS measurement
a total of 3725 MW is to be procured by
• Simple easy to use Interface • Seven Segment LCD Display
Government, with an allocation of 75 MW
• Quick On-Site Programming with Back Light
for small hydropower [20]. • Single or Dual outputs can be ordered
• Easy Installation
The bidding process will see a number • Convetional Screw on terminals • Accuracy Class 0.2 & Class 0.5
of bidding rounds, of which the first two • Space saving Design • RS485 Communication
have been concluded. The first round • Versatile and Multifunctional • Versatile Aux 40..300VACDC
• Free PC Software for programming • Din Rail Mounting
did not see any hydro project, while in
the second round the Stortemelk plant
(4.3 MW) and Neusberg plant (10 MW)
have been awarded the preferred bidder • Voltage Transducer RISH CON- V
status. These two plants are expected to • Current Transducer RISH CON- I
generate a total of 7 permanent jobs for • Frequency Transducer RISH CON - Hz
O&M and 261 jobs during the construction • Power Transducer RISH CON -P
phase. Expected costs per MW installed is (On Site Programmable as Active/ Ractive/ Apparent Power Transducer
approximately R45-million [21]. Sizes : 42mm - 78mm - 122mm widths
Unfortunately the recently announced
small scale projects bidding window, which TIMECOUNT (PTY)
TY) LT
LTD
TD
focuses on installations between 1 and 132 10th Road, Kew, Jhb Visit us Online: www.timecount.co.za
5 MW, did not include small hydropower Tel: 011 882 3105
[22]. It appears that the Department of Email: sales@timecount.co.za
Energy together with the Department of

energize - July 2012 - Page 77

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Fig. 9: Tungu-Kabiri turbine.
Conclusion
The small hydro sector in the southern
African region is currently going through
a phase of revival due to the looming
energy generation crisis and the world wide
attention for renewable energy generation.
Although only a small number of plants
have been commissioned in the (recent)
past, it looks like a momentum is being
created that can see larger uptake of the
technology in the (near) future.
Case studies
Case 1: Tungu-Kabiri, Kenya
In 1998 Practical Action, in collaboration
with the Kenyan Ministr y of Energy and
with funding from the GEF Small Grants
Programme at the UNDP, undertook a
pilot project to illustrate the potential for
decentralised microhydro schemes for
rural, off grid electrification, with the Tungu-
Kabiri community 185 km north of Nairobi
as a pilot project.
The microhydro system is fed of the local
river from which water is diverted by a small
weir. Via a canal and a penstock the water
is delivered to an 18 kW turbine. The cost
of the system was $3495 / kW installed,
The micro hydropower plant is owned
and managed by the community, and
this complete community ownership has
been central to the project's success. The
day-to-day operations of the plant are
managed by a 10-member community
power committee, and this committee
also conducts consultations with the
wider community about how the power
generated from the system should be
used. The electricity is currently used for
microenterprises, such as a welding unit,
a battery-charging station and a beauty
salon [24].
Case 2: Svunaryi cooperative, Zimbabwe
Svinurayi co-operative is an agricultural
co-operative near Cashel valley in the
Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe. A hydro
installation was established in the 1930s,
consisting of a 10 kVA pelton generator by
Gilkes coupled to a generator and maize
hammer mill.
Fig. 10: Tungu-Kabiri turbine and generator.
Bad maintenance after independence
led to the detoriation of the plant. In the
mid 1990s the plant was rehabilitated
with assistance of ITDG and new penstock
installed.
On the pictures the pelton turbine at the
powerhouse and the pelton wheel itself
[11].
Case 3: Friedenheim, South Africa
The Friedenheim hydro plant on the
Krokodil River in Nelspruit (South Africa) is an
example of a hydro plant that feeds into
the national electricity grid. Friedenheim
hydro is privately owned and operated as
a commercially profitable and sustainable
business venture. It is owned by the
members of Friedenheim Irrigation Board
and operated by MBB, an engineering
firm. The plant is equipped with two
1 MW Francis turbines and provides power
for water pumping to FIB, but 93% of the
power generated is sold to the Nelspruit
local authority through a PPA that sets
the tariff at 12% below the price at which
Nelspruit buys power from Eskom (its bulk
electricity provider).
Case 4: Mantsonyane hydro, Lesotho
Mantsonyane Hydropower Plant was
financed by a grant from Norway and
is located on the Mantsonyane River in
central Lesotho. The station can operate
on isolated network in case this is required,
but the main operational strategy has
been daily peak lopping. The station is
equipped with two Francis turbines of
1500 kW and 500 kW, coupled to a
1900 KVA and a 650 KVA generator
respectively. The power station was flooded
with water in the beginning of November
2006 and out of operation since then. The
floods lasted throughout the three day
period 3rd to 5th November, 2006 and saw
the power fully inundated [25].
Currently LEC is in the process of
rehabilitating the power station as part of
energize - July 2012 - Page 78
the African Development Bank's “Lesotho
Electricity Supply Project”. A tender process
in this respect has been started in the
second half of 2011 [26].
References
[1] ESHA, IT Power, Small hydropower for
developing countries, (2006).
[2] Min Conf Water for Agriculture and Energy in
Africa, Hydropower resource assessment of
Africa, (2008).
[3] World Bank, Energy Strategy Approach Paper,
(2010).
[4] BTC, Mozambique-Belgium Partnership,
(2010).
[5] L Mika, Village hydro in Malawi, Mozambique
and Zimbabwe, (2009).
[6] M Pigaht, RJ van der Plas. ‘Innovative private
micro-hydro power development in Rwanda',
Energy Policy. 37 (2009) 4753-4760.
[7] EG Michael, “Institutional Design and Practices
for Sustainable Decentralised Energy Systems
Development for Rural Electrification. The
Case of Isolated Mini-Hydro Power Systems
Developed by Catholic Church Mission,
Njombe Diocese, Tanzania”, (2008) 122.
[8] M Gaul, F Kölling, M Schröder, “Policy and
regulatory framework conditions for small
hydro power in Sub-Saharan Africa”, (2010).
[9] Eskom, “Eskom heritage: Electricity in South
Africa - the early years,” 2012 (2009).
[10] F Mtalo, “Small scale hydropower for rural
development”, (2005).
[11] W Klunne, “ Hydro-power end-uses at
Svinurayi co-operative (Cashel Valley, Eastern
Highlands, Zimbabwe)”, (1993).
[12] B Barta, “Capacity building in energy
efficiency and renewable energy. Baseline
study - hydropower in South Africa”, (2002)
86.
[13] B Barta, “Renewable energy: hydropower”,
in: Kiderlen E, Bredenkamp B, Smith L (Eds.),
The Sustainable Energy Resource Handbook.
South Africa Volume 2. The Essential Guide,
Alive2green, Cape Town, 2011, pp. 139-139-
151.
[14] P Kotze, “The potential of small hydropower
plants in South Africa”, WaterWheel. 10 (2011)
18-19, 20.
[15] DME, White Paper on Renewable Energy,
(2003).
[16] Department of Energy, Integrated Resource
Plan for electricity 2010-2030, Revision 2, Final
Report, IRP2010 (2011).
[17] NERSA, NERSA decision on renewable energy
feed-in tariff (REFIT), (2009).
[18] NERSA, NERSA Consultation Paper- Review of
Renewable Energy Feed - In Tariffs, (2011).
[19] T Creamer, Nersa set to concur with DoE on
renewables bid process, but raises questions,
Engineering News. (2011).
[20] Department of Energy, IPP Website, 2012
(2011).
[21] DoE, Announcement of Preferred Bidders of
the IPP Procurement Programme - Window 2,
2012 (2012).
[22] DoE, IPP Small Projects, 2012 (2012).
[23] W Jonker Klunne, Current status and future
developments of small and micro hydro in
southern Africa, (2012).
[24] E Ebrahimian, “Community Action to Address
Climate Change: Case Studies Linking
Sustainable Energy Use with Improved
Livelihoods”, E.04.III.B.3 (2003).
[25] S Grongstad,”Mantsony'ane hydropower plant
after flooding November 2006 - draft report
- diagnostic study”, (2008).
[26] AfDB, Specific Procurement Notice Lesotho
Electricity Supply Project, (2011).
Contact Wim Jonker Klunne, CSIR,
Tel 012 841-3993,
wklunne@csir.co.za 