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RECENT CHALLENGES FROM ANTI-SUFI TENDENCIES IN TURKEY

Ali Çaksu

Turkey has a rich and strong Sufi tradition with its roots in and connections with lands
ranging from Central Asia, South Asia as well as Andalusia. Jalaladdin Rumi (d. 1273)
and his Mevlevism are the first ones that come to mind all over the world. In that respect,
central Anatolian city Konya is seen as a mecca for Sufis as well as those who are curious
about Sufism, including many non-Muslims too. Though less known globally, another
Sufi figure is Yunus Emre (1238-1320) who advocates in his poems a simple and sincere
but deep understanding of Islam and its values. Likewise, The Makalat of Haji Bektash
Wali (1209-12071) still informs and inspires people about Sufism. In addition to these
Sufis who lived in Anatolia, there were others who have made their impact on Muslims in
Turkey. Ahmed Yesevi (d. 1166) from Turkistan, Kazakhstan exerted a powerful
influence on the development of Sufi orders throughout the Turkic-speaking world,
including Turkey. Similarly, for instance, Ahmad al-Faruqi al-Sirhindi (1564-1624) from
India who is known in Turkey as Imam Rabbani has still have a great influence on many
Sufis. Finally, another influential Sufi figure is Ibn Arabi (1165-1240) from Andalusia.
Needless to say there are some other Sufis from various parts of the Muslim world like
Ebu’l Hasan Nuruddin al-Shazali (d. 1258) (born in Ceuta in northwest Africa), whose
orders still exist in Turkey.

The rich Sufi tradition in Turkey witnessed a suddenly disruption in the early 20th century
with the promulgation, in 30 November 1925, of a new law closing down tekkes, zaviyes
and tombs of saints and abolishing and prohibiting previously respected titles such as
sheikh, dervish, murid, dede, and seyyid. The pretext for the new law in a country who
started a radical modernization and Westernization was the corruption of those institutes
and the Sufis who lived on people’s donations without working and exploited them.
These institutes were seen as incompatible with modern life. Further, now people were to
follow the secular leaders who were keen to guide them and the country to modernity, not
those “corrupt” and “backward” Sufis who abused and undermined the religion. This
official anti-Sufi atmosphere continued for several decades, although some people
continued to follow Sufi orders, sometimes secretly. Towards the end of the 20th century,
official attitudes towards Sufism began to change and especially after the 1980s some
versions of Sufism was even promoted and encouraged by the state. The major one was
Mevlevism, because its alleged founder Rumi was seen as a humanist who transcended
narrow understanding of Islam and even appealed to many non-Muslims. Though he was
born in Balkh, Afghanistan and wrote mostly in Persian, Rumi was a “local” figure and
represented the “bright face” of “Turkish” Sufism. The main reason for the promotion of
Mevlevism was its alleged humanism as well as its tolerance towards followers of every
faith. Another Sufi, namely Yunus Emre too was promoted officially, as his simple yet
deep poetry expressed well the Sufi understanding of the world and Ilsam in the 13th
century in Anatolia.

So last few decades have seen a re-flourishing of Sufism and Sufi culture in Turkey. Now
many orders function openly, carry out activities and gain followers from various walks
of the society. Some even receive international followers. The official attitude sees those
orders as “civil society” organizations as long as they do not clash politically with the
system. From the perspective of politicians, Sufi orders are seen as an impediment
against radical Islam as well as a good source of votes during elections.

However, in spite of increasing public visibility and role of the Sufi orders in Turkey, one
recently observes a rather different development, namely, what I call, the coming of a
strong wave of anti-Sufi developments in that country. Here one should note that these
new anti-Sufi tendencies I will dwell on do not stem from currents like radical Salafism
or Wahhabism, but are based on a critical approach to traditional culture including some
hadiths and Sufism. The advocates of this new tendency focus on the Qur’an and reason
(aql) and reject hadiths and historical narratives that contradicts them. They are also
careful even about the Quranic exegesis (tafsir) which might contain Israiliyyat (“of the
Israelites”), that is the body of narratives originating from Jewish and Christian traditions.
I can name a few as examples who have a wide following among the people: Caner
Taslaman who is specialized in theology and philosophy of science; Mehmet Okuyan and
Mustafa Islamoglu who are specialized in tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis).

In fact, this current anti-Sufi attitude is reminiscent of some Salafi reactions to Sufism,
although its proponents have nothing to do with Salafis. One should note that there was
no inherent opposition between Salafism and Sufism, although many think that they are
antithetical or diametrically opposed. For instance, Sirry (2011:76) questions the notion
that the Salafiyya movement was inherently anti-Sufi. Again, according to Ansari
(1985:1), for Ibn Taymiyya who is thought to be deadly against the Sufis, “[t]he right
attitude towards sufism, or any other thing, is to accept what is in agreement with the
Qur'an and the Sunnah, and reject what is not.”. Likewise, Scharbrodt (2007) questions
Abduh’s alleged radical anti-Sufism. Similarly Anjum (2010:185) maintains that
“…without identifying themselves as Sufis, Ibn Qayyim al-Gawziyyah and Ibn
Taymiyyah endorsed Sufism devoid of mysticism, and wished to recover the earliest
tradition of Sufism when mystical knowledge had not challenged the primacy of
scriptural knowledge.”

Questioning Some Central Sufi Concepts and Practices

Critiques state that Sufi culture and literature contains a plethora of superstitions
including practices such as worshipping in tombs of saints which is like ancestor-worship
in some pagan religions. For them, this clearly amounts to shirk, meaning ascribing
partners to Allah which is considered the greatest sin.

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Proponents of anti-Sufism question several foundations of the Sufi traditions: for
example, they state that some central concepts like Qutb and Gavs are not based on the
Qur’an, nor the hadith, but that they are later innovations which bring in sort of clergy
(ruhbaniyya) which was strictly prohibited in Islam. In this context, they mention a sort
of sacralization of Sufi leaders and their infallibility, just like the case with “infallible
imams” in some Shiite sects. This attitude towards Sufi sheikhs were common in various
approaches like one’s making his sheikh his qibla (Camber 1992) and Fana fil sheikh
(annihilation in the sheikh) (Hoffman 1999). Modern-day critiques of Sufism in Turkey
draw support from respected historical figures and scholars like Ibn Khaldun, Maudidi
and Iqbal who held similar views.

Ibn Khaldun’s reservations for Sufism are well-known. He rejects the Mahdi belief,
existence of qutb (a personification of universal minds) and an ascetic life. According to
Ceyhan (2008:512), “under the pretext of curbing such subversive ideas, Ibn Khaldun
delivers a fatwa as a Maliki jurist and politician and proposes, for the sake of common
benefit, the burning of books compiled by leading muhaqqiqs, lead [sic] by Ibn al-Arabi,
more over including Ibn al-Sab'in, Ibn al-Barrajan and Ibn al-Qasi.” Ceyhan (2008:513)
suggests that Ibn Khaldun offers “as panacea the embracement of the pre-Ghazzali
conception of tasawwuf.”

Likewise, Syed Abul A’la Maudidi (1903-1979) who had a great impact on Islamists in
Turkey, especially in the 1970s and 1980s was rather critical: “Unlike many 'ulama,
Maududi was vehemently opposed to the idea of pirs and the shrines, rejected the
traditional Sufi-disciple relationship, and denied the Sufi distinction between exoteric and
esoteric understanding, thus denying any difference between Sufism and shari'at (Islamic
law)” (Ewing 1983: 254).

Similarly, Iqbal too who was appreciated by the educated and intellectual Muslims in
Turkey, was critical of the Sufi elite: “Thus Muslim democracy was gradually displaced
and enslaved by a sort of Spiritual Aristocracy pretending to claim knowledge and power
not open to the average Muslim” (1964:81). In his opinion, this claim of limited access to
secret doctrine was the source of both the status of the pir and the servitude of the people
(1964:82).

Questioning Sufi Hierarchy and Corruption

Further, existence of a hierarchy in Sufi orders often commands absolute obedience to

Sufi leaders and prevents any sort of questioning of them, let alone criticizing, which
inevitably often results in corruption. The practical reflection of such corruption is like
gathering of wealth, establishing family dynasties, sexual abuses, including some sheiks
establishing harems. Today, many tariqas have lucrative businesses, holdings and TV
stations and sometimes tariqa connections are used for sustaining and promoting the
businesses. For this purpose, one often needs political connections and assistance.
Politicians and bureaucrats “help” the tariqa businesses in return for support during
elections. The tariqa hierarchy with the sheiks at top enables millions of followers vote
for a single party or candidate once a deal is struck between the two. Through such a

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deal, often large tariqas (those with many followers) get a few of their members
appointed as ministers in the cabinet or bureaucrats at key positions. A tariqa which has
its members in government and bureaucracy naturally gets immense support of for its
businesses, schools, TV stations and activities. To give another example for tariqa
corruption, often sons of the leaders automatically become the leaders of the tariqas. If
there is no son, then a son-in-law gets it. Thus, tariqas function like dynasties and family
businesses. Tariqas do not have a legal status in Turkey and therefore are free from
transparency and accountability, which explains the reason for high level of corruption
observed among them. Some of these tariqas are open to corruption and manipulation by
international powers as well. To give a recent striking example, although it is not a tariqa
in the traditional sense, the Gulen Movement functioned like one. In 15 July 2016 some
members of the Turkish army who were the followers of Gulen attempted a military coup
in order to topple President Erdogan and the democratically elected government. Note
that their leader (a former preacher) has been living in the USA for more than a decade
and has been used by the CIA.

In addition, some tariqas are often not inclusive and spread hatred and animosity, while
some even charge others with unbelief, because they see their own leaders and tariqas as
the only way to salvation and paradise. Further, while many classic Sufis tried to earn
hearts and minds, some today just try to control, dominate and manipulate hearts and
minds of the people. They undermine individual rights and freedoms and threaten social
security. Moreover, the last but not the least, most current tariqahs are based on gender
discrimination.

Another criticism is related to Sufis’ overemphasis on heart and spirituality at the

expense of reason and knowledge. This is seen by many as the neglect, denigration or
even cancellation of reason and sciences and sometimes even exaltation of superstitions.
Sufis often emphasize and prioritize kashf, ilham and mukashafa rather than ilm
(knowledge) aql (reason) and hikma (wisdom) which are cherished in the Qur’an. In
Turkey today, alleged dreams of Sufi leaders carry much more significance for their
followers than their knowledge and wisdom; many times leaders “justify” their decisions
and practices through dreams they claim to see while asleep. Ignorant followers consider
them like divine revelation (wahy). Of course, this naturally tarnishes Sufi sheikhs’
images in the eyes of the critics who might view them as charlatans rather than sages.
Here one should note that critics are well aware of the limitations of the human reason
and relevant problems as well as Sufis’ intellectual critique of the reason and they have
no problem with the latter. What they criticize is the denigration and cancellation of
reason and knowledge by many Sufis and their following superstitions, dreams and
dubious narratives from the past. Critics know well that one can be a Sufi and a scientist
at the same time, like we saw in the Ottoman era a mathematician who was a Sufi at the
same time.

Questioning “New Age Sufism”

Obviously Sufism has a universal appeal and it is very interesting to see establishment of
Sufi circles in rather unexpected places like among some Jews in Israel (Bram 2014). For

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instance one comes across with an Israeli version of the Abrahamic Way (tariqa
Ibrahimiyya):
Although, as in Syria, this way aims at enhancing an interfaith dialogue, in Israel
it was founded by a Jewish group, including a conservative rabbi, and academic
scholars, who relate themselves to the Jewish Sufi tradition inaugurated by Rabbi
Abraham son of Maimonides in the thirteenth century. The members used to meet
to read Sufi texts and perform the dhikr under the guidance of Muslim Sufi
shaykhs. These activities were interrupted following the break of the last intifada
in 2000, but recently they have been renewed.) (Weismann 2004: 317).

Needless to say, Sufism has influenced in the past and today various thinkers and writers
from east and west. There are scholars and authors who have benefited from Sufism and
created their works. For instance, Doris Lessing British novelist, poet and playwright
who was said to be a student of Sufism for more than ten years (Hardin 1973:565) was
deeply influenced by it (Hardin 1977). Likewise, some pointed out Sufi influences even
in the writings of Orhan Pamuk (Kim 1993, Pederson 2013) who had an elite and rather
secular background. Again, one sees Bill Viola (b. 1951), an American video artist,
referring to Ibn Arabi as one of his favorite thinkers. Also the “names of the great Sufis –
Ibn 'Arabi, Rumi, Shabistara, Al Ghazali – recur repeatedly in his writings.” (Elmarsafy
2008:133).

Critics do not attack various understandings and uses of Sufism by individual authors or
artists, unless they deliberately distort Sufi works for commercial or political purposes.
They criticize the promotion of certain versions of Sufism versus traditional (“orthodox”)
Islam by secular systems and cultures, including Hollywood. An alleged dichotomy
between “orthodox Islam” versus “(the good) Sufis” dominates the Western media and
political discourse. The latter often promotes certain Sufi traditions as they see,
understand and explain them. Thus, Sufism is often de-islamized. For example, in the
West, Rumi is usually called an enlightened man, a mystic, a saint and a Sufi, but rarely a
Muslim, although he was a scholar of the Qur’an and Islam. Although Rumi’s Mesnevi is
often referred to as “the Qur'an in Persian tongue” as it allegedly expresses in Persian the
essence of the mystical teachings of the Qur’an, his references in Mesnevi to the Qur’an,
hadiths and Islamic culture are often omitted (Ali 2017).

Further, Sufi works are popularized, often regardless of the original (Thornton 2015).
They are sometimes misrepresented too (Ghilan 2014). As we know Hollywood has
promoted for a long time spirituality and Buddhism. Recently, Rumi and Mevlevism too
are becoming popular there and I have spotted at least two Rumi films: “Rumi: Poet of
the Heart” (1998) and Shams & Rumi: The Fragrance of Axis Mundi (2006).1 Also, it
seems that another film on Rumi is coming soon (Shaheen 2016). We are not sure what
kind of a Rumi we will encounter in this film, but the film’s prospective main actor has
already caused some controversy (Denham 2016).

A further criticism directed towards “New Age” Sufism is that Sufism is widely used and
abused by some spiritualist orders and cults. For example, Frithjof Schuon's Maryamiyya
1
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0194322/ and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0808467/?ref_=tt_rec_tt

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order included Christians and Buddhists among its members, and some of its rituals
manifested an extreme syncretism, deviating from basic Islamic teachings. Schuon kept a
picture of the Virgin Mary in his room, claiming that she had been revealed to him in a
dream. (Hatina 2007:408-9). He also had some un-orthodox practices like nudity (Küçük
2008:299).

Besides, some orders/cults identify Sufism with universal wisdom rather than with Islam,
although they use the name Sufism and some of its basic terminology. For example,
according to the cult Sufism Reoriented: “It is sometimes said that sufism is an offshoot
of Islam. But sufism is no more a property of Islam than it is of any spiritual stream on
Earth.”2

Conclusion

To conclude, I observe that in a country with a long and deep Sufi culture like Turkey,
many educated Muslims have recently started to question and criticize various essential
characteristics and practices of Sufism. This search has a great impact on people and
especially the youth. Influenced by modern ideas of freedom and individualism as well,
educated Muslims easily question the traditional religious and spiritual authorities. In
doing so, their purpose is not to modernize or (sort of) secularize Islamic culture, but
rather to “cleanse” it from those anti-Islamic traits that culture has acquired or
accumulated with the passage of time. As I asserted previously, this attempt is done by
Muslims, many of whom follow Sunni understanding and practice of Islam. The
challenges directed towards traditional Sufism are mostly clear, well-grounded and to the
point.

I suggest that if traditional Sufism does not or cannot see this challenge, take it seriously,
answer the criticisms properly and when needed, revise itself accordingly, it will receive
a heavy blow and be undermined seriously. If it does these, it will continue to attract
followers in an age when global capitalism dominates our lives and many people are in
dire need of guidance and spirituality.

What if traditional Sufism does not revise itself accrodingly? In my opinion, perhaps a
new sort of Sufism that will be more individualistic and rather self-critical will develop
gradually. This new Sufism will not accept the traditional versions of Sufism organized
under the unquestioned and often-sacralized leadership of a person with alleged spiritual
qualities. It might form some sort of “anarchist” Sufi orders without any spiritual
hierarchies where equality and individual autonomy will have more merit. Some of these
new Sufis will base their Sufism more in Hanafi-Maturidi tradition and reason rather than
Ibn Arabi’s gnosis.

It seems my observations and conjecture for the future of Sufism in Turkey are shared by

2 http://www.sufismreoriented.org/about.html

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a scholar:
The Muslim community, including its Sufi members, have decided that the
Sufism of today will be decidedly modern in its outlook, shorn in large part of the
hierarchical rigidity and spectacular thaumaturgy by which it was known in the
past, while still, however, preserving its spiritual view of the world… Moreover,
true to its own tradition (and in response to the fundamentalist challenge), modern
Sufism maintains its affection for Islamic law. The two have always gone
together.” (Heck 2006:280)

REFERENCES

Ali, Rozina (2017) “The Erasure of Islam from the Poetry of Rumi”. The New Yorker, 5
January. http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-erasure-of-islam-from-the-
poetry-of-rumi

Anjum, Ovamir (2010) “Sufism without Mysticism? Ibn Qayyim al-Ǧawziyyah’s

Objectives in "MADĀRIǦAL-SĀLIKĪN”.Oriente Moderno 90 (1), A Scholar in the
Shadow: Essays in the Legal and Theological Thought of Ibn Qayyim al- Ǧawziyyah.
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Ansari, M. Abdul Haq (1985) “Ibn Taymiyyah and Sufism”. Islamic Studies 24 (1). pp.
1-12.

Bram, Chen (2014) “Spirituality under the Shadow of the Conflict: Sufi Circles in Israel”.
Israel Studies Review 29 (2). Special Issue: New Age Culture in Israel. pp. 118-139.

Ceyhan, Semih (2008) “Ibn Khaldun's Perception of Sufis and Sufism: The Discipline of
“Tasawwuf” in “Umran””. Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (3/4), Special Focus:
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Denham, Jess (2016) “Thousands sign whitewashing petition begging producers not to
cast Leonardo DiCaprio as Persian poet Rumi”, Independent. 29 June.
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Ewing, Katherine (1983) “The Politics of Sufism: Redefining the Saints of Pakistan”. The
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Ghilan, Mohamed (2014), “What was Rumi talking about?”,

https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/04/what-was-rumi-talking-about-
201441816134209701.html

Hardin, Nancy Shields (1973) “Doris Lessing and the Sufi Way”. Contemporary
Literature 14 (4). Special Number on Doris Lessing. pp. 565-581.

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Hardin, Nancy Shields (1977) “The Sufi Teaching Story and Doris Lessing”. Twentieth
Century Literature 23 ( 3). pp. 314-326.

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Iqbal, Muhammad (1964) “Islam and Mysticism”. In Thoughts and Reflections of Iqbal,
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Kim, Sooyong (1993) “Master and Disciple: Sufi Mysticism as an Interpretive

Framework for Orhan Pamuk's "Kara Kitap"”. Turkish Studies Association Bulletin 17
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Küçük, Hülya (2008) “A Brief History of Western Sufism”. Asian Journal of Social
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Pederson, Joshua (2013) “The Writer as Dervish: Sufism and Poetry in Orhan Pamuk’s
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Qamber, Akhtar (1992) “The Sufi Pir-o-murshid (“Make thy Sheikh thy Qiblah”)”. India
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Scharbrodt, Oliver (2007) “The Salafiyya and Sufism: Muḥammad 'Abduh and His
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Oriental and African Studies 70 (1). pp. 89-115.

Shaheen, Kareem (2016) “Rumi film will challenge Muslim stereotypes, says Gladiator
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https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/06/jalaluddin-al-rumi-film-muslim-
stereotypes-gladiator-david-franzoni

Sirry, Mun'im (2011) “Jamāl al-Dīn al-Qāsimī and the Salafi Approach to Sufism”. Die
Welt des Islams 51 (1). pp. 75-108.

Thornton Kat (2015) “Coleman Barks and the Problems of Popular Translations”,
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Weismann, Itzchak (2004) “Sufi Brotherhoods in Syria and Israel: A Contemporary

Overview”. History of Religions 43 (4). pp. 303-318.

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