Representation of Musical Subcultures in the Classroom: A Study on the Complexity

of Musical Subcultures as Evidenced in Appalachia

Andrew Foote

James Madison University

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ABSTRACT: In an attempt to avoid cultural appropriation and insensitivity,

music teachers are sometimes concerned with teaching music beyond their own

experience and personal musical cultures, even if the student population does not share

this specific background. By examining the Old-Time musical subculture in Appalachia,

this paper serves to provide an initial look at the complexities of subcultures in music, as

well as examining issues regarding representation of musical cultures in classrooms.

This connects with research regarding Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, and calls into

question practices regarding curricular planning and development, geographic

representation, and teacher authenticity.

Since its inception, the United States has consisted of a diverse population with

many distinct cultures represented throughout the country. Common themes and core

subjects were established as educational systems improved, allowing cross-over

between educational systems. Yet this universality came at an expense in many areas,

especially the arts, where local traditions and cultural identity were lost to common

curricula and standardization. Today, many music classes across the country look

virtually identical, despite inherent regional differences and cultures. How is cultural

identity represented in public school music in the United States with a specific focus

on Appalachia, and what non-academic musical opportunities are available for

learners in these regions?

Appalachia is a place bountiful with many musical cultures, including

bluegrass, Old-Time, early country, and folk, commonly grouped under the label of

‘traditional’ or ‘acoustic string based music’ (McGee, 2000, 7). Each of these

subcultures are complex, and we can examine Mountain-Music as an example.

Mountain-Music is widespread and diverse, with practitioners located from Georgia to

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New York and as far west as Illinois. Common elements in Mountain-Music include:

(1) a prevalence of acoustic string instruments (guitar, clawhammer style banjo,

mountain dulcimer, mandolin, bass); (2) an emphasis on vocal harmonies; (3)

traditional Anglo- and Scotch-Irish ballads and hymns. Although there is much

overlap between these various genres, each is distinct and has its own unique

characteristics. For example, while Old-Time banjo players practice the frail or

clawhammer style, Bluegrass consists primarily of fingerstyle playing, popularized by

Earl Scruggs in the mid 20th century. One commonality between several of these

genres can be found in repertoire, specifically “crooked tunes.” These are songs,

commonly fiddle tunes, which “in some way deny temporal regularity,” that is to say,

resists a single time signature throughout, usually through occasional variations from

the perceived pulse (Rockwell, 54, 2011). This is a feature common to music in these

subcultures, but may not be found in the ‘academic music’ commonly used in

classrooms. Albeit small, this variation creates a disconnect between the region’s

musical heritage and the school curriculum.

In places where these subcultures are prevalent, expression in these local

styles often remains on hold until adulthood. In the Shenandoah Valley, many

musicians seek additional, extracurricular outlets for this musical expression.

Opportunities for “Culturally relevant and responsible practices” are found in “many

community music activities [in the Valley].” These opportunities are found in a variety

of settings, including “faith communities, organized community ensembles, and

informal music making contexts,” and can serve as a model for the future development

of culturally responsive musical opportunities (Dabback and Waldron, 214, 2010).

One obstacle to implementation of culturally relevant music in the classroom

can be the differences in musical taste. Surveys conducted by Griffin in the late 20th
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century indicated that the biggest differences in musical taste were based on racial

lines, as opposed to geographic. According to Griffin, “there is little evidence in any of

these surveys to suggest either the existence of distinct regional tastes in music or

that southern music unites the races in the region,” (Griffin, 107, 2006). This data

defines regions as North or South, using the Mason-Dixon line as a divider. However,

under a closer lens we see that musicians of certain genres and styles tend to come

from similar geographic locations. “The production of bluegrass performers will

continue to remain high in the aforementioned four state region of Appalachia [VA, TN,

KY, NC],” especially when considering that bluegrass has its origins in “the early

hillbilly string bands which were developed in the area,” (Carney, 35, 1974). By

considering the origins of this particular subculture, we can see that a majority of

performers come from the same regions, reinforcing the idea that curricula in the area

should reflect local and community cultures. Choosing to teach music that is relevant

to the population is crucial to success in the classroom, and as enrollment numbers

dwindle in public school music (according to Allsup, 2016), we as teachers have an

obligation to adapt our curricula to better suit our students.

The music of Appalachia has retained a strong presence commercially, despite

its decline in many public schools. The Crooked Road (TCR), Virginia’s Music Heritage

Trail, is a collection of venues and significant sites in the development of country, folk,

bluegrass, and mountain music. This network of interconnected locations is genuine

to its origin, and retains the local geographic integrity. “Lacking the standardized

homogeneity and commercial influence of a modern interstate, the geographical

idiosyncrasies of the local roads comprising [TCR] can represent distinct points of

cultural pride for local residents and authentic sites of discovery for tourists,”

(Rockwell, 55, 2011). TCR represents a balance between cultural preservation and
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commercialization. TCR has found a way to combine the unique identities and

commonalities amongst the music of Southern Virginians with an experience that is

profitable and relatable by visitors to the region.

Beyond Appalachia, many unique regional cultures appear in everyday life,

through language, cuisine, and music. Despite this, little research has been done on

school curricula regarding cultural makeup. While many studies have been conducted

regarding music and space, music that does not fall into the “American” subgenre is

frequently neglected. “The geographic knowledge of ethnic music is practically nil

despite the fact that anthropologists, folklorists, and ethnomusicologists have for

years studied variations in both rural and urban contexts,” (Carney, 5, 1998). This

lack of information regarding ‘ethnic music’ is problematic, especially in an age where

more and more American classrooms have strong immigrant presence.

Knowledge of the students and their cultural background is crucial to

responsible teaching. The Grayson County High School band in Grayson, VA, differs

from many programs throughout the country today, in that the music teacher has

chosen to depart from the ‘standard’ high-school band establishment. Instead, the

Albert Hash Memorial Band Program consists of two guitars, two banjos, one bass,

and two fiddles, (one of which is the teacher, Mr. Bond). Mr. Bond runs a group that is

relevant to the students in his area, which exemplifies culturally responsive teaching

in this setting. Choosing to trade bassoons for banjos, Mr. Bond maintains a program

that connects directly with a dominant musical culture in his region, which is just one

method of adjusting to the needs of the learners. Another example can be found in

Brooklyn, NY, at Williamsburg Charter High School. The music teacher at WCHS

polled the students to determine what they wanted out of a music class, and the group

decided on establishing a student run recording studio named after their school
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mascot. Wolverine Studios can now be found on Bandcamp.com, and provides a

meaningful platform through which students can express their musical creativity.

The solutions to these problems may not be achievable in class alone. In fact,

since the advent of the internet, music learning has changed drastically for many

populations. A budding banjo player in years past would have sought out a master to

begin her instruction with much of her knowledge acquisition being dependent on the

teacher. With online forums like BanjoHangout among many others, a potential

student can connect with an enormous community of learners and teachers, providing

much more independence than traditional models. This increase in agency changes

the learning process, and allows a geographically isolated learner to connect with

fellow beginners and learned masters across the world. Looking at Old Time music as

an example, we see how learning and practice vary from Western Art-Music, in that “

[Old Time] is learned primarily through aural/oral transmission, and, when written

notation is used, it serves as a guide or a ‘blueprint’,” (Waldron, 99, 2009). Thus, the

learning process for this music differs from the music and musical practices in which

many music teachers are trained today. By acknowledging the differences in musical

subcultures, and challenging our own comfortability, we can create a truly authentic

experience, (Dabback and Waldron, 2012)

One concern for teachers when teaching music beyond their own musical

subculture is the authenticity of their material. As noted by Titon, there have been

historically two definitions of authenticity. “ In one, the authentic is the original, not

the copy,” and any reproduction of the original “carries a negative value: false, rather

than true,” like forgery over originality. Teachers who do not include a multiplicity of

cultures relevant to their students often cite this definition as their justification, ‘It

wouldn’t be authentic if I taught it, since I am not from there.’ However, Carney offers
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up an alternative definition. Authenticity does not have to be in reference to the work,

but instead it can “relate to people, not things. It means being true to oneself,” which

can be accomplished while operating beyond one’s musical comfort zone. By trying to

connect with students and meet them in their musical culture and background, we

can retain the authenticity of ourselves, and still therefore show the proper respect to

the culture we are working to represent (Titon, 2012).

This field opens up many more opportunities for further inquiry, particularly in

its connection to the movement for Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. We earlier

addressed the concerns on authenticity, yet teachers still struggle with relevance. How

can teachers better include culturally relevant resources in their classrooms? How

does a classroom with culturally relevant content look? As diversification of schools

continues, teachers need to adapt their curriculum accordingly. How can teachers

decide what is or is not relevant, and how can they scaffold that for their students who

come from a variety of backgrounds? Even larger than these specific questions, we

need to challenge the current situation in curriculum development. What factors

determine curricular content? What are the motivations for these decisions? By asking

these questions, working with our students, and striving to understand their cultural

background, we can continue to evolve this profession, creating an awareness of

student-centered curriculum development in order to open our classrooms to all

students.