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Andrew Foote
music teachers are sometimes concerned with teaching music beyond their own
experience and personal musical cultures, even if the student population does not share
this paper serves to provide an initial look at the complexities of subcultures in music, as
This connects with research regarding Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, and calls into
Since its inception, the United States has consisted of a diverse population with
many distinct cultures represented throughout the country. Common themes and core
between educational systems. Yet this universality came at an expense in many areas,
especially the arts, where local traditions and cultural identity were lost to common
curricula and standardization. Today, many music classes across the country look
virtually identical, despite inherent regional differences and cultures. How is cultural
identity represented in public school music in the United States with a specific focus
bluegrass, Old-Time, early country, and folk, commonly grouped under the label of
‘traditional’ or ‘acoustic string based music’ (McGee, 2000, 7). Each of these
New York and as far west as Illinois. Common elements in Mountain-Music include:
traditional Anglo- and Scotch-Irish ballads and hymns. Although there is much
overlap between these various genres, each is distinct and has its own unique
characteristics. For example, while Old-Time banjo players practice the frail or
Earl Scruggs in the mid 20th century. One commonality between several of these
genres can be found in repertoire, specifically “crooked tunes.” These are songs,
commonly fiddle tunes, which “in some way deny temporal regularity,” that is to say,
resists a single time signature throughout, usually through occasional variations from
the perceived pulse (Rockwell, 54, 2011). This is a feature common to music in these
subcultures, but may not be found in the ‘academic music’ commonly used in
classrooms. Albeit small, this variation creates a disconnect between the region’s
styles often remains on hold until adulthood. In the Shenandoah Valley, many
Opportunities for “Culturally relevant and responsible practices” are found in “many
community music activities [in the Valley].” These opportunities are found in a variety
informal music making contexts,” and can serve as a model for the future development
can be the differences in musical taste. Surveys conducted by Griffin in the late 20th
REPRESENTATION OF MUSICAL SUBCULTURES IN THE CLASSROOM
century indicated that the biggest differences in musical taste were based on racial
these surveys to suggest either the existence of distinct regional tastes in music or
that southern music unites the races in the region,” (Griffin, 107, 2006). This data
defines regions as North or South, using the Mason-Dixon line as a divider. However,
under a closer lens we see that musicians of certain genres and styles tend to come
continue to remain high in the aforementioned four state region of Appalachia [VA, TN,
KY, NC],” especially when considering that bluegrass has its origins in “the early
hillbilly string bands which were developed in the area,” (Carney, 35, 1974). By
considering the origins of this particular subculture, we can see that a majority of
performers come from the same regions, reinforcing the idea that curricula in the area
should reflect local and community cultures. Choosing to teach music that is relevant
its decline in many public schools. The Crooked Road (TCR), Virginia’s Music Heritage
Trail, is a collection of venues and significant sites in the development of country, folk,
to its origin, and retains the local geographic integrity. “Lacking the standardized
idiosyncrasies of the local roads comprising [TCR] can represent distinct points of
cultural pride for local residents and authentic sites of discovery for tourists,”
(Rockwell, 55, 2011). TCR represents a balance between cultural preservation and
REPRESENTATION OF MUSICAL SUBCULTURES IN THE CLASSROOM
commercialization. TCR has found a way to combine the unique identities and
through language, cuisine, and music. Despite this, little research has been done on
school curricula regarding cultural makeup. While many studies have been conducted
regarding music and space, music that does not fall into the “American” subgenre is
despite the fact that anthropologists, folklorists, and ethnomusicologists have for
years studied variations in both rural and urban contexts,” (Carney, 5, 1998). This
responsible teaching. The Grayson County High School band in Grayson, VA, differs
from many programs throughout the country today, in that the music teacher has
chosen to depart from the ‘standard’ high-school band establishment. Instead, the
Albert Hash Memorial Band Program consists of two guitars, two banjos, one bass,
and two fiddles, (one of which is the teacher, Mr. Bond). Mr. Bond runs a group that is
relevant to the students in his area, which exemplifies culturally responsive teaching
in this setting. Choosing to trade bassoons for banjos, Mr. Bond maintains a program
that connects directly with a dominant musical culture in his region, which is just one
method of adjusting to the needs of the learners. Another example can be found in
Brooklyn, NY, at Williamsburg Charter High School. The music teacher at WCHS
polled the students to determine what they wanted out of a music class, and the group
decided on establishing a student run recording studio named after their school
REPRESENTATION OF MUSICAL SUBCULTURES IN THE CLASSROOM
meaningful platform through which students can express their musical creativity.
The solutions to these problems may not be achievable in class alone. In fact,
since the advent of the internet, music learning has changed drastically for many
populations. A budding banjo player in years past would have sought out a master to
begin her instruction with much of her knowledge acquisition being dependent on the
teacher. With online forums like BanjoHangout among many others, a potential
student can connect with an enormous community of learners and teachers, providing
much more independence than traditional models. This increase in agency changes
the learning process, and allows a geographically isolated learner to connect with
fellow beginners and learned masters across the world. Looking at Old Time music as
an example, we see how learning and practice vary from Western Art-Music, in that “
[Old Time] is learned primarily through aural/oral transmission, and, when written
notation is used, it serves as a guide or a ‘blueprint’,” (Waldron, 99, 2009). Thus, the
learning process for this music differs from the music and musical practices in which
many music teachers are trained today. By acknowledging the differences in musical
subcultures, and challenging our own comfortability, we can create a truly authentic
One concern for teachers when teaching music beyond their own musical
subculture is the authenticity of their material. As noted by Titon, there have been
historically two definitions of authenticity. “ In one, the authentic is the original, not
the copy,” and any reproduction of the original “carries a negative value: false, rather
than true,” like forgery over originality. Teachers who do not include a multiplicity of
cultures relevant to their students often cite this definition as their justification, ‘It
wouldn’t be authentic if I taught it, since I am not from there.’ However, Carney offers
REPRESENTATION OF MUSICAL SUBCULTURES IN THE CLASSROOM
but instead it can “relate to people, not things. It means being true to oneself,” which
can be accomplished while operating beyond one’s musical comfort zone. By trying to
connect with students and meet them in their musical culture and background, we
can retain the authenticity of ourselves, and still therefore show the proper respect to
This field opens up many more opportunities for further inquiry, particularly in
addressed the concerns on authenticity, yet teachers still struggle with relevance. How
can teachers better include culturally relevant resources in their classrooms? How
continues, teachers need to adapt their curriculum accordingly. How can teachers
decide what is or is not relevant, and how can they scaffold that for their students who
come from a variety of backgrounds? Even larger than these specific questions, we
determine curricular content? What are the motivations for these decisions? By asking
these questions, working with our students, and striving to understand their cultural
students.