UNIT II

DC MACHINES
DEFINITIONS
TOTAL MAGNETIC LOADING
Total amount of flux available at the airgap of the armature
periphery is called Total magnetic loading
P=BavDL,Wb
Specific magnetic loading:
The total amount of flux available at the airgap of the armature
periphery per unit area is called Specific magnetic loading
Bav = P ,Wb/m2
DL
Total electric loading:
The total amount of ampere conductors available at the armature
periphery
IzZ=acD, AC
Specific Electric loading:
The total amount of ampere conductors available at the
armature periphery per unit length is called Sp.Electric
loading
ac=IzZ ,ac/m
D
Pole pitch:
The periphery distance measured between the centre of
two adjacent poles.
=D/p ,m
Where D= Dia of m/c,m
P= no of poles
Slot pitch:
The distance measured between the centre of two
consecutive slots.
Ys=Wt+Ws
Relation between average gap density and max gap
density
The flux density is calculated over one pole pitch is
called avg.gap density. It is denoted by Bav
The flux density is calculated over one pole arc is called
max.gap density. It is denoted by Bg
The relation is Bav=(0.4 to 0.8)Bg
Field form factor:
It is defined as the ratio of avg. gap density to max gap
density.
Kf=Bav/Bg
OUTPUT EQUATIONS
Pa= power developed by armature, KW
E= Emf induced in armature, V
Ia= armature current, A
= useful flux/pole,wb
Z= no of armature conductors,
n = speed in rps
N= speed in rpm
p = no of poles
A= no of parallel parts
Iz= current per armature conductors
D= dia of armature,m
L= length of armature,m
Bav= Sp.magnetic loading, Wb/m2
ac= Sp.electric loading, ac/m
Pa= EIa*10-3, KW
Pa=(*Z*n*(p/a))*Ia*10-3
=(p(Ia/a)Z)n*10-3
Where Iz=Ia/a (current per parallel path)
=p(IzZ)n*10-3
=(BavDL)*(ac D) n*10-3
=(2 Bav ac) D2L n*10-3,KW
Pa=Co D2L n ,KW
Where Co is the output coefficient of DC m/c
Co=2 Bav ac 10-3
Volume of DC machines
From the output equation the volume of the DC machine is
given by,
D2L = Pa/(Co*n) ,m3
For a given power rating, when vol of machine decreases,
both Co and n are increased
Choice of Specific Loadings
(i) Choice of specific magnetic loading
(ii) Choice of specific electric loading
Choice of specific magnetic loading
(1) Teeth Flux density
(2) Frequency
(3) Voltage
(1)Teeth Flux density
 If flux density in the air gap is high, it may lead to high flux
density in armature teeth beyond the maximum
permissible limit.
 The maximum flux density in the teeth at minimum section
should not go beyond 2.2 wb/m2
The reasons are obvious as higher flux density
(i) Causes increased iron losses
(ii) Requires higher ampere- turns for passing the flux through
teeth leading to increased field copper losses and increased
cost of copper
(2) Frequency
The frequency of flux reversal in the armature is given by
f =np/2
The higher frequency will result in increased iron losses in the armature
core and teeth. Therefore,there is a limitation in choosing higher Bav for
a machine having higher frequency.
(3) Voltage
 For high voltage machine, space required for insulation is
comparatively more.
 Thus for a given diameter less space available for iron on the
periphery leading to narrower teeth
 Therefore, lower value of Bav has to be taken. Otherwise teeth flux
density increases beyond permissible limit.
 Usually, Bav lies between 0.45 to 0.75 wb/m2
 The corresponding value of maximum flux density in the gap
 Bg varies from 0.64 to 1.1 Wb/m2.
 Maximum flux density in the air gap Bg =Bav/Kf
 Lower value of flux density for lower rating machines and higher
values of flux density, for higher rating machines is the usual choice.
Choice of specific electric loading
1) Heating or Temperature Rise
(2) Speed
(3) Voltage
(4) Size of Machine
(5) Armature Reaction
6) Commutation
(1) Heating or Temperature Rise
1. Using a high value of armature conductors (ac) creates problem
of heat dissipation
2. A high value of ac means either copper used is more i.e., having
large number of conductors. large number of coils obviously
having increased insulation thickness
3. leading to poor heat dissipation or diameter is less leading again
to poor heat dissipation because of reduced surface area. Both of
these results in high temperature rise in armature.
(2) Speed
ac=IzZ/∏D,
ac increases Dia of DC machines decreases, D↓= volume↓,
volume↓= speed↑, speed↑= cooling↑
 For a high-speed machine, ventilation is obviously better and
greater losses could be dissipated
 Thus, a higher value of 'ac' can be used for higher speed
machine.
(3) Size of Machine
 ac=IzZ/∏D, D↓= volume↓, volume↓= size↓
 When ac increases , dia of armature decreases since volume of
machine decreases, the size becomes less and it results in less
cost, so value of ac should be higher.
 In large size machine, there is more space for accommodating
copper therefore higher ac should be used.
(4) Voltage
 Machines with high voltage require large space for insulation
 Thus for a given diameter, it may not be possible to reduce the
space required for iron because of the limitation imposed by flux
density in the teeth
 Therefore, space for copper is reduced. So, lesser value of 'ac' is
used in such cases
(5)Voltage rating
ac=IzZ/∏D,
 When Iz increases, ATa↑ =ATfl↑, ATfl↑=Ф↑, when flux increases, E
increases, E↑ =V↑
 When ac increases the armature ampere turns per pole increases. To
overcome the effect of armature reaction, the field mmf has to be
increased. Since the field flux increases the induced emf becomes
more and hence the terminal voltage increases. But high voltage
requires more insulations and hence cost of insulation also
increases. So suitable value of ac should be used.
(6) Armature Reaction
 With high value of ac, armature ampere turns also increases.
Therefore armature reaction will be severe
 To counter this, field mmf is increased and so the cost of machine
goes high.
(7) Commutation
 High value of ac worsens the commutation condition in machines.
From the point of view of commutation, a small value of ac is
desirable. The value of ac usually lies between
 15,000 to 50,000 amp. conductors /m.
PROBLEMS
1. The diameter and length of a 500 KW, 500 V, 455 rpm, 6 pole, dc
generator are 84cm and 35vm respectively. If it is lap wound with
660 conductors. Estimate Sp.Magnetic loadings and Sp.Electric
loadings.
Given data:
D=84 cm,L=35cm, P=500KW, V=500V, N=455 rpm, p=6,
Gen,lap,a=p,Z=660.
To find
ac,Bav
Soln:
Full load current, IL = P/V =500*103/500
=1000A
Armature current, Ia= IL
(ie If=0)
Therefore Ia=1000,A
Current per conductors,
Iz=Ia/a
=Ia/p=1000/6
Iz=166.67 A
Sp. Electric loadings, ac=IzZ/∏D
=166.67*660/(∏*84*10-2)
ac =29,412 ac/m
Induced Emf, E=V (IaRa=0)
=500 V
Flux per pole,Ф=(E*60*a)
(Z *N*p)
Ф = (500*60*6)/(660*455*6)
Ф =0.09 Wb.
Sp. Mag loadings, Bav=pФ/(∏DL)
=(6*0.09)/(∏*0.84*0.35)
Bav= 0.58 wb/m2
Advantages of having more number of poles
Weight of armature core and yoke is reduced.
1. Cost of copper in field and armature is reduced
2. over all diameter and length of machine is reduced.
3.length of commutator is reduced
4. Distortion of field form is not excessive
Disadvantages of having more number of poles
1. frequency of flux reversal is increased and cause more iron loss
2. labor charges are increased
3. Possibility of flash over between brush arms.
Guiding factors for selecting number of poles.
 Keep frequency of flux reversals in the armature between 25 to 50
Hz. Lower value of frequency is used for large m/c
 The current per parallel path is limited to 200 A. Thus the current
per brush arm should not be more than 400 A.
 the armature mmf should not be too large. The
normal values of armature mmf per poles are listed
below
POLE PROPORTIONS:
The cross section of pole may be rectangle or square.
Length of pole, Lp= bp+2hp
Breadth of pole, bp= (0.45 to 0.55)τ
Lp=(0.45to 1.1)τ
L/τ= Ψ=0.45 to 1.1 ---- in general
Case I\
For rectangular pole face
L/τ= Ψ= 0.7 to 0.9
Case II
for square pole face
L/τ= Ψ= 0.64 to 0.72
L/τ= ratio of core length to pole pitch
Ψ= ratio of pole arc to pole pitch
NOTE:
(1) Pa=P[1+2ƞ/3ƞ] for motor P≤ 50KW
Pa=P for motor P>50 KW
Pa=P[2+ƞ/3ƞ] for generator P≤ 50KW
Pa=P/ƞ for generator P> 50KW
Pa=EgIa*10-3 KW for Generator
Pa=Pa=EbIa*10-3 KW for Motor
Eg= V+IaRa for G
Eb= V-IaRa for M
IaRa =(x)% of V
Ia= IL +If for G
Ia = IL -If for motor
If=(x)% of IL
IL = O/p in watts/V for G
IL = I/p in watts/V for M
Ia≤ 400 A, Assume lap or wave winding. But Wave wdg is
preffered.
Ia > 400 A, Assume lap winding
Effect of Series wdg is neglected.
lg= Atg/(800000KgBg)
Where, Kg= gap contraction factor
Bg= Max gap density.
PROBLEMS
1. A 5KW,250V, 4 pole, 1500rpm shunt generator is
designed to have a Square pole face with Bav of 0.42
wb/m2, ac=15000ac/m, Ψ=0.66,. Find D, L of armature if the
ηFL=87%
Given:
P=5KW,V=250 V, N=1500 rpm, p=4, Bav=0.42
wb/m2, ac=36000ac/m, Ψ=0.66, η=0.87
To find:
D and L.
Solution:
power developed by the armature
Pa=P[2+ƞ/3ƞ]
Pa=5[2+0.87/(3*0.87)]
Pa= 5.5 KW
Co=π2Bavac*10-3
= π2x0.42x15000
= 62.18
Speed n=N/60
n= 1500/60
n= 25 rps
Volume of DC M/C
D2L=Pa/Con
= 5.5/62.18*25
D2L=3.54*10-3,m3
Given Sq pole face, Ψ=L/τ
L= Ψ*(∏D/p)
L=0.66*(∏D/4)
L=0.584 D
Putting the value of L
0.5184D3 = 3.54*10-3, m3
D=0.1897,m
And L=0.5184*0.1897
L=0.0983,m

2. Determine the main dimensions, no of poles and

length of airgap of a 500v, 600KW,900rpm. Assume
Bav=0.6T, ac=35000 ac/m, the ratio of pole arc to
pole pitch is 0.75 and the efficiency is 91%.
Peripheral speed should not be greater than 40m/s,Freq of
flux reversal should not be greater than 50 Hz.Current per
brush arm should not be greater than 400A and armature
mmf per pole should not be greater than 7500 A. the mmf
required for airgap is 50 percent of armature mmf and gap
contraction factor is 1.15.
Given:
500V, 600 KW, N=900rpm, gen, Bav=0.6 T, ac=35000
ac/m,Ψ=0.7,ƞ=0.91(FL), Kg=1.15, Atg=0.5ATa\
To find
D,L,p,lg
Soln:
Speed n=N/60
=900/60=15 rps
Frequency , f= pn/2, Hz
Let p=2, f=2*15/2=15 Hz
p=4, f=4*15/2=30 Hz
p=6, f=6*15/2=45 Hz
p=8, f=8*15/2=60 Hz
choose p=4 (or) 6
Full load current, IL = P/V =(600*103/500)
IL = 1200 A
Armature current, Ia= IL ( If=0)
Ia=1200 A
Assume lap wdg, a=p,
Therefore current /brush arm,
 Ib=2*(Ia/p), should not be greater than 400 A
When p=4, Ib= 2*1200/4= 600A
When p=6, Ib=2*1200/6 =400A
Therefore p=6 is selected.
Power developed by armature, Pa= P/ƞ (P> 50KW)
=600/0.91
Pa=659 Kw
Output coefficient Co=2 Bav ac 10-3
Co=2 *0.6 *35000*10-3
Co=207.26
 Volume of DC M/C
 D2L=Pa/Con
 = 659/207.26*15
 D2L=0.212,,m3
Assume sq.pole, L/τ=Ψ
L= Ψ (∏D/p)
L=0.3665 D
Therefore
0.3665D3=0.212m3
D= 0.8852,m
L=0.3605*0.8832
L=0.3054m
Peripheral speed of armature, Va=∏Dn
Va=∏*0.8832*15
=39.26 m/s
Therefore D=0.8832,m and L= 0.3054,m is selected.
Armature mmf/pole =Ata= IzZ/(2p)
=ac∏D/(2p) should not be greater than 10,000
=35000*∏*0.8832/(2*6)
ATa= 8092 AT
Given ATg=0.5*ATa
ATg=4096 AT
Max gap density, Bg=Bav/Ψ
Bg=0.6/0.7
Bg=0.857 T
Length of airgap, lg= ATg/ 800000KgBg
lg= 4096/(800000*1.15*0.857)
lg = 5.13 mm
3). The dia and length of a 500 KW, 500V,455 rpm,6
pole, DC gen are 84cm and 35 cm respectively. If it is
lap wound with 660 conductors. Estimate the SP.
Electric and magnetic loadings.
Given:
D=84cm,L=35cm,P=500KW,V=500V, N=455 rpm,
p=6, a=p, Z=660
Required data
ac,Bav
Soln:
Full load current, IL=P/V
=500*103/500
IL=1000A
Ia=IL if (If=0)
Ia=1000 A
Current per conductors, Iz= Ia/a=Ia/p=1000/6
Iz=166.67 A
Therefore Sp.Elec loading, ac=IzZ/(∏D)
=166.67*660/(∏*84*10-2)
=29,412 ac/m
Induced emf, E=V (IaRa=0)
E=500 V
Flux/pole, Ф=(E*60*a)/(Znp)
Ф = 500*60*6
660*455*6
Ф=0.09 wb
Sp. Magnetic loading,Bav = P ,Wb/m2
Bav = P ,Wb/m2
DL
Bav= 0.58 T
5) Determine no of poles, main dimensions, pole pitch and
armature mmf/pole of a 92 KW, 220V, 1480rpm, DC motor
whose full load efficiency is 89.76%
Assume Bav= 0.545 T, ac=32,750 ac/m, Ψ=0.67,Sq.pole
Given:
P=92 KW, V=220V, N=1480 rpm, ƞ=0.8976, Bav=0.545 T,
ac=32,750ac/m,Ψ=0.67, Sq.pole
To find:
L, D, p, Ata, τ
Soln:
Speed,n=N/60=1480/60=24.67 rps
Frequency ,f=pn/2 Hz, =25 to 50 Hz
 Let p=2, F= (2*24.67)/2=24.67 Hz
P=4, F=(4*24.67)/2 =49.34 Hz
P=6, F=(6*24.67)/2= 74.01 Hz
Therefore p= 4 is selected.
Power developed by armature, Pa=P (P> 50KW)
Pa= 92 KW
Co=π2Bavac*10-3
= π2x0.545x32750
= 176.16
Volume of DC M/C
D2L=Pa/Con
= 92/176.16*24.67
D2L=0.0212m3
Given Sq pole face, Ψ=L/τ
L= Ψ*(∏D/p)
L=0.67*(∏D/4)
L=0.526D
Putting the value of L
0.526D3 = 0.0212 m3
D=0.3428,m
And L=0.526*0.3428
L=0.1803,m
Pole pitch, τ= ∏D/p
=(∏*0.3428)/4
τ= 0.2692 m
Therefore Armature mmf/pole,
ATa=(ac*τ)/2
ATa= 4408 AT
7) A design is required for a 50 KW, 4 pole, 600rpm,DC shunt Gen with full
load terminal voltage 1s 220 V. If Bav= 0.83 T, ac=30,000 ac/m, calc
suitable dimensions for armature to give a Sq.pole face. Assume Full load
armature voltage drop is 3% of rated terminal voltage and the field current is
1% of rated full load current.
AssumeΨ=0.67
Given:
P=50KW,p=4,N=600 rpm, shunt gen, V=220 V, Bg= 0.83 T,
ac=30,000 ac/m, Sq.pole, IaRa= 0.03 V, If=0.01 IL,Ψ=0.67
To find,
D,L
Soln:
IL= P/V=(50*10-3)/220
IL = 227.27A
Field current, If=0.01 IL,
If=0.01*227.27
If=2.27 A
Armature current, Ia= If +IL
Ia= 229.54 A
Armature resistance, IaRa=0.03V
IaRa= 0.03*220=6.6 V
Generated EMF, Eg=V+IaRa=226.6 V
Power developed by armature, Pa=EgIa*10-3
Pa= 226.6*229.54*10-3
Pa=52 KW
Average gap density, Bav =ΨBg
=0.67*0.83
=0.5561 T
Output Coefficient, Co=∏2 Bavac *10-3
Co=164.65
Speed= n=N/60 =10rps
Volume of DC M/C
D2L=Pa/Con
= 52/164.65*10
D2L=0.0316m3
Given Sq pole face, Ψ=L/τ
L= Ψ*(∏D/p)
L=0.67*(∏D/4),L=0.526D
0.526D3 = 0.0316 m3
D=0.3916,m
And L=0.526*0.3916
L=0.206,m
8) Determine the main dimensions of a 10 H.P ,400 V, 1500r.p.m ,
dc shunt motor, the average gap density is 0.45 tesla and ampere
conductors/meter are 20,000 . The max efficiency is 85%.
Assume shunt field current to be 0.9 Aand the diameter to length
ratio is 2.7. The pole arc to
pole pitch is 0.7
Given data:
P=10 HP, V=400V, N=1000 rpm, motor, Bav=0.45 T,
ac=20,000ac/m, max eff=0.85, If=0.9A,D/L=2.7,Ψ=0.7
To find:
D,L
Soln:
Output power, P=10 HP
=0.746*10
P=7.46 KW
Input power, Pin=P/ƞ=7.46/0.85
=8.78 KW
Full load losses= Pin-P
=8.78-7.46
=1.32 KW
Constant losses= full load losses/2
=1.32/2=0.66KW
Resistance of field wdg, Rf=V/If=400/0.9
Rf=444.44 Ω
Shunt field CU loss= If2Rf
= (0.9)2*444.44
=360W
Therefore Friction, windage and iron losses
=Const loss-If2Rf
=0.66-0.36
=0.3 KW
Power developed by armature, Pa=P+friction, windage and iron loss
=7.46+0.3=7.76 KW
Output Coefficient, Co=∏2 Bavac *10-3
Co= 88.863
Speed= n=N/60 =1000/60=16.67 rps
Volume of DC M/C
D2L=Pa/Con
= 7.76/(88.83*16.67)
D2L= 5.24 *10-3 m3
Given D/L=2.7
L=0.37D
0.37 D3 = 5.24 *10-3 m3
D=0.2419,m
And L=0.37*0.2419
L=0.0895,m
Design of Armature
Choice of armature windings
For low voltage and high current application lap windings
For HV and LC wave windings
for Lap winding a = p (a- Number of Poles)
for wave winding a=2
Lap winding:
Each parallel path develops an emf of its rated voltage
But current per parallel path decrease with increase in
number of poles
Wave winding:
Each parallel path develops an emf which is almost equal
to its rated voltage
Current per parallel path is half of its rated current
Design of Armature
No of lap winding conductors = (P/2) x No of wave winding
conductors
Cross section of lap winding
conductors = (P/2) x No of wave winding
conductors
Volume of lap winding
conductor = (P/2 x 2/P) x volume of wave
winding conductor
Hence, volume of lap winding = volume of wave winding
conductor conductor
Lap winding (Equaliser):
• Due to change in mmf of field winding there is unequal voltage
distribution in armature windings.
• Hence extra emf develops in any one of parallel paths, it results
flow of circulation current. This current gives additional copper
loss.
• equaliser is an additional conductor connected between two coils
under same polarity to equalise the voltage occurs all parallel paths.
Design of Armature
Wave winding: (Dummy coil or Idle coil)
it is not electrically connected
it is used for mechanical balance for armature
Number of armature conductors:
emf, E = PΦZn; n=N /60
a
Z=Exa
ΦnP
From special electrical loadings, ac = Iz Z
πD

Z = ac πD
Iz
From slot capacity, Zs
Z = Zs x S
Z = Number of conductors
S = Number of slots
Zs = Number of conductors / slot
Number of armature coils:
Maximum voltage induced between adjacent commutator
segment at no load is limit to 30V
Ec = voltage induced between adjacent commutator
segments at no load
=(voltage induced / conductor) x No of conductor between
adjacent commutator segments at no load
Ec = ez x 2 x number of turns between adjacent commutator segments at
no load
Ec = ez x 2 x number of turns /coil x No of coil between commutator
segments
Ec = ez x 2 x Tb x N c volt
Ec = 2ez Tb N c volt
Voltage induced / conductor ez = Blv sinϴ
for max. Value sin ϴ = 1
e = Blv
 E c= 2 x Bav x L x Va x Tc x N c volt
This is for general condition.
Max. Voltage induced between adjacent commutator segment at load conditon,
Ecm = 2 Bgm L Va Tc N c volt

Bgm = 1.3 Bg
Bgm = max. gap density at load
Bg = max. gap density at no load
Tc = No. of turns / coil
Nc = No. of coil between adjacent commutator
Ecm = 2 x1.3Bg L Va Tc N c
= 2.6 Bg L Va Tc N c
Bg = Bav Ψ = Pole arc to pole pitch (0.64 to 0.73)
Ψ
Ecm = 2.6 Bav L Va Tc N c
Ψ
Ecm = 2.6 Bav L Va Tc N c
0.68
Ecm = 4Bav L Va Tc N c volt
Va = πDn = peripheral speed of armature in m/sec
Bav=PΦ
πDL
Ecm=4PΦ x L x (πDn ) x Tc N c
πDL
Ecm=4PΦ nTc N c
Ecm = PΦ Zn
a
Ecm=4 Ea Tc N c volt
z
Tc = No of turns / coil = Z
2xc
Z = 2c Tc

Ecm=4 Ea Tc N c ,,, volt

2c Tc
Ecm=4 Ea N c volt
2c
 Ecm=2 Ea N c
c
c =2 Ea N c --- general condition
Ec m
c = min. number of armature coils
Case I Case II
Lap winding Wave winding
a=P, Nc =1, Ecm =30V a=2, Nc=P/2, Ecm=30V

Cmin =2xExPx1 Cmin =2xExP/2x2

30 30
Cmin =Ep/15 Cmin =Ep/15

ie min. Number of coils remains same

Total number of armature coils = Ctotal = 1/2Ud
U= No. of coils sides / slots
S= No. of slots
Ecm = 4 Bav L Va Tc N c volt
Ecm = 4 ez Tc Nc
We know Ecm = 30V. ez=Blv
ez= 30 = 15
4 Tc Nc 4 Tc Nc

Number of armature coil slots:

Selection of no. of slots,
Slot width or pitch
Cooling of armature conductor
Flux pulsation
Commutation
Cost
Slot Pitch:
Distance measure between centres of two consecutive slots
Ys = Wt + Ws, cm
• A large number of slots result in smaller slot pitch, so
width of tooth is also small. This may result in difficulty in const.
• But large number of slots will lead to less number of
conductor / slot. So cooling of armature conductor is better.
• If air gap reluctance per pair of pole is const, then flux
pulsation and oscillation can be avoided.
• For sparkless commutation the flux pulsation and
oscillation under interpole must be avoided.
Consider, Ψ = Pole arc
Pole pitch
Slots in the region between tips of = (1- Ψ) x slot
two adjacent poles Pole
 = (1- Ψ) x Sa / P
= (1- Ψ) x Sa / P ≥ 3
Let (1- Ψ) x Sa / P = 3
We know, Ψ = 0.67
Sa = 3 = 3
P (1-Ψ) (1-0.67)
Sa / P = 9
Hence, (Sa/P) should be (or) greater than equal to 9 for better
commutation.
Guiding factor:
Slot pitch (Ys) should lie between 25 and 35mm. For small
machine it may be 20mm or even less.
To avoid spark, Sa/P = 9
Slot loading (max. I through slots) Iz Zs = 1500A
Flux Pulsations
 Flux pulsations mean changes, in the air gap flux because
of changes in the air gap reluctance between the pole faces
and the irregularly shaped armature core surface under
running condition. This flux pulsations give rise to eddy
current losses in the pole-shoes and produce magnetic
noise. The flux pulsations are reduced with increased
number of armature slots.
(a) To avoid flux pulsations, the air gap reluctance per pair of
poles should be practically constant which is possible if the
number of slots per pair of poles is an odd integer i.e., the
slots per pole is an integer plus ½.
(b) To prevent the flux oscillations, the air gap reluctance
under pole faces must be kept constant for all reactive
positions of pole shoes and armature core. These conditions
are approximated by
(i) Properly chamfering the tips of pole faces.
(ii) Making the number of slots per pole shoes an integer plus
½
In actual design, the number of slots per pole arc should be an
integer with slots per pole equal to an integer plus 1/2.
(2)Cooling
For large of number slots, lesser number of conductors per
slot. Therefore cooling is obviously better.
(3) Tooth Width
For large number of slots, the slot pitch reduces and also
the tooth width. Two problem occurs by reduced tooth
width.
(i) Flux density at the minimum section of tooth increases
causing increased iron losses
(ii) It is difficult to support the teeth at the ventilating duct|
without obstructing the ventilation
(4) Commutation |
From commutation point of view, large number of slots
smaller number of conductors per slot are better.
(5) Cost
A smaller number of slots are desirable considering the as
the charges for punching the slots increase with their num'
Further with smaller number of slots, there are fewer slots
to insulate and therefore the cost of insulation also goes
down.
Guiding factors for choice of number of armature slots
(1) Slot Pitch
The value of slot pitch lies between 20 to 40mm. The usual
limit is between 25 to 35mm except in case of very small
machines, where it may be 20min and even less.
(2) Slot Loading
The slot loading i.e. number of ampere conductors per
slot should not exceed about 15,00A.
In case of lap wdg no of slots = Multiple of pole pair
In case of wave wdg no of slots ≠ multiple of pole pair
Current densityδz= 4.5 to 7 A/mm2
(3) Flux Pulsations
The number of slots per pole pair should be an odd
integer in order to minimize pulsation losses.
(4) Commutation
The number of slots per pole usually lies between 9 to
16 to prevent sparking.
(5) Suitability for Winding
When selecting number of slots, we must confirm that
the number selected suits the armature windings. The
number of slots per pole should match the value
 RATING (KW)  SLOTS/POLE

 Up to 5 KW 8

 5 KW to 50KW  10

 Above 50 KW  Above 12
Number of Armature Coils
The number of turns per coil and the number of coils are so
chosen that the voltage between commutator segments is
limited to a value where there is no possibility of flashover. For
very small machines, this limit may rise to 60V owing to their
high internal resistance. Normally, the maximum voltage
between adjacent segments at load should not exceed 30V.
Average voltage between adjacent segments at no load
Slot Dimensions:
C.S. of slots As= ds*Ws,m2
Slot Space factor :
Ratio of area occupied by all the conductors in a slot to
the slot area
Sf=Az/As
=(Az*Zs)/(ds*Ws) < 1
Armature voltage drop :
Ra= ρ Lmt Z/(2a2az)
Depth of armature core:
Distance between surface of shaft and bottom of slots
is depth of armature core
Area of armature core, Ac=Li*dc,m2
Li = net length of armature core
Li=Ki(L-ndWd),m
L= gross length of armature core
nd= no of radial ducts
Wd= width of each radial ducts
Ac= Фc/Bc, m2
Bc= flux density for armature core, T (1.0 to 1.5)T
dc= Фc/(Bc*Li)
Dia of shaft, Dsh= D-2ds-2dc
1) A 500 KW, 350rpm dc generator is designed with Bav of 0.65 wb/m2,
ac=36000ac/m, Ψ=0.67, lap connected single turn coil is used in
armature. Find D, L of armature if max. Value of voltage between
adjacent segments is not to exceed 10V at full load and peripheral
speed exceeding 30 m/s max value of flux density at full load=
1.3flux density at no load. ηFL=92%
Given:
P=500kw, N=350rpm, Bav=0.6 wb/m2, ac=36000ac/m,Ψ=0.67, Tc=1,
Nc=1, Ecm=20V, Va=30m/s Bgm=1.3Bg, η=0.92
To find:
D and L.
Solution:
power greater than 50kw
Pa=P/η=(500x103)/0.92 = 5,43,478kw
Co=π2Bavac
= π2x0.6x36000
Pa = CoD2Ln, KW
543.47=213183.45xD2xLx5.83, KW
D2L=0.437m3
Max gap density, Bg=Bav/Ψ=0.6/0.67
Bg=0.8955 wb/m2
Given, Bgm = 1.3Bg
= 1.3x0.8955 = 1.164wb/m2
Ecm= 2BgmLVaTcNc
20 = 2x1.134xLx30x1x1
L=0.286m
 D2L=0.437m3
 D2=1.5260
 D= 1.235m
 2) Obtain an expression for the output of a dc machine in terms of
dia and length of armature and specific loadings. Show that output
may be expressed as
Output = π BavδSfAsSDLnx10-3 kw
S=Number of slots
As= area of each slot
Sf= Slot space factor
n= Speed in rps
Ouput = CoD2Ln kw
Pa=(π2Bavacx10-3) D2Ln kw
Co= π2Bavac
Pa =(πBavDLn x(ac π D)x10-3 kw
Where
electric loading IzZ=acπD
Pa=(πBavDLn xIzZx10-3
We know from Z=ZsxS
Z=Number of conductors, S=Number of slots
Zs=Number of conductors/slot
Iz=δxaz
δ=current density for arm winding
az= cross section of armature conductor

Pa=πBavDLn x(δxaz )x(ZsxS)x10-3

= πBavDLn δS (azZs )x10-3
= πBavDLn δS Azx10-3

Pa=πBavδSxSfAsx10-3 DLn
Az=SfAs, Sf= slot space factor,
As=area of slot
2. The design data of two machind are tabulated below. The
power developed by armature of machine A is 750kw. Find
power developed by the armature of machine B. Assume the
current desities and slot space factor to be same for two
machines.
Give:
Machine Dia L n S Slot area Bav
cm cm rps mm2 wb/m2
A 100 38 6.25 111 42x14 0.64
B 50 22 7.5 61 38x12 0.55
Solution:
Output= πBavδSxSfAsx10-3 DLn

Output of A= (Bav) AδASAxSfAAsAx DALAnA

Output of B= (Bav)BδBSBxSfBAsB x DBLBn B
750 = 0.64x1x1x42x14x111x100x38x6.25
O/P B 0.5x38x12x61x50x22x7.5
750 = 8.637
O/P B
Output of machine, B = 86.52KW
3.The armature of a 550kw, 500V, 8Pole generator is 120cm in
dia and ac = 27,500Ac/m. Design a fractional pitch winding for
the armature giving particulars about the number of slots,
number of conductors/slots, number of conductors, number of
coils and number of turn/coil.
Given:
P=550kw, V=500V, P=8, D=120cm, ac =27,500,
fractional pitch winding
To find:
Sf, Zs, Z, C, Tc
Solution:
full load current, IL=P/V= (550x103)/500
IL= 1100 A
armature current, Ia= IL+If = 1100 A

Current through conductor, Iz=Ia/a

Iz= 1100 / 8 = 137.5 A
Number of armature condutor, Z = acπD / Iz
= 27,500xπx1.2
137.5
Z= 753.98 ≈ 754
Minimum Number of armature coil Cmin = EP/15
Cmin= (500x8)/15 = 266.66
 ARMATURE REACTIONS
The effect of armature flux on main flux is called armature
reaction.
Polar axis:
Axis passes thro centre of pole
Geomentrical neutral axis:
The axis is perpendicular to polar axis and passes thro centre of
armature
Magnetic neutral axis:
The axis along which there is no induced emf
Angle of brush shaft
 DC m/c unloaded, MNA coincides with GNA
 When M/C loaded, MNA shifted from GNA in the direction
depending upon the M/C is Generator or motor
This angle of shift is called angle of brush shift
(i.e) α elec =(p/2) α mech
Magnetisation formula
De magnetisation effect:
Due to increase in current flow conductor flux is produced.
To drive this flux certain force is required, which acts in
opposition of field ampere turns/pole
ATad = IzZ/(2p)*(2α/180)
Cross Magnetisation:
Due to increase in current flow conductor flux is produced.
To drive this flux certain force is required, which acts in
quadrature with field ampere turns/pole
ATaq=ATa- ATad
ATa= IzZ/(2p)
ATad = IzZ/(2p)*(2α/180)
ATaq= IzZ[1-(2α/180)]
2p
Compensation wdg ampere turns/pole:
ATc =Ψ *Ata
Tc= ATc/ Ia
Zc=2Tc
1) A generator supplies a current of 140A. It has 480
armature conductors (a) wave winding (b) lap
winding. The brushes are given an actual lead of 10°.
Calculate the cross and demagnetising mmf /pole in each
case, the field winding is shunt connected and takes a
current of 10A. Find the number of extra shunt field turns
to neutralise the demagnetisation. Given p=4.
Given:
p=4, IL= 140A, Z=480, α mech=10°, If=10A
To find:
ATeq, ATad, Tfextra
Solution:
(a) wave winding
armature current, Ia=IL+If = 140+10 = 150A
a=2
armature mmf / pole, ATa= Iax Z Ac/m
a 2p
ATa= 150 * 480
2 2x4
= 4500 AT
αelec= P/2 α mech
α elec = 4/2 x 10 = 20°
Demagnetisation:
ATad=IzZ x 2α
2p 180
= ATa x 2α
= 4500 x 2 x 20
180
ATad = 1000AT
 ATaq =ATa - ATad
= 4500 -1000
= 3500 AT
ie Extra shunt field turns required to neutralise
demagnetisation.
Tf extra = ATad = 1000
If 10
Tf extra=100
(B) Lap winding:
a=p=4
armature mmf / pole, ATa = Ia x Z
a 2p
= 150 x 480
4 2x4
= 2230 AT
 demagnetisation mmf/pole,
ATad=ATa x 2 α
180
= 2250 x 2 x 20
180
ATad= 500AT
Cross magnetising mff / pole,
ATaq = ATa – ATad
= 2250 – 500
ATad = 1750AT
Extra shunt field turns required to neutralise,
Tf extra = ATad = 500 = 50
If 10
4) The armature of a 500kw, 500V, 12P, generator has a
lap winding with 2484 conductors. There are 621
commutator segments. The ratio of pole arc to pole
pitch is 0.7.
(i) calculate the back AT/Pole at rated full load
current, if the brushes are shifted through 3 segments
from GNA. What is the cross magneisation AT/Pole.
provided in each pole face, if a compensative winding is
used.
Given:
P=500kw, V=550V, P=12, Z= 2484, C= 621
Ψ=0.7, αmech= (3/621) x360°
To find:
ATad, ATeq, Zc
Solution:
IL= P/v = 500x103 = 909.090 A
550
armature current, Ia = IL+If (since If = 0)
Ia=IL=909.09 A

For lap winding, a=P=12s

ATa = Ia x Z = 909.09 x 2484
a 2P 12 2x12

ATa = 7840.909 AT
 αelec = P/2 x αmech
= 12 x 3 x 360
2 621
= 10.43°
Demagneties
ATad= ATa x 2 α
180
= 7840.909x2x10.44
180
ATad = 909.09AT
Cross magnetisation mmf/pole
ATeq = ATa – ATad
= 7840.909 - 909.09
ATeq = 6931.818 AT
Compensating mmf/pole, ATc = ΨxATa
= 0.67 x 7840.909
ATc = 54888.63AT
Compensating winding turn/pole, Tc = ATc / Ia
= 5488.63 / 909.09
Tc= 6.03
Compensating winding conductor / pole, Zc= 2xTc
= 2x6.03 = 12.07
Zc= 12
DESIGN OF COMMUTATOR AND
BRUSHES
(1)No of commutator segments:
No of comutator segments is equal to no of armature coils.
Total no of commutator segments,C=1/2 Us
Where U= no of coilside/slots(even no)
S= no of slots
Min no of commutator segments
Cmin= Ep/15
(2) Commutator Diameter
It can be calculated with the help of Dia of armature
depending upon voltage rating
Dc= 0.62 D (350 to 700)V
Dc= 0.68 D (200 to 250)V
Dc= 0.74 D (100 to 150)V
(3) Peripheral speed:
Distance travelled by the commutator per unit time.
Va=∏Dcn,m/s
(4) Commutator length:
Lc=nb(Wb+Cb)+C1+C2+C3,cm
nb= no of brushes/brush arm.
Wb= Width of each brush,cm
Cb= clearance b/w adjacent brushes=0.5cm
C1= clearence of staggering= 1 to 3 cm
C2= clearance for end play= 1 to 2.5 cm
C3= clearance for raiser= 4 to 5cm
(5) Ib=2Iz=2*(Ia/a)
(6) no of brushes /brush arm:
nb= Ib/Ibeach
=Ib/70
The max current drawn by each brush is assumed as 70 A
(7) Brush contact area/spindle:
Ab=nb(Wb*tb),cm2
Ab= Ib/δb, cm2
δ b= 5 to 20 A/cm2
(8) Width and thickness of each brush:
Wb=Ab/(tb*nb),cm
tb=Ab/(Wb*nb), cm
tb= (2 to 3)βc ~ 2.5 βc
βc = commutator segment pitch
βc= ∏Dc/C should not be less than 4mm
(10) Commutator surface:
Sc=∏Dc*Lc, m2
(11) Commutator losses
(a) Brush contact losses
This loss depends up on brush contact drop
Wbc=VbIa,W
Vb= Brush cnt drop =1.8 to 2.2, V
(b) Brush friction losses
This losses depends upon brush preassure, peripheral
speed and coefficient of friction b/w brush and
commutator.
Wbf = μPbpAbVa watts
μ= coefficient of friction =0.15 to 0.3
Pb= Brush pressure= 10 to 15 KN/m2
Approximately 12.5KN/m2
Ab= brush contact area/ spindle, m2
(13)Cooling Coefficient :
C=0.015 to 0.025
1+0.1Va
PROBLEMS:
1. Determine the BRUSH CNT AND BRUSH FRICTION
losses for a 100kw, 500V, 800rpm, 4 pole, shunt generator,
Dc=24cm, δb= 7.5A/cm2, Pb=0.150g/Cm2. coefficient of
friction =0.24, Brush cnt drop =1 volt/brush set
To find:
Wbc ,Wbf; Wbc=VbIa watts; Wbf=μPb ρ AbVa watts.
Solution:
IL=P/V = 100x103 / 500 = 200A
If=0; Ia=IL= 200A
Ib = 2Ia/P
= (2x200)/4 = 100A
Brush contact area / spindle,
Ab = Ib/δb = 100/7.5
= 13.33cm2
n = N/60 = 800/60 = 13.33 rps
 Va = πDcn = π x 24x10-2 x 13.33
= 10.0501m/s
ALLOW brush contact drop, Vb = 2V
Brush contact loss, Wbc = VbIa
= 2x200= 400W
Assume coefficient of friction, μ=0.24
Wbf = μPbpAbVa watts
= 0.24x(.150x9.81)x10-3x(4*13.33)x10.05
= 2465 watts
2). Calculate the thickness and width and length of brush
for the given specifications
Dc=0.272,m,C=160,nb = 4,,Ib = 232 A,δb= 100*10-3 ,
A/mm2
To find,
tb,Wb,Lb
Soln:
tb=2.5 βc
βc=∏Dc/C
=∏*0.272/160=5.340 mm
tb=25*5.340*10-3
tb=13.35mm
Brush cnt area, Ab=Ib/δb
=232/100*10-3
Ab=2320mm2
Wb=Ab/(nb*tb) =43.44mm
Assume
C1=2 cm, C2=2cm, C3=4cm, Cb=0.5cm
Lc=nb(Wb+Cb)+C1+C2+C3
=37.02 cm
4) Determine the total commutator losses for a 1000kw,
500V, 300rpm, 10 pole, dc generator, Dc=100cm, δb=
7.5A/cm2, Pb=15kgf/m2.
To find: Qc=(Wbc+Wbf); Wbc=VbIa watts;
Wbf=μPbpAbVc watts.
Solution:
IL=P/V = 1000x103 / 500 = 2000A
If=0; Ia=IL= 2000A
Ib = 2Ia/P
= (2x2000)/10 = 400A
Brush contact area / spindle,
Ab = Ib/δb = 400/7.5
= 53.33cm2
n = N/60 = 300/60 = 5 rps
Design of Armature
Va = πDcn = π x 100x10-2 x 5
= 15.71m/s
Assume brush contact drop, Vb = 2V
Brush contact loss, Wbc = VbIa
= 2x2000= 4KW

Assure coefficient of friction, μ=0.2

Wbf = μPbpAbVa watts
= 0.2x(1500x9.81)x10x(53.3310-4)x15.7
= 2465 watts
Total commutator loss, Qc = Wbc+Wbf = 4+2.465
= 6.465 kw
5) Design suitable commutator for a 350kw, 440V, 6 pole,
600rpm dc generator having an armature dia of 75cm and
number of coils(c) =288. Assume suitable value whereever
necessary.
Given:
P=350kw, V=440V, P=6, N=600rpm, c-288, D=75cm.
Required data Dc, Lc.
Dc = 0.62D
= 0.62x75 = 46.5cm
Full load current, IL=P/V = 350x103 / 440
= 795A
Ia = IL = 795A
Lap winding, a=P
Ib= 2Ia/a = (2x795) / 6 = 265A
Assume current drawn by each brush Ib each = 70A.
nb = Ib/Ibeach = 265/70 = 3.78 ≈ 4
Current density / brush as 10A/cm2, δb= 5 to 20 A/cm2
Ab= 265/10 = 26.5cm2
βc, commutator segment pitch = πDc / c
= (π x 46.5)/ 288
= 0.507 cm
Thickness of brush, tb
= 2.5βc
= 2.5x0.507 = 1.267cm
Wb= Ab = 26.5 = 5.23cm
(nb+tb) 4x1.267
Assume c1=c2= 2cm, c3=4cm, cb=0.5cm
Lc = nb(wb+cb)+c1+c2+c3
= 4(5.23+0.5)+2+2+4
Lc = 30.92cm
DESIGN OF FIELD SYSTEM
In a dc machine each field pole carries one field
coil.
So, Number of field coils = Number of field pole
Main flux or field flux or flux/pole:
The total amount of flux produced from main
pole or field pole. It is denoted by Фp
Leakage flux:
The amount of flux that strays away from usual
path is called leakage flux or loss flux. It is denoted by
Фl.
Useful flux:
The amount of flux available at the armature
periphery and that links with armature conductor.
So that emf is induced called useful flux or utilised
flux. Denoted by Ф
Leakage coefficient or leakage factor:
The ratio of total flux/pole to the useful
flux/pole is called leakage coefficient or leakage
factor.
Denoted by CL = Фp/ Ф = 1.08 to 1.25
Breadth of pole:
Cross Section of pole, Ap = LpxBp m2
Cross section of pole, Ap = Ф p/ Bp m2
where
Lp = Length of pole,m
bp = breadth of pole,m
Фp= total flux / pole, wb
Bp = Flux density of pole, wb/m2
Bp = 1.2 to 1.7 wb/m2
BREADTH OF POLES
Фp/ Bp = Lp x bp
bp = Фp/ (Bp x Lp) ,m
Design of Armature
Limit for circular field coil:
Length of inner turn, Li = πdi
Length of inner turn, Lo = πdo
d0= di+2df
Lo = π(di+2df)

Length of mean turn, Lmt = (Li+Lo)/2

= πdi+π(di+2df)
2
= πdi+πdi+2 π df = 2πdi+2 π df
2 2
Lmtf = π(di+ df) ,m
Lmtf for rectangular field coil:
Length of inner turn, Li = 2(Lp+bp)
Length of outer turn, Lo = 2(Lp+bp)+8df
Length of mean turn, Lmtf = (Li+Lo)
2
= 2(Lp+bp)+2(Lp+bp)+8df
2
= 4Lp+4bp+8df
2
= 2Lp+2bp+4df
Lmtf = 2[(Lp+2bp)+4df]
Surface area of circular field coil:
Top surface area,
= π do2 - π di2
4 4
= π [do2 - di2]
4
= π [do+di] [do-di]
4
= π [do+di] [do-di]
2 2
= Lo+Li * do-di
2 2
 = Lo+Li x 2df
2 2
Top surface area = Lmtf x df
Bottom surface area = Lmtf x df
Total surface area = Top + Bottom
S = 2 Lmtf x df, m2
Inner surface area=∏di*hf= Li*hf
Outer surface area=∏do*hf =Lo*hf
Inner and outer surface area= 2Lmt*hf,m2
Surface area of field coil, S=2Lmt(hf+df),m2
Copper space factor,
Sf=Tf*af range 0.4 to 0.9
hfdf
Heigth of field coil:
The ratio of field mmf/pole to armature mmf/pole
is
=ATfl/ATa = 1.1 to 1.25
hf= ATfl*10-4
√(qf*df*sf)
1. A rectangular field coil produces a mmf 7500 AT. When
dissipating 220 watts @ a temperature of 60°C. The inner
dimensions of coil are length 0.24m, width 0.1m and ht 0.15m.
The heat dissipation is 30 watts/m2/°C form the outer surface
neglecting top and bottom surfaces of the coil. Temperature of
ambient air is 20°C. Cal the thickness of coil, Space factor
and current density. Assume Resistivity of material is
0.02 Q – mm2
m
Given: Rectangular coil, dissipation @ outer surface

ATfl = 7500 AT, Qf = 220 w, θfinal = 60°C, Lp = 0.24m,

bp = 0.1m, hf = 0.15m, h = 30 watts/m2/°C θinitial = 20°C,
ρ = 0.02 Ω – mm2 .
m
To find
df, Sf, δf

Solution
Dissipation @ outer surface –

S = Lohf

Lo = [2 (Lp + bp) + 8df ] x hf

= [2 (0.24 + 0.1) + 8df ] x 0.15

S = 0.102 + 1.2df

Temperature rise in in field coil, θf = θfinal – θinitial

θf = 60°C - 20°C = 40°C

W – loss / unit area, qf = h x θf
= 30 x 40
qf = 1200 watts/m2

Dissipating surface area of field coil,

S = Qf = 220 = 0.1833 m2
qf 1200

From (1) & (2)

0.102 + 1.2 df = 0.1833

df = 0.0677m
Total copper loss in field coil Qf = If2 Rf

= If2 x ρLmtf Tf
af

= If (If x ρ Lmtf Tf)

af

Qf = δf If x ρ Lmtf x Tf

δf = Qf .
If ρ Lmtf Tf
Lmtf = 2 (Lp + bp) + 4 df

= 2 (0.24 + 0.1) + 4 (0.0677)

= 2 (0.34) + 0.2777

Lmtf = 0.9511 m.

ATfl = If Tf

δf = Qf .=. 220 .
ρ Lmtf Atfl 0.02 x 15-6 x 0.95 x 7500
= 220
1.4267 x 10-4
= 1.542 x 106 A/m2..
= 1.542 A/mm2
Sf hf df = af Tf x 10-6

= x Tf x 10-6

= x 10-6

Sf hf df = ATfl x 10-6
δf

Sf = Atfl x 10-6 = ____7500 x 10-6____

δf x hf x df 1.542 x 0.15 x 0.0677

Sf = _________7500___________
1.542 x 106 x 0.15 x 0.0677
Sf = 0.5
Determine field mmf of an inner diameter of 0.3 and ext
diameter of 0.4m. Its height is 0.2m the outside cylinder
surface of coil can dissipate 1000 watts/m2. Calculate the
total mmf/coil, if the voltage applied across the coil is 50v.
Assume the Sf to be 0.6 and ρ= 0.02 Ω/m

Given:
di = 0.3m, do = 0.4m, hf = 0.2m,Outer surface qf =
1000 watts/m2, Ef = 50v, δf = 0.6, ρ= 0.02 Ω/m

Required data ATfl

Solution
Depth of field coil df = do – di = 0.4 – 0.3
2 2
df = 0.05m.

Length of Mean turns of field coil, Lmtf = π (di+do)

= π (0.3 + 0.05)

Lmtf= 1.0995 m.

Diss surface area, S = Lohf = π do x hf

S = 0.2513 m2

Total cu – loss in field coil, Qf = S x qf

 Qf = 0.2513 x 1000 = 251.3 watts

Rf = Ef2 = (50) 2 = 9.948Ω

Qf 251.3

Current ↑ field coil, If = Ef = __50__ = 5.026A.

Rf 9.948
We know Rf = PLmtf Tf
af

T f = ___R f ___ = ____9.948____

af PLmt f 0.02 x 1.0995

T f = 452.387 x 106.
af
 Sf hf df = af Tf.

0.6 x 0.2 x 0.05 = af Tf

af Tf = 6 x 10-3 = > Tf = 452.387

af
af = 6 x 10-3
Tf

af Tf = 6000

Multiplying

Tf2 = 452.387 x 6000

Tf = 1647.
ATfl = If x Tf 251.3 = If2 x 9.945

ATfl = 8277AT If = 5.02606

Thank you