Geothermics, Vol. 14, No. 2/3, pp. 309 - 314, 1985. 0375 - 6505/85 $3.00 + 0.

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Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Press Ltd.
© 1985 CNR.

COMPLETION TECHNIQUES IN DEEP GEOTHERMAL DRILLING

A . B O T T A I a n d U. C I G N I

E N E L - Unitd Nazionale Geotermica, Larderello, Pisa, Italy

(Transmitted by the Government o f Italy)

R.9
Abstract--The difficulties encountered during deep drilling ( > 3000 m) in the Larderello area are caused
by:
--highly fractured geological formations which prevent well completion with mud circulation,
--compact formations and, in particular, frequent variations in direction and inclination of bedding,
leading to problems in achieving a vertical hole,
--high temperatures and high reservoir pressures and,
--extremely corrosive fluids in the well, and, in some cases, risk of spontaneous combustion.
This paper analyses the problems arising during the first geothermal drilling and describes technologi-
cal developments and experiments aimed at improving drilling techniques and materials. The most
important points are:
--casing and cementation at the top of the deep reservoir, to insulate the shallow productive zone,
--control of damage and corrosion in tubular goods,
--adequate fishing techniques and/or operations to remove blockages,
--air drilling in the final phase of the well and,
--instrumentation for controlling and recording well fluid characteristics.
Experiments and research on new materials are aimed at solving the serious problems caused by high
temperatures and fluid composition. The risk of spontaneous combustion of fluids is also briefly
described.
INTRODUCTION
T h e o b j e c t i v e o f deep g e o t h e r m a l drilling in the L a r d e r e l l o a r e a is to verify the existence o f
h y d r o t h e r m a l systems at g r e a t e r d e p t h s t h a n the h o r i z o n s c u r r e n t l y being exploited. T h e
existence o f these systems was i n d i c a t e d by g e o t h e r m a l a n d g e o p h y s i c a l investigations at d e p t h s
r a n g i n g f r o m 3000 to 5000 m.
T o achieve this g o a l d e e p wells m u s t have d i a m e t e r s t h a t a r e large e n o u g h for collecting
significant d a t a on p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y , a n d m u s t also isolate a n y p r o d u c t i v e h o r i z o n s
existing a b o v e the drilling target.
T h e b o r e h o l e s drilled in the L a r d e r e l l o a r e a crossed:
F r o m 0 to 500 m: cover f o r m a t i o n s c o m p o s e d o f N e o g e n e s e d i m e n t s a n d alloch-
t h o n o u s flysch with a m a i n l y c l a y e y - c a r b o n a t e c o m p o s i t i o n .
F r o m 500 to 1000 m: a c o m p l e x r e p r e s e n t i n g the first " s h a l l o w " reservoir a n d m a d e
u p o f limestones a n d the a n h y d r i t e series o f the M e s o z o i c . These
f o r m a t i o n s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by intense f r a c t u r a t i o n .
Below 1000 m: T r i a s s i c - - P a l e o z o i c q u a r t z i f e r o u s schistose b a s e m e n t m a d e up o f
quartzites, schists, mica-schists, a m p h i b o l i t e s a n d gneiss. These
rocks are also f r a c t u r e d to a v a r y i n g extent.
Drilling is r o u t i n e a n d quite r a p i d d o w n to a b o u t 2000 m. B e y o n d this d e p t h s o m e p r o b l e m s
arise c o n n e c t e d to the t y p e o f rocks a n d to high t e m p e r a t u r e s . F r e q u e n t l y drilling m u s t p r o c e e d
w i t h o u t r e t u r n c i r c u l a t i o n ( m u d ) because o f the presence o f h o r i z o n t a l fractures, which are
d i f f i c u l t a n d s o m e t i m e s i m p o s s i b l e to plug. These factors create difficult o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
(Cigni, 1980), especially as r e g a r d s :
- - c o n t r o l o f d e v i a t i o n o f the well axis,
--fishing operations,

309
310 A. Bottai and U. Cigni
--cementation of deep casings,
- - c o n t r o l of circulation fluids.

D I F F I C U L T I E S E N C O U N T E R E D AND T H E I R S O L U T I O N

Characteristics of the geological formations

It is extremely difficult to maintain well verticality while passing through the Larderello
basement, because of the alternations of schistose and quartzitic formations with very different
drilling properties and corrugated bedding. Apart from damage to the drilling rig, this
phenomenon can also have a negative effect on the casing, which is subjected to intense
additional stress caused by friction and well curvature.

Type of fracturation and drilling fluids

Up to a depth of about 2500 m the basement is normally characterized by very high
permeability fractured zones with reservoir fluids of significantly lower pressure than the
hydrostatic pressure corresponding to that depth. The fractures may or may not be plugged,
depending on the drilling target.
Aside from the fact that plugging operations are not always successful before the casing is
lowered, because of the very high rock permeability, the fractures are sometimes not plugged in
order to control bottomhole temperature. Standard drilling equipment can then be used, such
as turbines, packers and instruments for surveying and measuring in the well.
In these circumstances the fractured zones that cannot be plugged are drilled using water,
with a total loss of circulation, for essentially economic reasons, despite the risks connected
with the presence of a Newtonian fluid in the well.
However, it is often impossible to clean the well bottom adequately with water when drilling
through the basement. Usually bentonite or sepiolite slurry, containing synthetic resins and
polymer mixtures, to stabilize its rheology, are used up to approximately 250°C. *
In the presence of high temperature formations, the temperature of the drilling fluid is
controlled by means of cooling operations, which include pumping the slurry to remove the drill
cuttings and injecting water in the annular space between rods and casing. Light bentonite
slurry can be used for the very thick impermeable layers of the basement underlying the deepest
absorbent fracture, where a temperature of approximately 400°C was recorded; side-tracks,
using ordinary deviation equipment, were adopted in terrains with a temperature of about
300°C.I -
The main drawback to this method is the difficulty in ascertaining exactly when contact is
made with strata containing overpressured fluids underneath the absorbent fractured zones.
Drilling has, therefore, to proceed fairly cautiously in areas that are not well known.
The use of gaseous fluid as a drilling fluid was also experimented. The drawbacks in this case
are:
(a) in the presence of overpressured geothermal fluids the risk of cave-in is greater than when
drilling with mud or water,
(b) rapid heating of the casing, due to well emanations, can cause it to collapse on reaching
high-productivity fractures; this can affect the success of cementation, and increase the
risk of the formation of water bubbles or of relatively long uncemented sections,
(c) presence of inflammable compounds in dangerous percentages in the gases emitted from
the well.

*This is also confirmed by laboratory tests (Fabbri, 1980).

?In undisturbed conditions.
 Completion Techniques in Deep Geothermal Drilling 311
Table 1. Average chemical composition of the
noncondensables of the fluid in the carbonate
reservoir and in the upper layers of the basement
(volume in °70)

C02 94070
CH~ 1%
H2 2070
H~S 2%
N2 107o

Table 2. Average chemical composition of the

noncondensables in the deep layers of the
basement ( > 2900 m) (volume in %)

CO~ 78%
CH~ 12%
H2 7%
N2 1%
O., 1%

These phenomena have sometimes occurred during deep drilling. The solutions adopted for
limiting their effects are:
- - i n case (b), detailed technical specifications are given for installation and cementation of
the casing (see paragraph on cementation of casings) and slow preheating of
the well whenever possible;
- - i n case (c), following on the results of specific laboratory tests on the inflammability of
the gas (see Table 2) emitted from the well (Culivicchi, 1983), nitrogen was
used instead of air.

Physical and chemical characteristics of fluids and corrosion control

The average chemical composition of the fluid found in the carbonate reservoir and the upper
part of the basement are reported in Table 1.
Table 2 gives the average chemical composition of the noncondensables contained in the fluid
from the deeper layers of the Larderello basement ( > 3000 m). The corrosive effects of these
fluids on the tubular steels used in drilling also differ. The first fluid (Table 1) gives rise to
generalized corrosion, at a similar rate to ordinary wear undergone by the piping during
drilling, and to forms of stress corrosion. Both effects can largely be controlled by using
specially designed tubular goods in the structurally critical zones (usually the most susceptible
to forms of stress corrosion) and, above all, by controlling the pH of the well fluid.
The fluid of the carbonate reservoir and the upper layers of the basement is underpressured,
so that pH is easily controlled by alkalinization* of the water injected through the annular space
between the rods and casing (see Type of fracturation and drilling fluids). Precipitation of
carbonates following treatment is prevented by special inhibitors.
More serious corrosion problems sometimes occurred when the tubular goods came into
contact with the fluids of the deep zones of the basement (Table 2), where temperatures of
approximately 400°C were found. Generalized corrosion was observed in this case,
characterized by corrosion rates equivalent to about 1! in. per year (Fig. 1), in addition to
- 9 5 % decarburization of the AP1 G105 and N80 steels.

*As confirmed by laboratory analyses (ENEL, 1981, and field results).

312 ,4. Bottai and U. C&ni

Fig. I. Sample of 5" diameter drill rod recovered from well San Pompeo 2 after 12 days of exposure at 2500 m depth.

Cementation o f the casings and related problems

For the above reasons it is often necessary to cement the casings in the presence of unplugged
fractures. The factors affecting the success of the c e m e n t a t i o n are:
(a) water pockets which may become trapped between the casing, cement and terrain,
(b) lengths of u n c e m e n t e d casing may remain at the depth of the fractures.
In case (a), the casing could collapse in the event of rapid heating
 Completion Techniques in Deep Geothermal Drilling 313
In case (b), failure may occur due to stress corrosion, particularly in correspondence to
coupled joints. In both cases, combined compressive and bending stress may also
occur. Casing failures of the type described above occurred during drilling of the
deep wells.
An attempt was made to limit cementation failures by:
(i) identifying any defects by means of cement bonding logs, drilling holes in the casing and
then recementing when the wells communicate with absorbent formations, and
(ii) creating conditions for setting the casing and cement that are such as to guarantee an
acceptable level of stress for the duration of the well.
Simulation techniques were used to estimate the temperature profile of the well during
cementation, and to define the casing program.
The following parameters were also considered in the drilling p r o g r a m m e (Bottai and Vallini,
1983):
- - m a x i m u m temperature limit in the casing
--setting temperature of the cement
--residual friction in the casing string
- - a d h e s i o n between the casing and cement
- - f l o a t i n g thrust on the casing string
- - b o r e h o l e diameter
These parameters may be responsible for overstressing and may jeopardize the stability of the
casing. Overstressing can be limited, as mentioned in point (ii), by means of stress
compensation techniques in the most stressed zones of the casing. These zones are mainly in the
lower sections. These techniques can compensate for an estimated -40°70 of the critical stress
of the casing and were experimented successfully during installation of the 9 % " casings with
shoe at approximately 3000 m.

R E S E A R C H A N D E X P E R I M E N T S IN PROGRESS
These are directed both at determining the limitations of the equipment available on the
market for use in geothermal fields and the methods experimented so far, and at supplying
solutions to the problems raised by deep geothermal drilling.
The major research topics are corrosion, construction and use of special instrumentation and
equipment, and muds and cements.
Corrosion
Research is directed at:
--identifying the various corrosion mechanisms (failure due to stress corrosion,
decarburization, rapid uniform corrosion) and
--investigating the behaviour of austenitic and ferritic alloys and superalloys in high
temperature environments and in the presence of aggressive fluids.

Special components and equipment

Studies are being made on measuring and well sampling instruments, fishing gear, packers,
control valves, etc. which are compatible with the temperatures observed. Experiments are
already being made with some equipment modified for use in geothermal environments.

Muds and cements

Research on these products is aimed at defining the evolution of their chemical composition
in high temperature conditions. Research and experimentation are also in progress on low-
resistance mortars. An important part of this activity deals with the study of adhesion between
casings and cements, and the collapse of this bond.
314 ,4. Bottai a n d U. Cigni

CONCLUSIONS
Deep drilling in the Larderello area has been characterized by two stages of d e v e l o p m e n t .
D u r i n g the first stage, high temperatures a n d corrosive fluids created serious problems with
regard to the drilling e q u i p m e n t and materials, which are those n o r m a l l y used in oil research
a n d are available on the market. During the second stage an a t t e m p t was made to solve this
p r o b l e m , defining the limits of the e q u i p m e n t available and a d a p t i n g drilling technology as
required.
The latter has been a p r e d o m i n a n t feature of s u b s e q u e n t deep drilling activities in the
Larderello area. The results o b t a i n e d so far represent an i m p o r t a n t step towards achieving
a d e q u a t e drilling technologies for high e n t h a l p y geothermal fluids.

REFERENCES
Bottai, A. and Vallini, A.(1983) Casing design in geothermal wells, lnternal report in prep., ENEL UnitaNazionale
Geotermica, Larderello, Lisa (in Italian).
Cigni, U. (1980) Italian experience and problems in deep geothermal drilling. 2nd ENI:I. DOE H'orkshop, 20 22
October 1980, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley.
Culivicchi, G. (1983) On the inflammability of the gaseous mixture. Internal report, ENEI Unitfi. Nazionale
Geotermica, Larderello, Pisa (in Italian).
ENEL (1981) Analysis of corrosion problems in drillpipes and casing joints. Internal report, ENE[ Unita Nazionale
Geotermica, Larderello, Pisa (in Italian).
Fabbri, F. (1980) Employment limits of muds treated with synthetic resins~ polymer mixtures and organic acids.
Internal report, ENEL - Unitfi. Nazionale Geotermica, Larderello, Pisa (in Italian).