Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
thermography applications 45
Electrical Applications • Electromechanical and Mechanical Applications •
Process Applications • Building Diagnostics
inspection methodologies 57
Comparative Thermography • Baseline Thermography • Thermal Trending
thermography resources 63
Resources
Index 67
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO INFRARED
THERMOGRAPHY AND THERMAL IMAGERS
1
2 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Thermal Imagers
138.2
THERMAL IMAGER
130
138.2
130
120
120
110
110
100
Ti25 90
IR FUSION
TECHNOLOGY 80
100
72.2
90
F2 F3
F1
80
72.2
HEAT PATTERN
DETECTED IN
OPEN SPACE EQUIPMENT
BETWEEN
EQUIPMENT THERMAL
IMAGER AND
EQUIPMENT
THERMAL IMAGER
Figure 1-1. A thermal imager is a device that detects heat patterns in the infrared-
wavelength spectrum without making direct contact with equipment.
Thermal imaging systems in the 1970s systems were lightweight, portable, and
were durable and reliable but the quality of operable without cooling.
the images was poor compared to modern In the late 1980s, a new device known
thermal imagers. By the beginning of the as a focal-plane array (FPA) was released
1980s, thermal imaging was being widely from the military into the commercial
used for medical purposes, in mainstream marketplace. A focal-plane array (FPA) is
industry, and for building inspections. an image-sensing device consisting of an
Thermal imaging systems were calibrated array (typically rectangular) of infrared-
to produce fully radiometric images, so that sensing detectors at the focal plane of a
radiometric temperatures could be mea- lens. See Figure 1-2.
sured anywhere in the image. A radiometric This was a significant improvement
image is a thermal image that contains over original scanned detectors and the
temperature measurement calculations for result was an increase in image quality
various points within the image. and spatial resolution. Typical arrays on
Reliable thermal imager coolers modern thermal imagers have pixels that
were refined to replace the compressed range from 16 × 16 to 640 × 480. A pixel,
or liquefied gas that had been used to in this sense, is the smallest independent
cool thermal imagers. Less expensive, element of an FPA that can detect infrared
tube-based, pyroelectric vidicon (PEV) energy. For specialized applications, ar-
thermal imaging systems were also de- rays are available with pixels in excess of
veloped and widely produced. Although 1000 × 1000. The first number represents
not radiometric, PEV thermal imaging the number of vertical columns while the
4 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
second number represents the number of by more than a factor of ten over the past
horizontal rows displayed on the screen. decade and quality has dramatically in-
For example, an array of 160 × 120 is creased. Furthermore, the use of computer
equal to 19,200 total pixels (160 pixels × software for image processing has grown
120 pixels = 19,200 total pixels). tremendously. Nearly all commercially
The development of FPA technology available, modern infrared systems utilize
software to facilitate analysis and report
Focal Plane Arrays writing. Reports can be quickly created
OPTIC and sent electronically over the Internet
PLASTIC FRAME LENS
or preserved in a common format, such as
SENSOR WIRE a PDF, and recorded on various types of
digital storage devices.
SENSOR
THERMAL IMAGER
Ti25
IR FUSION
TECHNOLOGY OPERATION
It is useful to have a general understanding
of how thermal imaging systems operate
SENSOR because it is extremely important for a ther-
WIRE mographer to work within the limitations
THERMAL IMAGER
of the equipment. This allows for the most
accurate detection and analysis of potential
problems. The purpose of a thermal imager
Figure 1-2. A focal-plane array (FPA) is is to detect the infrared radiation given off
an image-sensing device consisting of an
by the target. See Figure 1-3. A target is
array (typically rectangular) of light-sensing
pixels at the focal plane of a lens. an object to be inspected with a thermal
imager.
utilizing various detectors has increased Infrared radiation is focused by the ther-
since the year 2000. A long-wave thermal mal imager’s optics onto a detector resulting
imager is a thermal imager that detects in- in a response, usually a change in voltage or
frared energy in a wavelength band that is electrical resistance, that is read by the elec-
between 8 µm and 15 µm. A micron (µm) tronics in the thermal imaging system. The
is a unit of length measurement equal to signal produced by the thermal imager is
one-thousandth of a millimeter (0.001 m). converted into an electronic image (thermo-
A mid-wave thermal imager is a thermal gram) on a display screen. A thermogram is
imager that detects infrared energy in a an image of a target electronically processed
wavelength band that is between 2.5 µm onto a display screen where different color
and 6 µm. Both long- and mid-wave ther- tones correspond to the distribution of infra-
mal imaging systems are now available in red radiation over the surface of the target.
fully radiometric versions, often with image In this simple process, the thermographer
fusion and thermal sensitivities of 0.05°C is able to view the thermogram that cor-
(0.09°F) or less. responds to the radiant energy coming off
The cost of these systems has dropped the surface of the target.
Chapter 1 — Introduction to Infrared Thermography and Thermal Imagers 5
Targets
THERMAL TARGET
IMAGER
Thermal Imagers
LENS COVER
DISPLAY
LENS
CONTROLS
TRIGGER
CONTROL
Figure 1-4. Typical thermal imagers have several common components including the
lens, lens cover, display, controls, and handle with hand strap.
Displays
THERMAL
IMAGER
THERMAL IMAGER
LIQUID CRYSTAL
DISPLAY (LCD)
CONTROLS USED TO
OPERATE IMAGER
AND ADJUST
F1 F2 F3
SETTINGS
THERMAL
IMAGE
storage of supplementary voice or text into a personal computer where they can
data as well as a corresponding visual be displayed using various color palettes,
image acquired with an integrated vi- and where further adjustments can be
sual light camera. made to all radiometric parameters and
Data Processing and Report Genera- analysis functions. The processed images
tion Software. The software used with are then inserted into report templates,
most modern thermal imaging systems is and either sent to a printer, stored elec-
both powerful and user friendly. Digital tronically, or sent to customers via an
thermal and visual images are imported Internet connection.
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
THERMOGRAPHY AND
RETURN ON INVESTMENT
9
10 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Thermal Signatures
ABNORMAL CONDITION
Figure 2-1. The thermal signatures of operating equipment can quickly indicate normal
and abnormal conditions.
ment function and failure are all required for than they solved. Furthermore, they did not
successful troubleshooting. Radiometry is always have a particularly good return on
the detection and measurement of radiant the investment.
electromagnetic energy, specifically in the
infrared part of the spectrum. Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance (PdM) is the mon-
Preventive Maintenance itoring of wear conditions and equipment
Preventive maintenance (PM) is sched- characteristics against a predetermined
uled work required to maintain equip- tolerance to predict possible malfunctions
ment in peak operating condition. PM or failures. Equipment-operation data is
minimizes equipment malfunctions and gathered and analyzed to show trends in
failures while maintaining optimum pro- performance and component characteris-
duction efficiency and safety conditions in tics. Repairs are made as required.
the facility. This results in increased ser- PdM often requires a substantial invest-
vice life, reduced downtime, and greater ment in monitoring equipment and training
overall plant efficiency. PM tasks and for personnel. It is most commonly used on
their frequency for each piece of equip- expensive or critical operating equipment.
ment are determined by manufacturer’s Data collected from monitoring equipment
is analyzed on a regular basis to determine if
specifications, equipment manuals, trade
values are within acceptable tolerances. See
publications, and worker experience.
Figure 2-3. Maintenance procedures are
A strategy of providing a compre-
performed if values are outside acceptable
hensive understanding of the operating
tolerances. The equipment is then closely
condition of equipment through condi-
monitored after maintenance procedures are
tion-based assessment and monitoring is
performed. If the problem recurs, the equip-
considered critical to PM programs. PM
ment application and design are analyzed
programs that include condition-based and changes are made as required.
assessment and monitoring of equipment With a successful PdM program,
are performed more easily through the preventive maintenance can usually be
use of thermal imaging equipment. By reduced. Certain maintenance tasks, such
reviewing thermal images of equipment, as lubrication or cleaning, are performed
repair/replace decisions become more when they are actually needed rather than
effective, overall costs are reduced, and on a fixed schedule. Thermography and
equipment reliability is increased. When thermal imaging can be used to determine
production requires that a piece of equip- equipment health and, when the condition
ment be completely functional, produc- is in question, it is also used to monitor
tion management can be assured it will be equipment until a period for maintenance
ready to perform the job as intended. is available.
Maintenance is a sophisticated set of An acceptance inspection is an in-
activities driven by specific methods. In spection performed at the time of initial
recent years, it has been discovered that equipment installation, or replacement
many of the old methods, via preventive of a component, in order to establish a
maintenance, often caused more problems baseline condition of that equipment. The
12 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
baseline condition is used for verification allow, monitored until a repair period can
of manufacturer performance specifica- be scheduled.
tions or comparisons at later points in Regardless of the maintenance pro-
time. Acceptance inspections of new or grams used within a company, the use
rebuilt equipment are critical to cost- of thermography and thermal imagers
effective PdM programs. is beneficial. When used for trouble-
Whether installing a new motor-control shooting and maintenance, the advan-
center, roof, steam line, or building insula- tages are reduced equipment outages
tion, thermal imaging is used to document and increased operating time. Other
the actual equipment condition at the time major benefits include large returns on
of acceptance. A thermal image can be investments in reliability maintenance,
used to determine if the installation was cost savings through reduced hours,
properly performed. If a deficiency in the and the reduced overall frustration of
installation is discovered, it can be im- maintenance technicians.
mediately corrected or, as circumstances
Predictive Maintenance
ELLIPSE INDICATES
START BEGINNING OR END
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE OF FLOW CHART
PROGRAM
ARROW INDICATES
DIRECTION
COLLECT DATA
YES
NO
DESIGN
CHANGE DESIGN
VALUES OK?
WITHIN YES
TOLERANCES?
NO ANALYZE DESIGN
PERFORM MAINTENANCE
PROCEDURES APPLICATION NO
CHANGE APPLICATION
OK?
RECTANGLE
NO PROBLEM YES CONTAINS SET
RECURS? ANALYZE APPLICATION OF INSTRUCTIONS
DIAMOND
CONTAINS
QUESTION
Figure 2-3. Predictive maintenance is most commonly used on the expensive or critical
equipment in a facility.
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
13
14 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
In the United States, certification is is- precautions often apply to a specific ap-
sued by the employer in compliance with plication. For example, thermographers
the standards of the American Society for who inspect electrical systems may have
Nondestructive Testing. The American a greater exposure to the potential of an
Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) arc blast.
is an organization that helps create a safer In many instances, they are inspecting
environment by serving the nondestruc- energized equipment which, immediately
tive testing professions and promoting after the enclosure has been opened, can
nondestructive testing technologies through trigger a phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground
publishing, certification, research, and arc. An arc flash is an extremely high-tem-
conferencing. In other parts of the world, perature discharge produced by an electri-
certification is provided by a central certify- cal fault in the air. Arc flash temperatures
ing body in each country that complies with can reach 35,000°F (19,427°C).
the standards of the International Organiza- An arc blast is an explosion that occurs
tion for Standardization. The International when air surrounding electrical equipment
Organization for Standardization (ISO) is becomes ionized and conductive. The threat
a nongovernmental, international organiza- of an arc blast is greatest for electrical sys-
tion that is comprised of national standards tems of 480 V and higher.
institutions from more than 90 countries. A flash protection boundary is the dis-
Under both models, qualification is tance at which personal protective equip-
based upon the appropriate training, as ment (PPE) is required for the prevention
outlined in the documents of the relevant of burns when an arc flash occurs. See
standards. A period of qualifying experi- Figure 3-2. While a circuit that is being
ence and some form of written and hands- repaired should always be de-energized,
on examination are also required. the possibility exists that nearby circuits
are still energized within the flash protec-
tion boundary. Therefore, barriers, such as
TECH-TIP insulation blankets, along with the proper
Prior to performing a thermal inspec- PPE must be used to protect against an arc
tion, the thermographer should perform flash. However, the consequences of an arc
a “walk-down” of the planned inspection blast are often deadly and extensive. Safety
route to ensure efficiency and to look for must always be practiced.
possible safety concerns. While the risk for an arc blast is mini-
mized by not opening the cover or door
to an enclosure this also eliminates most
Safety IN THE of the benefit of thermography, as we can-
WORKPLACE not see through the enclosure covers. See
A portion of any certification program is Figure 3-3. However, many enclosures
the awareness of the inherent dangers of are now installed with special infrared
thermography and the techniques and skills transparent windows or viewports. These
needed to ensure safety in the workplace. features can reduce the risk of arcing and
Common sense dictates much of what yield good results.
constitutes safe work practice but special When enclosures must be opened,
Chapter 3 — Training and Safety 15
Figure 3-2. A flash protection boundary is the suggested distance at which PPE is
required for the prevention of burns when an arc flash occurs.
have additional standards that can be used. become very easy to access. However,
For example, many have standards govern- organizations that invest in the develop-
ing electrical safety that will apply directly ment of solid thermal imaging programs
to the work of thermographers inspecting with inspection procedures and qualified
electrical systems. personnel have a distinct advantage. Typi-
Due to the large variety of thermal cally, they will have long-term benefits
imagers available today and the wide that other organizations may not receive.
range of prices, infrared technology has See Figure 3-4.
Thermal Imagers
Figure 3-4. There are different thermal imagers available for different types of
applications and inspections.
18 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
19
20 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
as either steady state or transient. During pool. Thermal capacitance describes how
a steady state transfer, the transfer rate is much energy is added or removed for a
constant and in the same direction over material to change temperature. How
time. For example, a fully warmed up quickly or slowly that change happens
machine under constant load transfers heat also depends on how the heat moves.
at a steady state rate to its surroundings. While thermal capacitance, which is
In reality, there is no such thing as perfect what we call the relationships between
steady-state heat flow. There are always heat and temperature, can be confusing, it
small transient fluctuations but for practi- can also be beneficial to a thermographer.
cal purposes, they are typically ignored. For example, finding the liquid level in a
Conduction is the transfer of thermal tank is possible because of the difference
energy from one object to another through between the thermal capacitance of the
direct contact. Convection is the transfer air and the liquid. When the tank is in
of heat that occurs when molecules move transition, the two materials often exist
and/or currents circulate between the at different temperatures.
warm and cool regions of air, gas, or fluid.
Radiation is the movement of heat that
Conduction
occurs as radiant energy (electromagnetic
waves) moves without a direct medium Conduction is the transfer of thermal en-
of transfer. When a machine warms up ergy from one object to another through
or cools down, heat is transferred in a direct contact. Heat transfer by conduction
transient manner. Understanding these occurs primarily in solids, and to some
relationships is important to thermogra- extent in fluids, as warmer molecules
phers because the movement of heat is transfer their energy directly to cooler,
often closely related to the temperature adjacent ones. For example, conduction is
of an object. experienced when touching a warm mug of
coffee or a cold can of soft drink.
The rate at which heat transfer oc-
Concept of Thermal curs depends on the conductivity of the
Capacitance materials and the temperature difference
Thermal capacitance is the ability of a (∆T or delta-temperature) between the
material to absorb and store heat. When objects. These simple relationships are
heat is transferred at varying rates and/ described more formally by Fourier’s
or in different directions, it is said to law. For example, when picking up a
be transient. hot coffee cup while wearing gloves,
Additionally, as various materials are very little heat is exchanged compared
in transition, differing amounts of energy to doing so with a bare hand. A warm
are exchanged as they change tempera- cup of coffee does not transfer as much
ture. For example, very little energy is energy as does a hot one because the
required to change the temperature of temperature difference is not as great.
the air in a room compared to the amount Similarly, when energy is transferred at
needed to change the temperature of an the same rate but over a larger area, more
equal volume of water in a swimming energy is transferred.
Chapter 4 — Practical Applied Theory 21
Insulators
WALL
DARK-COLORED AREAS
INDICATE WHERE HEAT
TRANSFER IS GREATER
LIGHT-COLORED AREAS
INDICATE WHERE HEAT
TRANSFER IS REDUCED
(INSULATION)
Figure 4-1. Insulators are installed in walls to control the transfer of heat. Poorly installed
insulation does not control heat transfer adequately.
22 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Natural Convection
COOLING TUBES
OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMER
(COOLED BY NATURAL
CONVECTION AS WARM OIL
CIRCULATES INTO COOLING
TUBES)
NORMAL CIRCULATION
PATTERNS SHOW WARM OIL
(LIGHTER) AT THE TOP AND
COOLER OIL (DARKER) AT
THE BOTTOM OF THE TUBES
DARK-COLORED TUBES
INDICATE WHERE
THERE IS LITTLE OR
NO CIRCULATION OF OIL
Figure 4-2. Natural convection occurs when warm oil rises and cool oil sinks, such as
in the cooling tubes of an oil-filled transformer.
106m
TECH-TIP
The roughness of a surface determines the
type and direction of radiation reflection.
A smooth surface is known as a specular
Figure 4-3. The electromagnetic spectrum reflector while a rough or patterned sur-
is the range of all types of electromagnetic face is known as a diffuse reflector.
radiation, based on wavelength.
24 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Emissivity
INSULATED CONDUCTOR
HAS HIGH EMISSIVITY
(EMITTED HEAT)
EMISSIVITY AFFECTED BY
MATERIAL TYPE, SURFACE
CONDITION, TEMPERATURE,
AND WAVELENGTH
Figure 4-5. Emissivity can be affected by material type, surface condition, temperature,
and wavelength.
of a cavity will approach 0.98 when it is
Emissivity Values
of Common Materials seven times deeper than it is wide.
Material Emissivity*
Aluminum, polished 0.05 Surface Temperature
Brick, common 0.85 Typically, because only the surface-
Brick, refractory, rough 0.94
temperature patterns of most objects are
Cast iron, rough casting 0.81
Concrete 0.54 seen (as they are opaque) thermographers
Copper, polished 0.01 must interpret and analyze these patterns
Copper, oxidized to black 0.88 and relate them to the object’s internal
Electrical tape, black plastic 0.95 temperatures and structures. For example,
Glass 0.92
the exterior wall of a house will display
Lacquer, Bakelite 0.93
Paint, average oil-based 0.94 patterns of various temperatures, but the
Paper, black, dull 0.94 task of a thermographer is to relate them
Porcelain, glazed 0.92 to the structure and thermal performance
Rubber 0.93 of the house. To accurately do this, there
Steel, galvanized 0.28
must be a basic understanding of how heat
Steel, oxidized strongly 0.88
Tar paper 0.92
travels through different components and
Water 0.98 materials in the wall.
* Emissivities of almost all materials are measured at 0°C During cold weather, heat from inside
(32°F) but do not differ significantly at room temperature.
the house travels through the structure of
Figure 4-6. The emissivity values of the wall to the exterior surface, and then
many common materials can be found in the surface comes into thermal equilibrium
emissivity tables. with its surroundings. It is at this point that
26 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
thermographers view that surface with a imager model). Also, since infrared test
thermal imager and must interpret what is instruments do not require contact with
shown. These relationships can often be the objects being tested, infrared technol-
quite complex, but are best understood in ogy has tremendous value because of the
many cases by simply using common sense increased accuracy of measurements.
and paying attention to basic science. Because temperature measurements
are based on the detection of infrared
Emissivity radiation, the following factors can be
expected to reduce temperature measure-
Metals that are unpainted or not heavily
ment accuracy:
oxidized are difficult to read in a thermal
image because they emit little and reflect • Emissivity values below 0.6
a great deal. Whether we are just looking • Temperature variations of ±30°C
at the thermal patterns or actually making (54°F)
a radiometric temperature measurement, • Making measurements beyond the
we need to take these factors into account. resolution of the system (target too
In many thermal imagers, corrections small or far away)
can be made for both the emissivity and
• Field of view
reflected thermal background. Emissivity
correction tables have been developed for
many materials. Field of View (FOV)
While emissivity correction tables A field of view (FOV) is a specification
can be useful for understanding how a that defines the size of what is seen in the
material will behave, the reality of mak- thermal image. The lens has the greatest
ing a correction for most low-emissivity influence on what the FOV will be, regard-
surfaces is that errors can be unacceptably less of the size of the array. Large arrays,
large. Low-emissivity surfaces should be however, provide greater detail, regardless
altered by some means, such as covering of the lens used, compared to narrow ar-
it with electrical tape or paint, in order to
rays. For some applications, such as work
increase the emissivity. This makes both
in outdoor substations or inside a building,
interpretation and measurement accurate
a large FOV is useful. While smaller arrays
and practical.
may provide sufficient detail in a build-
ing, more detail is important in substation
Temperature work. See Figure 4-7.
Measurement AccuRacy
The accuracy of modern infrared test Instantaneous Field of View
instruments is quite high. When viewing (IFOV)
high-emissivity, moderately warm sur- An instantaneous field of view (IFOV) is a
faces within the measurement resolution specification used to describe the capability
of a system, test accuracy is typically of a thermal imager to resolve spatial detail
±2°C (3.6°F) or 2% of the measurement (spatial resolution). The IFOV is typically
(but can vary according to the thermal specified as an angle in milliradians (mRad).
Chapter 4 — Practical Applied Theory 27
Figure 4-7. The field of view (FOV) is a specification that defines the area that is seen
in the thermal image when using a specific lens.
When projected from the detector through about the radiation of a target to measure
the lens, the IFOV gives the size of an object it than it does to detect it. It is vital to un-
that can be seen at a given distance. derstand and work within the spatial and
An IFOV measurement is the measure- measurement resolution specific to each
ment resolution of a thermal imager that TECH-TIP
describes the smallest size object that
can be measured at a given distance. See All thermal imager targets radiate energy
Figure 4-8. It is specified as an angle (in measurable on the infrared spectrum.
As the target heats up, it radiates more
mRad) but is typically larger by a factor of
energy. Very hot targets radiate enough
three than the IFOV. This is due to the fact energy to be seen by the human eye.
that the imager requires more information
28 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
system. Failure to do so can lead to inac- often have a large gradient, even over a
curate data or overlooked findings. small physical distance. Therefore, care
should always be taken when interpret-
Environmental Effects ing a thermal image to understand what
The value of a surface measurement, internal conditions may be like.
even if accurate, may decrease sig- A similar decrease in value occurs
nificantly when the thermal gradient when external influences on surface tem-
between the surface being viewed and perature are significant or unknown. For
the internal heat source is great, such as example, this can occur when viewing the
for internal fault connections in oil-filled low-slope roof of a building for moisture
electrical equipment. A thermographer intrusion in strong wind. Evidence of
simply will not see much of a change moisture cannot be seen. The characteris-
on the surface as the internal connec- tic thermal signature often disappears. Wet
tion changes. Surprisingly, even objects surfaces can also be confusing when either
such as bolted electrical connections evaporation or freezing is occurring.
Figure 5-1. The “hot spot” on the thermal image Figure 5-2. Under the proper conditions, liquid
does not always indicate the primary problem. level in a storage tank can be easily detected.
The top fuse may be blown, and the center fuse
may have a possible problem as well.
Figure 5-3. A blue (or dark) spot on the thermal Figure 5-4. The lighter-colored, wispy thermal
image shows an area of unexpected moisture patterns in this picture-in-picture (PIP) thermal
in a ceiling. image of an HVAC register indicate excessive
air leakage in the ductwork connections.
29
30 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-5. Unexpected thermal patterns on Figure 5-6. The circulation fan motor on the
an annealing furnace can be an indication of right side of this annealing furnace may have
possible refractory insulation breakdown. a potential problem, as it is operating hotter
than the others.
Figure 5-8. While the thermal image of a motor and coupling shows thermal patterns on both
sides that are indicative of a coupling alignment problem, the visible light image indicates no
evidence of a problem.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 31
Figure 5-9. Thermography can be used to Figure 5-10. Thermography can be used to
monitor refractory performance over time and view hidden building construction and other
detect problem areas in cement kilns and other features, such as an earthen berm on the
process equipment. exterior of this gymnasium.
Figure 5-11. A misfire in a cylinder of a diesel-electric power plant shows different, cooler thermal
patterns than normally operating cylinders.
Figure 5-12. Thermal imagers can be used Figure 5-13. The thermal image of a normally
to scan large buildings and facilities to locate operating motor on an air-handling system
unexpected thermal variations that could shows heat dissipating from the vents.
indicate potential problems.
32 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-14. The light-colored area of the Figure 5-15. A hot bushing and tap on an
fuse bank indicates the possibility of a high- elevated transformer is a clear sign of a
resistance issue or an internal problem with problem.
the center phase.
Figure 5-18. A possible load imbalance on the Figure 5-19. With the proper knowledge of
far right fuse can be overlooked unless level and mechanical equipment, a technician can
span of the image is adjusted. often perform many troubleshooting and
maintenance activities.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 33
Figure 5-20. A potential internal problem is Figure 5-21. Thermal imagers can be used to
visible when comparing similar components detect wet insulation associated with a water
under similar load conditions. leak on a low-sloped roof. If conditions are
right and the metal roof deck is painted, it may
be possible to detect such signatures from
the interior.
Figure 5-22. The use of saturation colors and Figure 5-23. Although two different motor and
color alarms in a grayscale palette can be useful pump sets show different thermal patterns, both
for determining the hot water and steam valves patterns may indicate acceptable operation.
that are open and operating properly.
Figure 5-24. Thermal patterns in block wall Figure 5-25. The dark-colored areas show
construction show the intrusion of moisture coolant traveling through the coils of a
at the connection of two walls, as well as commercial window-unit air conditioner.
unexpected construction irregularities.
34 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-26. The effects of low-emissivity Figure 5-27. Thermal imaging can be used
materials on thermal imaging are apparent to determine when equipment is not properly
in the image of a metal-clad tanker truck. The operating. The thermal image of the motor
metal reflects the coolness of the clear sky and pump set in the back indicates that it is
and the heat radiated from the ground on a unexpectedly not running.
sunny day.
Figure 5-28. The right-side bearing cap of this Figure 5-29. Thermography can even be used
air-handling unit is significantly warmer than for applications such as troubleshooting a
the other indicating a potential lubrication, heating wire on an outdoor water line, which
alignment, or belt problem. cannot be allowed to freeze in cold weather.
Figure 5-30. All things on ear th emit Figure 5-31. A nighttime thermal image of a
infrared energy including cold glaciers on container ship shows that the exhaust stack
mountaintops. and engine room can be detected even from
long distances.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 35
Figure 5-32. In the visible light photo, it is difficult to clearly see the details of the city skyline, or
the sky, on a hazy, late-summer day. However, with thermal imaging, the details, as well as the
different types of clouds in the sky, can be easily seen.
Figure 5-33. Even minor detected surface Figure 5-34. Locating problems, such as a
temperatures can indicate serious problems hot latch and hinge ends of a high-voltage
such as a shared neutral line or improper disconnect, can be simple in conditions such
neutral-ground on a lighting system. This can as adequate load and little or no wind.
cause the metal conduit inside the wall to heat
up to the point where a fire hazard may exist.
Figure 5-35. Certain problems can be detected even at a great distance (left) by using a thermal
imager. More detailed analysis often requires working with a telephoto lens or by simply moving
closer (right) to the equipment.
36 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-38. A small section of fiberglass Figure 5-39. Because of poor air sealing, warm
insulation missing in a building can cause air can bypass the fiberglass insulation as it has
abnormal air leakage along the edges of other in many sections of this commercial building.
areas.
Figure 5-40. A transformer that appears to be Figure 5-41. Conditioned air can leak through
operating warmer than others on an elevated the joints of the HVAC ductwork into the wall
rack can be the sign of a potential problem. behind a diffuser.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 37
Figure 5-42. The warm areas on a surface of a Figure 5-43. A red-colored “saturation palette”
boiler can be caused by refractory breakdown, clearly shows the poor fit of fiberglass insulation
air leakage, or a combination of both. in a slant ceiling.
Figure 5-44. The connection to the fuse clip Figure 5-45. The temperature of a motor casing
in a motor control center (MCC) is abnormally can quickly be checked to determine if it is
warm. operating normally.
Figure 5-48. A thermal image of the exterior Figure 5-49. Areas of missing insulation show
view of a building can clearly show problem up as warm spots from the exterior of a building
areas such as the lighter sections where during cold weather.
insulation is missing.
Figure 5-50. Warm spots in the center of Figure 5-51. Thermal imaging can be used
double-glazed windows can indicate a loss of to document problems such as missing or
the insulating argon gas that normally fills the damaged insulation.
space between the windowpanes.
Figure 5-52. An abnormally warm bearing in an Figure 5-53. An area of wet roof insulation
overhead trolley can lead to excessive power shows up as a warm spot on the roof in the
consumption and a stretched chain over time. early evening when the conditions are optimal
for taking thermal images.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 39
Figure 5-54. A cast iron cooking pan displays a Figure 5-55. The light-colored area in an oil-
unique thermal signature as it is heated. filled circuit breaker shows that the internal
connection from the bushing cap to the bushing
rod is abnormally hot.
Figure 5-56. A light-colored area indicates the Figure 5-57. When using a thermal imager, the
water level in a municipal water-storage tank. level of liquid propane in a storage tank can
easily be seen.
Figure 5-58. The thermal signature of a three- Figure 5-59. Two of the six bushing caps on an
phase dry transformer indicates that the primary oil-filled circuit breaker are abnormally hot and
lead to the left phase is abnormally warm. represent a condition that would have proved
costly had it not been detected and repaired.
40 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-60. A properly working steam trap Figure 5-61. Liquid levels in storage tanks
should be warmer on the steam side and are easily seen with a thermal imager when
cooler on the condensate side as is the case conditions are optimal.
in this image.
Figure 5-62. Although a stove burner appears Figure 5-63. The many warm areas on the
warm, the flame is barely visible in a long-wave exterior front wall of a commercial building
thermal image. are associated with poorly installed fiberglass
insulation.
Figure 5-64. In addition to wet insulation, many Figure 5-65. Thermal signatures on single-ply
objects on a roof can have warm signatures roofs with foam insulation can be more subtle
such as the vent hood on the HVAC system. than signatures on built-up roofs.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 41
Figure 5-66. A thermal signature can be used to determine the operation of each stage in a
two-stage pump.
Figure 5-67. A belt rubbing against an overhead Figure 5-68. Excessive heat loss can be
conveyor system tray creates a hot spot in the caused by warm air bypassing insulation and
thermal signature. The belt became misaligned can be a significant and costly problem in many
due to a nearby worn roller bearing. As a result, buildings even when they are insulated.
increased friction contributed to the overheating
of a driver motor.
Figure 5-69. Poorly installed loose-fill insulation Figure 5-70. The nose of a person’s face is
in an existing wall cavity can settle and not often colder than other parts of the body due to
perform as well as it should. less blood flow and more convective cooling.
42 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-71. Both liquid and sludge levels in Figure 5-72. Cold water streaming into a sink
a tank are often detectable when a tank is in full of warm water results in convective heat
thermal transition. transfer.
Figure 5-73. The gold-plated dome of a government building reflects the relatively cold sky.
Figure 5-74. The light-colored areas on the Figure 5-75. The red-colored areas of the
thermal image of a belt and pulleys probably image indicate several conveyor roller bearings
indicates an out of alignment condition. that are abnormally heated.
Chapter 5 — Color Thermal Images of Applications 43
Figure 5-76. Moisture can penetrate the stone Figure 5-77. This thermal image shows a
façade of a commercial structure, leaving it normally operating, open hydraulic valve.
vulnerable to damage.
Figure 5-78. The heating pattern on a normally Figure 5-79. Light-colored areas indicate where
operating pump motor has a uniform thermal heat escapes from uninsulated sections of a
signature. steam system near the valves.
Figure 5-80. Cool air that escapes from Figure 5-81. The right-hand electrical plug for
underneath an entry door leaves a wispy, finger- a bank of computer servers shows a thermal
like pattern on the hallway floor. pattern that indicates either a high-resistance
connection or an internal wiring problem.
44 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-82. The bright-colored area indicates Figure 5-83. The differing color on both sides
a possible high-resistance connection or of this in-line condenser unit and bypass value
component failure in a lighting control panel. indicates expected operation.
Figure 5-84. This thermal image indicates Figure 5-85. A thermal image of a normally
that the transformer on the right may have an functioning HVAC compressor can show a
internal fault. wide temperature difference between different
sections and components.
Figure 5-86. Thermal imaging can be useful in Figure 5-87. Moisture from an inadequately
heat tracing for high-resistance connections in drained roof can leak into the concrete block
low-voltage control systems. and façade of a building.
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
THERMOGRAPHY APPLICATIONS
45
46 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
HEAD PROTECTION
(HARD HAT)
EYE PROTECTION
(GLASSES AND
FACE SHIELD)
SKIN PROTECTION
(FLAME-RESISTANT
CLOTHING)
HAND PROTECTION
(GLOVES)
Figure 6-1. PPE typically includes eye, head, skin, and hand protection designed to mitigate
the potential damage caused by the intense heat and other hazards of an arc flash.
Chapter 6 — Thermography Applications 47
that are successful are able to virtually operating normally should exhibit thermal
eliminate unscheduled downtime due to signatures that are very close to the ambi-
electrical failures. ent air temperature. See Figure 6-3. It is
useful to employ other types of testing,
such as vibration or motor circuit analysis,
Electromechanical in conjunction with thermography.
and Mechanical Thermography has proven particularly
Applications
Electromechanical and mechanical inspec- Thermal Signatures
tions cover a diverse variety of equipment.
Thermal imaging has proven invaluable for NORMAL SIGNATURE
inspecting equipment such as motors, ro- (BEARING NEAR AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE)
tating equipment, and steam traps. Most of
these applications are qualitative. The cur-
rent thermal image is typically compared to
a previous one. Any differences resulting
from a change in equipment condition are
then noted. A thermographer must have a
solid knowledge of heat transfer in order
to understand how equipment functions
and fails.
Motors are thermally inspected because ABNORMAL SIGNATURE
(BEARING WARMER
they are very susceptible to heat-related THAN AMBIENT
failure. For example, motor misalignment TEMPERATURE)
or imbalance typically results in overheat-
ing. While it is useful to look at the surface Figure 6-3. Motor couplings and shaft
temperature of a motor housing, changes bearings operating normally should exhibit
to the internal temperatures of a motor are a thermal signature that is very close to
not always immediately obvious. It can be ambient air temperature.
valuable to take thermal images of the mo-
tor either over time or in comparison with valuable for inspecting low-speed rotating
similar operating motors. For example, this equipment, such as conveyors, where other
can help to reveal a motor that has become inspection methods may not be useful or
clogged with dust or that is single-phased reliable. More complex types of equip-
and overheating. ment, such as turbines, gearboxes, and
The thermal signature of motor bear- heat exchangers, can also be inspected
ings can also be used for inspections. with a thermal imager. However, they often
For example, if motor bearings are much require a more significant investment in
warmer than the motor, it is an indica- creating a baseline of test data before the
tion of a possible problem that should be results from subsequent inspections pay
investigated in greater detail. Similarly, any returns.
motor couplings and shaft bearings that are
50 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Figure 6-4. One of the most common applications for thermography is locating or
confirming levels of material in vessels such as storage tanks and silos.
Figure 6-5. Roof moisture inspections are nondestructive and easily performed with
a thermal imager.
INSPECTION METHODOLOGIES
57
58 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
BASELINE THERMOGRAPHY
A baseline inspection is intended to estab-
lish a reference point of equipment oper-
ating under normal operating conditions
THREE PHASE and in good working order. It is critical to
ELECTRICAL
BREAKER determine what is the normal or desired
RED AND YELLOW COLORED AREAS equipment condition and use this as a
REPRESENT POSSIBLE PROBLEM baseline signature to which later images
(HIGH-RESISTANCE CONNECTION)
are compared. Often the baseline signature
Figure 7-1. Comparative thermography is uniform or related in some manner to
can be used on a three-phase electrical the inherent structure of the object being
breaker and show one of the phases being viewed. For example, after a motor is in-
warmer compared to the others. stalled and brought into normal operation,
Chapter 7 — Inspection Methodologies 59
any differences in the thermal signature railroad car over time to determine
will probably show up in subsequent optimum maintenance downtime sched-
thermal images. See Figure 7-2. uling. See Figure 7-3.
It is important for a thermographer
to understand all variables present
Baseline Thermography with the equipment that is inspected.
Thermographers must understand the
operating principles of various systems
and develop troubleshooting skills. If
data is carefully gathered and changes
are understood, these methods can re-
veal a very accurate and useful trend of
performance. However, it is important
to remember that trending only implies,
rather than predicts, the future.
THERMAL TRENDING
Another method of thermal inspection
is known as thermal trending. Thermal
trending is a process used by ther-
mographers to compare temperature
distributions in the same component
over time. Thermal trending is used
extensively especially for inspecting
mechanical equipment where normal
thermal signatures may be complex. It
is also useful when the thermal signa-
Figure 7-3. Thermal trending is used for
tures that detect failure often develop inspecting high-temperature equipment
slowly over time. For example, thermal where normal thermal signatures, such as
trending can be used when monitoring this torpedo car (filled with molten metal),
the performance of a refractory (high- can be complex, and may only indicate
temperature) insulation in a specialty insulation failure over time.
60 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Palettes
Palettes
A palette is a color scheme used to display the thermal variations and patterns in a
thermal image. Whether inspecting or analyzing, the objective is to select the palette
that best identifies and communicates the problem. Ideally, a thermal imager that
allows the user to select or change the desired palette both in the camera and in the
software should be chosen. For example, certain applications may be better viewed
and analyzed in a monochromatic palette such as grayscale or amber. Other situations
may be easier to analyze and explain in a color palette such as ironbow, blue-red,
or one with a high contrast. A wide selection of available color palettes allows the
thermographer greater flexibility in thermal inspection, analysis, and reporting.
BLUE-RED IRONBOW
GRAYSCALE HIGH-CONTRAST
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
ANALYSIS, REPORTING,
AND DOCUMENTATION
I n addition to being able to properly handle and use a thermal imager, a
thermographer’s job is to analyze, report, and document the results of the
equipment they inspect. Special analysis tools are available to properly complete
these tasks.
INSPECTION ANALYSIS communicated in the form of a written
report. Part of the reporting process may
Thermography is highly dependent on
require educating the customer about the
the ability of a thermographer to conduct
inherent limitations of thermal imaging
an inspection correctly, understand the
technology and the value of thermal
limitations of the work, record all relevant
inspections. In the end, the report often
data, and properly interpret the results. The
results in prescribed actions to correct
variables encountered by a thermographer
all problems revealed during the thermal
can be varied and numerous. As a result,
inspection.
thermographers must be properly trained and
A thermographer typically also
qualified to perform thermal inspections.
provides additional information including
Thermographers can be certified as
the location of the problem, diagnosis,
Level I, Level II, or Level III with Level I
and suggested corrective actions. A
being the lowest level of certification and
thermographer provides key information
Level III the highest level. Under the
from a thermal inspection that must be
implementation of a formal thermography
merged with additional information from
program, a certified Level I thermographer
other inspections or tests, maintenance or
is qualified to collect data but must work
repair scheduling, and cost analysis before
under the supervision of a certified Level
a successful conclusion is achieved.
II thermographer. Level II thermographers
Therefore, good communication skills are
are qualified to interpret data and write
as essential as good technical skills.
reports. A formal thermography program
Reports can come in many styles and
must have written inspection procedures,
include a variety of data. However, a report
typically based on industry standards and
should include the following information:
developed with the support of a certified
Level III thermographer. • Name of thermographer
• Make, model, and serial number of
thermal imager
REPORTING AND
• Relevant ambient environmental
DOCUMENTATION conditions, such as wind speed, wind
After thermal data is correctly evaluated, direction, precipitation, humidity, and
the results may be required to be clearly ambient air temperature
61
62 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
THERMOGRAPHY RESOURCES
63
64 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
Books and printed materials are sources Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
on hard copy that can be used as techni-
1828 L Street NW www.ieee.org
cal references. They serve to increase the Suite 1202
knowledge of any individual who uses Washington, DC 20036
thermography and infrared technology 202-785-0017
for testing and inspection purposes. International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC)
There are several books and printed
materials available. 3, rue de Varembe′ www.iec.ch
PO Box 131
CH-121 Geneva 20
Switzerland
Professional Organizations
International Organization for
A professional organization is an or- Standardization (ISO)
ganization that provides information 1, ch. de la Voie-Creuse www.iso.org
and education regarding thermography Case postale 56
CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland
through publications, training events, +41 22 749 01 11
and participation in local chapters. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Thermographers and technicians are
1 Batterymarch Park www.nfpa.org
encouraged to join and participate in Quincy, MA 02169
various professional organizations. 617-770-3000
Such membership helps individuals to Figure 9-1. Standards are accepted
maintain an awareness of the latest in references or practices developed by
technology, trends, and changes in the industry professionals and are available
industry. Participation in a professional through various organizations.
Introduction to
Thermography Principles
65
66 INTRODUCTION TO THERMOGRAPHY PRINCIPLES
It can also assess the quality of power tems, and friction in bearings, as well as
being supplied to sensitive electronic many other equipment problems.
equipment.
Vibration Analysis
Electrical Analysis Vibration analysis is the monitoring of
individual component vibration charac-
teristics to determine the condition of the
equipment. Worn parts frequently cause
equipment failure. They also produce
increased vibration or noise that can be
isolated. Vibration analysis is the most
common form of monitoring technique
that is used on rotating equipment.
P.O. Box 6 Tel: +1-802-229-9820 Email: fluketraining@thesnellgroup.com 12100 Sunset Hills Road www.afe.org 1 Batterymarch Park www.nfpa.org
Suite 130 Quincy, MA 02169
Montpelier, VT 05601 Fax: +1-802-223-0460 http://www.thesnellgroup.com Reston, VA 20190 617-770-3000
+1-800-636-9820 (toll-free 703-234-4066
in the US and Canada)
The Snell Group is the world’s leading expert on using infrared thermography (IR) and motor
circuit analysis (MCA). The Snell Group offers training, certification, inspection, and consulting Thermography Publications
services for IR and MCA professionals and their programs worldwide.
Title: Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, Vol. 3, Infrared and Thermal Testing
American Technical Publishers, Inc. Author: Xavier Maldague and Patrick Moore
Publisher: ASNT, © 2001
Softcover, 732 pages
Title: Proceedings of Thermal Solutions ® Conference, Volumes 1998–2008
10100 Orland Parkway Tel: +1-800-323-3471 Email: service@americantech.net Author: Various Industry Experts
Suite 200 (toll-free in the US http://www.go2atp.com
Orland Park, IL 60467 and Canada) Publisher: The Snell Group © 2008
Softcover or CD-ROM
Since 1898, ATP has been the leader in quality training materials for career and technical
education and industrial and apprenticeship programs. We are vitally interested in quality training
materials for today's students and workers. The primary purpose of our learning materials is to On-Line Resources
provide trade information to help build the skills required for employment and advancement in
a trade. www.IRTalk.com
Created by the Snell Group to serve the needs of practicing thermographers who are interested
in learning more about infrared technology. Includes four separate forums (Applications,
IR Classroom, Equipment Talk, and Classifieds) to address those needs. Registration is required
to post messages.
www.flukecommunity.com
Sponsored by the Fluke Corporation, allows test- and measurement-tool users and professionals
from all over the world to interact and share knowledge. Topics include thermography,
maintenance and troubleshooting, predictive maintenance, power quality and harmonics,
motors and drives, safety, power distribution systems, and a wide range of other information
about specific applications and test tools. Registration is required to post messages.
www.ATPeResources.com
Created by American Technical Publishers, the web site provides a variety of instructional
resources on topics such as boilers, building and electrical trades, drafting, and math. Registration
is required to post messages.
www.thesnellgroup.com
The Snell Group provides training and consulting services for infrared thermography. The
web site lists their courses and distance learning opportunities as well as a number of other
resources including newsletters, white papers, and information about their annual conference.
fold line
fold line
Thermography Contacts Professional Organizations
Fluke Thermography InterNational Electrical Testing
Affordable Comfort, Inc. (ACI) Association (NETA)
33 Church Street www.affordablecomfort.org 3050 Old Centre Avenue www.netaworld.org
Suite 204 Suite 102
Waynesburg, PA 15370 Portage, MI 49024
724-627-5200 269-488-6382
6920 Seaway Blvd Tel: +1-800-760-4523 Email: thermography@fluke.com International Union of Operating Engineers
American Institute of Architects (AIA) (IUOE)
PO Box 9090 (toll-free in the US http://www.fluke.com/thermography
Everett, WA 98203 and Canada) 1735 New York Avenue, NW www.aia.org 1125 17th Street, NW www.iuoe.org
Other regions: +1-425-446-4620 Washington, DC 20006 Washington, DC 20036
202-626-7300 202-429-9100
Fluke Corporation, established in 1948, is the world leader and innovator in the design,
manufacture, distribution, and service of thermal imagers and other electronic test and American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, The Society of Maintenance & Reliability
measurement tools and software. and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Professionals (SMRP)
(ASHRAE)
The Snell Group 1791 Tullie Circle, NE www.ashrae.org 8400 Westpark Drive, 2nd Floor www.smrp.org
Atlanta, GA 30329 McLean, VA 22102
404-636-8400 703-245-8011
P.O. Box 6 Tel: +1-802-229-9820 Email: fluketraining@thesnellgroup.com 12100 Sunset Hills Road www.afe.org 1 Batterymarch Park www.nfpa.org
Suite 130 Quincy, MA 02169
Montpelier, VT 05601 Fax: +1-802-223-0460 http://www.thesnellgroup.com Reston, VA 20190 617-770-3000
+1-800-636-9820 (toll-free 703-234-4066
in the US and Canada)
The Snell Group is the world’s leading expert on using infrared thermography (IR) and motor
circuit analysis (MCA). The Snell Group offers training, certification, inspection, and consulting Thermography Publications
services for IR and MCA professionals and their programs worldwide.
Title: Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, Vol. 3, Infrared and Thermal Testing
American Technical Publishers, Inc. Author: Xavier Maldague and Patrick Moore
Publisher: ASNT, © 2001
Softcover, 732 pages
Title: Proceedings of Thermal Solutions ® Conference, Volumes 1998–2008
10100 Orland Parkway Tel: +1-800-323-3471 Email: service@americantech.net Author: Various Industry Experts
Suite 200 (toll-free in the US http://www.go2atp.com
Orland Park, IL 60467 and Canada) Publisher: The Snell Group © 2008
Softcover or CD-ROM
Since 1898, ATP has been the leader in quality training materials for career and technical
education and industrial and apprenticeship programs. We are vitally interested in quality training
materials for today's students and workers. The primary purpose of our learning materials is to On-Line Resources
provide trade information to help build the skills required for employment and advancement in
a trade. www.IRTalk.com
Created by the Snell Group to serve the needs of practicing thermographers who are interested
in learning more about infrared technology. Includes four separate forums (Applications,
IR Classroom, Equipment Talk, and Classifieds) to address those needs. Registration is required
to post messages.
www.flukecommunity.com
Sponsored by the Fluke Corporation, allows test- and measurement-tool users and professionals
from all over the world to interact and share knowledge. Topics include thermography,
maintenance and troubleshooting, predictive maintenance, power quality and harmonics,
motors and drives, safety, power distribution systems, and a wide range of other information
about specific applications and test tools. Registration is required to post messages.
www.ATPeResources.com
Created by American Technical Publishers, the web site provides a variety of instructional
resources on topics such as boilers, building and electrical trades, drafting, and math. Registration
is required to post messages.
www.thesnellgroup.com
The Snell Group provides training and consulting services for infrared thermography. The
web site lists their courses and distance learning opportunities as well as a number of other
resources including newsletters, white papers, and information about their annual conference.
fold line
This content is excerpted from the publication, Introduction to Thermography Principles.
© 2009 by American Technical Publishers, Inc., Fluke Corporation, and The Snell Group