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MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

This module will introduce students to the field of research. This will define the word “research”, its
importance, as well as discussions on the steps on how to conduct a research. Research is a very important
tool in the health sciences. It helps determine innovations and new discoveries to improve quality of life.

A research has five parts, namely: 1) Introduction; 2) Theoretical Background; 3) Methodology; 4) Results
and Discussion; 5) Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations. A research proposal will
contain the first three parts of the entire research manuscript.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, the student should be able:

1.To discuss definition and characteristics of research.

2. To enumerate and discuss the steps in conducting research.

2. To identify and analyze researchable situations or problems

3. To formulate a properly aligned statement of the problem, research title and research objectives which
are clear, specific and measurable.

4. To determine the purpose or significance of the study.

5. To construct a research or theoretical framework

6. To identify and differentiate study variables

Definition of Research

The word research is a combination of two words “re” and “search”. Research is the investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of previously accepted theories
or laws in the light of new facts or evidences. This is a careful study that is done to find and report new
knowledge about something.

There are several reasons of doing a research. Some of the reasons include:

1. For degree purpose , academic and career development.

2. To serve and contribute to the development of the society.

3. To solve a currently existing problem or condition

4. To support a claim or hypothesis.

Research is a scientific process of critical selection of data, investigation, and analysis of such, in order to
gain new knowledge or complement existing one (Martinez, 1988). Research follows a scientific method of

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inquiry. This means that the inquiry must be answered through scientific method to be supported by
empirical data.

Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions.

1. Systematic. We can say that the research is systematic when there is a set of procedure being
followed

2. Organized. The set of procedure is a planned procedure focused and limited to a specific scope.

3. Finding answers. This is the end of all research. This is the establishment of findings and
principles demonstrated through repeated investigations.

4. Questions. The research begins with a question in the mind of the researcher. This is the focus
and purpose of the research.

Characteristics of Research

1. Demands a clear statement of the problem

2. Requires clear objectives and a plan
3. Builds on existing data/work of other people
4. Generalizable
5. Empirically verifiable

For the field of Medical Technology , our focus is to gather and collect empirical evidences that will support
are health research hypothesis or claim.

Empirical evidence can be collected by experimentation, systematic observation, interviews or

surveys , psychological or clinical testing and careful examination of documents.

Types of Research in Health

1.Basic “pure” Research : nature of normal events , physical , chemical and functional mechanisms of
life processes and disease.

Ex. Anatomy, physiology, histology, pharmacology, chemistry , molecular biology etc.

2. Applied Research: Application of existing knowledge to a specific biomedical problem.

Ex. development of a new drug/ therapy/procedure, identify determinants of health and disease

2.1 Epidemiological Research – distribution and determinants of disease in human population

(risk/protective factors)

2.2 Clinical Research – Disease process including identification of determinants of illness

outcomes. Prognostic factors, interventions(treatments and drugs) that directly improve healthcare.

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Steps in Conducting Research

A. Identification of research problem
B. Planning the research
- Development / Writing of research proposal
C. Implementation of study
- Data collection
- Data processing and analysis
- Interpretation of results
- Final report writing
D. Dissemination of results
- Scientific publication, presentation for administrators and policy-makers

Problem Identification/Hypothesis

Objective Formulation

Review of Related Literature

Research Design

Sampling Design and Sample Size Estimation

Data Collection and Data Analysis

Writing the Report

Dissemination of Result

PUBLISH YOUR WORK!

Problem Identification

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A researcher’s first step in doing a research is to identify a problem or a topic he has to work on. It is the
reason for the entire research and this will establish the direction of the research activity. In selecting a
problem, the researcher should take in to consideration his personal interests, previous trainings and
experiences, nature of the topic to be investigated, feasibility, and ethics. Also, factors such as availability
of data, funds, time, and cost should also be considered.

Sources of the Research Problem

1. Technological and scientific advancement. Advances in health research depend on the

identification of questions and problems that promote the development of more powerful theories
of health, illness and disability, and then devising more effective ways of assessing, treating and
preventing health problems.

2. Experiences and researcher’s expertise. A research problem can also be formulated

depending on the expertise of the researcher who have a combination of theoretical knowledge
and practical experience.

3. Problems in work environment. Researcher can generate problems from his work environment
such as human behavior, a particular disease or condition, or some findings in the laboratory that
needs further investigation

4. Professional and educational background. This can also influence the interest of the
researcher.

5. Offshoots of other researches. At the end of any research report are recommendations for
further research. A researcher can consider this as a source of his own research problem.

State the
Formulate the
State the research Analyze the problems and
hypothesis if
Problem problem subproblems
applicable
clearly

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY:

Answer the following questions:

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1. Define research.
2. What are the parts of a research report?
3. What are the sources of research problem? Give examples for each source.

GROUP ACTIVITY:
List down at least five (5) research problems that you would like to pursue throughout this course.

Statement of the Problem

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This is made in the first chapter of the research report. It may be in the form of a question or a declarative
statement. Either form, the statement of the problem should be precise, clear, and accurate. This should
not be answerable by a “yes” or a “no”. If in case it is answerable by yes or no, another relevant question
should follow.

Example: Question form

The study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of the medical technologists working in the hospital in terms of:

a. Age b. Sex

c. Civil status d. Length of service

2. What is the level of the job performance of Medical Technologists based on evaluation by their
supervisors?

3. To what extent can predictions be made on the level of job performance based on board
examination scores?

Example: Declarative Statements

The study seeks to discuss the following topics:

1. The profile of the medical technologists working in the hospital in terms of:

a. Age b. Sex

c. Civil status d. Length of service

2. The job performance of medical technologists based on evaluation by their supervisors.

3. The predictive ability of board examination scores on level of job performance.

In the examples above, there was no major problem stated. But, the researcher may put one major problem
and the rest as sub-problems for easy interpretation of data.

Research Title

Once you have identified and formulated the research problem, the title of the research should be
formulated.

1. It should give the bird’s eye view of the research.

2. It should serve as a framework of the research report.

3. It should not be more than 20 words. Other facts can be placed in the scope and delimitation of
the study.

4. The following words should be eliminated:

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a. Study of

b. An investigation of

c. An inquiry into

d. An analysis of

Examples:

1. The Effectiveness of Commonly Used Detergents on Isolated Staphylococcus aureus

from Food Utensils

2. The Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Severe Diarrhea in a Metropolitan

Area

3. Prevalence of Tuberculosis among Families with Incomes Below the Poverty Line in
Sampaloc Area

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY:
Answer the following questions:
1. Create one statement of the problem in question form, then convert the same statement to a
declarative form.
2. What are the factors to be considered in creating a good research title?

GROUP ACTIVITY:
Using the 5 research problems you have enumerated earlier:
1. Give a title of the research projects you are interested in.
2. Formulate the statement of the problem for each research problem

Research Objectives

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After the research topic and research problem are identified, the specific areas of interest within the topic
are considered. This is done by formulating research objectives.

The research objectives reflect the questions whose answers the investigator wants to pursue in the study.
It can be categorized into general and specific objectives. A general objective is a generic statement
which describes in broad terms what the study wishes to accomplish. It is derive from the statement of the
research problem. Specific objectives identify in detail and in measurable terms the aims of the research
project. It breaks down what needs to be accomplished into smaller components. It is derived from the
components of the problem

In formulating objectives, use action words specific enough to be measured such as:

1. To determine

2. To compare

3. To describe

Qualities of a GOOD objective:

1.Specific

2,Measurable

3.Attainable

4.Realistic

5.Time-bound , if appropriate

Do not use vague non-action words such as:

1. To appreciate

2. To understand

3. To explore

Examples of Research Objectives:

General objective

To determine the effectiveness of nutrition education program for schoolchildren.

Specific objectives

1. To determine and compare the prevalence of malnutrition among schoolchildren before

and after the nutrition education program; and

2. To determine and compare the level of nutrition knowledge among schoolchildren before
and after the nutrition education program.

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GROUP ACTIVITY:
Among the five problems enumerated earlier, choose 2 that you will want best to pursue throughout this
course. Then, create your own general and specific objectives for the 2 research problems selected.

Significance of the Study

Significance of the study may include the meaning of the research work to you personally and should
include how your research benefits or impacts others in part or whole. Discuss what people or groups of
people might benefit from reading your research. Show how this project is significant to developing a body
of knowledge.

Researchers attempting to describe the significance of a study should consider why their work is important
and what its implications are. They should consider how the study might fill in knowledge gaps in their field,
develop better theoretical models or point the way toward further study. Researchers should also examine
what impact the study might have not just on the academic or scientific community but also on the general
public. They should present practical benefits, such as how the work might inform policy, improve some
aspect of people's lives, help people save money, make a process more efficient or help the environment.

GROUP ACTIVITY:
Explain the significance of the two research problems you have chosen earlier.

Research Framework

A research framework gives the reader insights into the study or to know what is it all about. This is a
diagram showing the relationship of the variables being studied and the factors affecting it. It provides a
bridge which links the available body of knowledge with the proposed research. There are two types of
research framework: Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework is a theory expounded by a person of authority. Its construction is based on one
“which consists of statements which connect concepts in a logically unified way to provide interpretation of
a particular form of conceptualization; the theorist formulate and use concepts that have particular
relevance for the phenomenon under study” in its real sense – the theory.

Theory comes from the Greek word “theoria” which means “vision” that most people expect theories to be
facts but they are really perspective on truth and reality (Wilson, 1987)

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In the absence of a theory as a basis for research, the researcher may formulate his own conceptual
framework. A conceptual framework must be prepared according to the objectives of his study.

Family History Genetic

Knowledge/ Age
Attitude Gender CVD

Smoking
Diabetes
Obesity
Lifestyle/ Hypertension
Physical Activity Dislipedimia

Example of a Research Framework

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY:
Answer the following questions:
1. What is a theoretical framework? Differentiate it from conceptual framework.
2. What is the importance of a research framework?

GROUP ACTIVITY:
For each of the research problem selected (2 research problems), formulate your own research
framework. Identify if the research framework is a theoretical framework or a conceptual framework.
Briefly explain the framework.

Measuring Study Variables

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Variable is a characteristic or a measurement whose value differs from one individual to another or from
one period to another in the same individual. The variables to be studied are selected on the basis of their
relevance to the study objectives.

Types of Variables

1. Qualitative Variables

 Categories are merely expressed as labels to distinguish one group from another

 Numerical representation of the categories are for labelling/coding and not for
comparison (greater or less)

 E.g. sex, educational level, occupation, religion, place of residence, sick or not sick

2. Quantitative Variables

 Values indicate quantity or amount and can be expressed numerically

 Values can be arranged according to magnitude

 E.g. age, weight, # of patients, blood pressure

Quantitative variables may be:

a. Discrete (usually whole numbers). Examples are number of children in the family,
and number of beds in the hospital

b. Continuous (may be expressed as a fraction or decimal; infinite or uncountable set

of values). Examples are age, height, and weight

Relationship between Variables

 Dependent Variable

 Also known as response variables; one whose value is affected by the independent
variables

 The ‘outcome’

 Independent Variable

 Determines the value of the dependent variable

 The ‘predictor

 Confounding Variable

 Is an ‘extraneous variable’ whose effects are not primarily interest to the researcher;
however, since the confounder may affect the dependent variable, it is necessary that
it should be controlled for the analysis

 Also referred to as ‘control variables’

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Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal

 Number or names which represent a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive classes
to which individuals or objects (attributes) may be assigned.

 E.g. sex (male, female), geographic regions, race, blood groups, seatbelts in car

2. Ordinal

 Same characteristics as for nominal scales with the additional feature that the classes
can be ordered

 E.g. psychosocial scales (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree),

educational attainment (elementary, high school, college)

3. Interval

 Same characteristics as for ordinal scales with the additional feature that the distances
between all adjacent classes are equal

 Conceptually these scales are infinite, in that they have neither beginning, nor ending

 E.g. Temperature Measurement (zero is not absolute); Calendar Time (2000AD same
distance from birth of Christ as 2000BC)

4. Ratio

 Same characteristics as for the ordinal scales with the additional feature that the
meaningful zero exists

 E.g. weight, blood pressure, height, doctor visits

Variable Definition

 The relevant variables in the study should be further specified by:

a) Defining the variables conceptually and operationally

Example:

Smoker

 Conceptual definition: One who smokes tobacco

 Operational definition: One who smokes at least 3 sticks of cig/day within the past
6 months

b) Specifying the relevant scale of measurement

Example:

Age - completed number of years as of the last birthday

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Remember: The operational definition of the same variable may vary from one study to another.

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY:
Answer the following questions:
1. Make a table and list 5 examples of qualitative variables. Beside each qualitative variable, identify its
quantitative counterpart. Beside each quantitative counterpart, identify if the said variable is discrete or
continuous.

GROUP ACTIVITY:
Identify the different variables for the 2 selected research problems. Then, define the variables
operationally.

References

Baltimore County Public Schools (July 2013). Develop a Research Proposal. Retrieved November 2014,
from http://www.bcps.org

Galiciano – Adanza, Estela, et.al, (July 2003). Methods of Research for the Health Professions

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Mendoza, Ophelia M., Borja, Maridel P., et.al. (2010), Foundations of Statistical Analysis for the Health
Sciences, 2010

Polgar, Stephen . Thomas, Shane A. (2010). Introduction to Research in Health Sciences 5TH edition

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