HYDRAULICS/WELL CONTROL/PRESSURE ANALYSIS

PART 3 FORMATION PRESSURE ANALYSIS

3.1 Pressure Gradients

Hydrostatic Pressure
Formation Pressure
Formation Balance Gradient
Overburden Pressure Gradient

3.2 Typical Occurances of Abnormal Formation Pressures

Underpressured
Overpressured ....... Hydrostatic
....... Non Hydrostatic

3.3 Detection Techniques

1. Rate of Penetration
2. Drilling Exponent
3. Gas Trends
4. Drag and Torque
5. Temperature
6. Cuttings Analysis
7. Mud Parameters
8. Indications while Tripping

3.4 Analysis using Geophysical, MWD and Wireline Data

3.5 Direct Measurements of Formation Pressure

3.6 Summary of Typical Trends

3.7 Quantitative Analysis of Formation Pressure

a.1 Correct Determination of the Drilling Exponent

Compaction Trend
a.2 Lithological Effects on Compaction Trend
a.3 Causes of Trend Changes or Shifts

b. Determination of Overburden Gradient

c. Calculation of Formation Pressure
1. Eatons Method
2. Equivalent Depth Method

3.8 Calculation of Fracture Gradients

a. Theory
b. Eatons Method
c. Daines Method

3.9 Use of the QLOG software

Appendix
3.1 Pressure Gradients

Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient

The Hydrostatic Pressure at any given depth (vertical) is defined as the pressure exerted
by the weight of a static column of fluid.

Phyd = ρ g h ie KPa = kg/m3 x 0.00981 x TVDm

PSI = ppg x 0.052 x TVDft

This gives the following normal hydrostatic gradients:-

Freshwater = 0.433 psi/ft (8.33ppg emw, 1.0 sg)

Brine = 0.480 psi/ft (9.23ppg emw, 1.11 sg)

Freshwater = 9.81 KPa/m (1000 kg/m3 emw)

Brine = 10.87 KPa/m (1108 kg/m3 emw)

Formation Pressure Gradient

This is defined as the pressure of the fluid contained within the pore spaces of a sediment
or rock, which will be dependent on the vertical depth and the density of the formation
fluid.

Normal formation pressure will be equal to the normal hydrostatic pressure of the region
and will vary depending on the type of formation fluid.

eg North Sea 0.450 psi/ft (8.66ppg emw) or 10.20 KPa/m (1040 kg/m3 emw)
US Gulf 0.465 psi/ft (8.94ppg emw) or 10.53 KPa/m (1074 kg/m3 emw)

if Formation Pressure < Hydrostatic...............underpressured

if Formation Pressure > Hydrostatic...............overpressured
Formation Balance Gradient

This is defined as the equivalent mud density required to balance the formation pressure
at any given depth.

example:

If the hydrostatic gradient is 0.45 psi/ft, the hydrostatic pressure at 5000 ft TVD will be
2250 psi.

Assuming normal formation pressure, The formation balance gradient would be:-

2250/(0.052 x 5000) = 8.65 ppg emw

The position of the rig in relation to the depth of the formation and local topography will
cause the formation balance gradient to vary enormously.

example

3000ft 914.4m 2000ft 609.6m

Formation Pressure 1350 psi / 9308 KPa

At Site A, FBG = 1350 = 8.65ppg

3000x0.052

At Site B, FBG = 1350 = 13.00ppg

2000x0.052
At Site A, FBG = 9308 = 1038 kg/m3
914.4x0.00981

At Site B, FBG = 9308 = 1556 kg/m3

609.6x0.00981

So, even though the same formation and pressure is the concern for both wells, the
mudweight required to balance that formation pressure will be different for each well.
Overburden Pressure Gradient

At a given depth, the overburden pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the
overlying sediments.

It is usually termed stress to distinguish fluid and matrix pressures.

Overburden S = ρb x TVD where TVD is metres

10 S = kg/cm2
ρb = average bulk density g/cm3

S = ρb x TVD x 9.81 TVD = m

S = Kpa
ρb = g/cm3

S = ρb x TVD x 0.433 TVD = ft

S = psi
ρb = g/cm3

Bulk density is a function of the matrix density, porosity and pore fluid density.

ρb = ∅ ρf + (1 − ∅)ρm ∅ = porosity 0 − 1 eg 12% = 0.12

ρf = pore fluid density

ρm = matrix density

In practice, the bulk density can be taken directly from wireline logs or from sample
measurements.

Overburden will increase with depth with a proportional decrease in porosity.

An average value of 2.31 gm/cc can be used for bulk density until more accurate
measurements or data becomes available.
eg
2.31 ρb

Typical Onshore
Profile

depth

Typical Offshore Profile

2.31
air gap

water depth
Taking an average value of bulk density to be 2.31 gm/cc gives an overburden pressure
gradient of 1.0 psi/ft.

Thus, a typical profile would look like:

Overburden Gradient
1.0 psi/ft
2.31 gm/cc

Pform < Phyd Pform > Phyd

underpressured overpressured

Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient

0.433 to 0.48 psi/ft
8.33 to 9.23 ppg emw
1.0 to 1.11 gm/cc
9.79 to 10.81 KPa/m
998 to 1102 kg/m3 emw

Accurate determination of the overburden gradient is critical for accurate formation and
fracture gradient calculations.
Whilst drilling a well, the Overburden Gradient can be directly calculated from surface
bulk density measurements. This would be done every 5 or 10m or whatever the sample
interval is. Obviously, the more frequent the measurements, the more accurate the
gradient will be.

If more accurate data becomes available from wireline logs, the overburden gradient can
be derived from the Bulk Density log or from the Sonic Log.

The Sonic log can be used to derive bulk density if no log is available.

For consolidated rocks, ρb = 3.28 − ∆T

89

For unconsolidated rocks, ρb = 2.75 − 2.11 (∆T − ∆Tm)

( ∆T + 200 )

where ρb = gm/cc
∆T = formation transit time (actual sonic) µsec/ft
∆Tm = matrix transit time

Default values for the matrix transit time:

Dolomite 43.5
Limestone 43.5 to 47.6 (argillaceous)
Sandstone 47.6 (argillaceous) to 55.6
Anhydrite 50
Salt 67
Claystone 47

47 is used as the default for other lithologies

Exercise 3a Gradient Calculations

1. Convert the following mud densities into pressure gradients:-

a. 9.5 ppg (psi/ft)

b. 12.6 ppg (psi/m)
c. 1.8 sg (psi/m)
d. 1055 kg/m3 (KPa/m)
e. 1250 kg/m3 (KPa/m)

2. What hydrostatic pressure is exerted by the following mud densities at the given
depths ?

a. 13.2 ppg at 7500 ft (psi)

b. 10.5 ppg at 2300 m (psi)
c. 1.45 sg at 5000 ft (psi)
d. 1150 kg/m3 at 4000m (KPa)

3. What mud density would balance the following formation pressures ?

a. 4000 psi at 5000 ft (ppg)

b. 4000 psi at 7000 ft (ppg)
c. 6500 psi at 4000 m (ppg)
d. 6500 psi at 3000 m (ppg)
e. 40000 KPa at 3000 m (kg/m3)
f. 40000 KPa at 4000 m (kg/m3)
3.2 Typical Occurances of Abnormal Formation Pressures

Underpressured formations

1) Water reservoir outcropping at a lower altitude than the elevation penetrated during
drilling. Therefore, the part of the formation penetrated will be above the water table.

2) The position of the water table in relation to the land surface. If the location of the well
is topographically above the water table, the height of the fluid column (h) will be less
than the actual total depth (D). Therefore the hydrostatic pressure caused by the fluid
column would be less than expected for a complete water column.

Both of these situations could be common in uplifted regions.

water intake at outcrop

w.t.
D
1
h

3) Depletion of water or hydrocarbon reservoirs leading to a reduction in the hydrostatic

pressure.

4) Large gas columns - again, a reduction in the hydrostatic in comparison with a fluid
column.
Overpressured formations

Hydrostatic causes

1) Hydrocarbon reservoirs - in a sealed reservoir, the formation pressure throughout will

be the same and will be equal to the pressure at the deepest part of the reservoir. This
pressure would therefore be transmitted to the uppermost part of the reservoir.

pressure

sealed
reservoir
section

depth

2) Aquifers - where the water intake is at a higher elevation than the local topography,
therefore the actual height of the fluid column (h) is greater than the drilled depth.

water intake

D
Non Hydrostatic causes

1) Undercompaction Under normal deposition and compaction rates, formation fluid will
be squeezed out in to overlying sediments. Due to rapid deposition with respect to
geological time, fluid flow becomes restricted and is not allowed to escape as normal.

Thin impermeable layers such as limestone could cause the same flow restriction to
underlying sediments.

2)Tectonic Loading caused by uplift, faulting or folding of rocks.

If a formation is sealed and uplifted, it will retain its original fluid pressure at the
shallower depth, therefore having a higher pressure than surrounding formations.

Faulting can cause overpressured formations in many ways:-

• faults and fractures may provide a conduit allowing deeper fluid pressures to be
released to shallower formations.

• permeable and impermeable layers may be juxtaposed by a fault restricting normal

fluid migration.

(fluid migration is normally governed by pressure gradient - it will always try to move
from high to low pressure).

• Salt and shale diapirism can cause locallised zones of high pressure due to all 3
tectonic processes.

3) Clay Diagenesis - during normal diagenesis, montmorillonite is altered to illite. This is

a normal process leading to interlayer-bound water being desorbed and becoming free.
The situation may occur that this released water may not be able to escape leading to an
increased fluid content and increased pressure.

Fluid will always try to move to zones of lower pressure, therefore unless an
overpressured formation is perfectly capped, transition zones will exist. Detecting these
zones by the interpretation of all available data is the major part of pressure analysis
while a well is being drilled.
3.3 Detection Techniques

1) Rate of Penetration

ROP will decrease normally with depth due to increased compaction and
therefore reduced porosity.
An overpressured zone will be undercompacted resulting in a relative increase in
ROP.

On its own, the ROP cannot be taken as a direct indicator because it can be
affected by many parameters such as

lithology
weight on bit
rotary speed
torque
fluid hydraulics
bit type
bit wear
differential pressure

To compensate for as many as these parameters as possible, a drilling exponent is used.

2) Drilling Exponent

This will demonstrate the drillability of a particular formation, relating the ROP to the
ease at which a formation can be drilled.

In 1964, the drilling exponent was formulated by Bingham :

R = a (W)d where R = ROP

N (D) N = RPM
W= WOB
D = bit diameter
a = lithology constant
d = compaction exponent
Jordan and Shirley developed this theory in 1966:

Dexp = 1.26 − log (R÷

÷N) R = m/hr
1.58 − log (W÷
÷D) N = rpm
W = tonnes
D = inches

This formula was designed for use in shale, and where the formation is constant, the
Dexp is a good indicator of porosity (ie compaction) and differential pressure.

The Dexp evaluates the drillability of a particular formation, and as porosity decreases
with depth, drilling will become proportionally more difficult, resulting in an increase in
Dexp.

A normal trend (normal compaction trend or NCT) can therefore be established with
depth, and changes in differential pressure will be indicated by a decrease in the Dexp.

The differential pressure is obviously defined by the relation between the formation
pressure at any given depth and the hydrostatic pressure caused by the mud column at that
depth. A change in mud density would alter the hydrostatic pressure and therefore change
the differential pressure. This would affect the Dexp in the same way as an increase in
formation pressure.

The drilling exponent must therefore be corrected for changes in mud weight so that it
only reflects changes in formation pressure.

Rehm and McClendon, in 1971, developed the Corrected Drilling Exponent.

DCexp = Dexp x d1
d2

where D1 = formation fluid density for the hydrostatic gradient

D2 = mud weight
Affect on ROP and DCexp with changes in pressure

Normal
Pressure
Gradient

Transition

Overpressured

Depth ROP DCexp Formation

Pressure

Limitations to the drilling exponent

a) Lithology type
The drilling exponent was designed for and is only ideally suited for shale and claystone
type lithologies. The porosity and grain size variabilty of other lithologies cannot be
ideally accounted for.

Different lithologies will therefore tend to show up as a shift, or repositioning of the

drilling exponent trend

eg limestones tend to shift the trend to the right

sandstones tend to shift the trend to the left.
This is not always the case, the value of the drilling exponent will depend on the
hardness; on how competent a lithology is; degree of granularity and cementation etc.

Even with a shale interval, the trend can be affected by any degree of siltyness,
cementation, or presence of accessory minerals.

Even though the drilling exponent is only designed for shales, in practice, different
lithologies, if they are uniform with depth, can reveal reasonable trends.

All of the above has to be taken into a great deal of consideration when evaluating a
drilling exponent trend.

b) Hydraulics

These are not considered in the calculation of the exponent, therefore any significant
change could affect the drilling efficiency to such a degree that the drilling exponent is
affected.

Another consideration is that for unconsolidated lithologies, the jetting action of the bit is
actually more important than the drilling action, so the drillability, reflected in the drilling
exponent, can be totally erroneous.

c)Bit Type and Wear

These variabilities can significantly affect the value of the drilling exponent:

• different bits are suited to different lithologies

• diamond or PDC bits tend to yield constant drilling exponents regardless of lithology
type or depth.

• as a bit becomes worn, drilling obviously becomes harder, causing the drilling
exponent values to erroneously increase.
Detection Techniques continued

3) Gas Trends

A steady increase in background gas level could be an indication of an increase in

formation pressure resulting in an increased pressure differential. This trend would have
to be considered against such things as;-

• changes in lithology

• natural increase in formation gas

• removal of gas at surface ie whether its being recycled

• changes in penetration rate due to parameter change ie if the WOB is increased, the
ROP would show a corresponding increase, affectively releasing more gas over a
given time interval

• reduction in mudweight increasing the differential pressure

The occurrance of connection gases - these occur when the formation pressure becomes
close to/equal to/greater than the mudweight.

The dynamic overbalance (ie bottom hole circulating pressure) may be sufficient to
balance the formation pressure, but when the pumps are stopped for a connection, the
static overbalance (ie mud hydrostatic) may be insufficient, leading to an influx of
formation fluid/gas. This will yield connection gas. This may be further enhanced by the
effects of swabbing causing a further reduction in the hydrostatic.

Knowing these 3 pressures ie bottom hole circulating pressure

mud hydrostatic pressure
swab reduced hydrostatic pressure

........can lead to an accurate determination of the actual formation pressure.

Connection gas is generally short in duration and sharp in distinction, although the longer
the bottoms up time, the more drawn out the peak since the gas has more time to expand
and become dispersed.

The shape and symmetry of the peak can also yield useful information about the pressure
differential:

close to or at balance

underbalanced

Trends in the value of trip gases can also be an indicator. If no significant change in trip
time or mud weight, an increase in trip gas could indicate an increase in formation
pressure.

4) Increased drag and torque, overpull

Indications of tight hole caused by overpressured formations:-

- due to reduction in hole size from undercompacted/sloughing shales;

- due to shale cavings falling in on the hole - this will also show up as hole fill on
bottom after connections and trips.

The operator has to carefully consider the causes of drag and torque, because they can be
caused by many other factors such as:

bit balling
deviated holes
doglegs or ledges
differential sticking
5) Temperature

Since heat eminates from the earth’s core, a geothermal gradient, with temperature
increasing with depth, will exist as heat dissipates out towards the earth’s surface.
Typical gradients may be in the range of between 2 and 5 °C per 100m but will not be
constant throughout a well.

The geothermal gradient will vary according to the thermal conductivity of the
‘components’ of a particular rock type or sedimentary sequence.

For example:-

Pure Quartz high conductivity

Clay minerals low conductivity
Evaporites high conductivity
Pore fluid low conductivity

The lower the conductivity of a particular sequence, the more resistance there is to the
flow of heat away from the earth’s centre, therefore a greater geothermal gradient will
exist.

Measurements of mud temperature can be used to detect overpressured zones and even to
anticipate their approach:-

The thermal conductivity of water is less than that of rock matrix, therefore formation
fluids act as a natural barrier to the normal flow of heat.

Overpressured formations, being undercompacted, have greater porosity and therefore a

relatively greater fluid content. This means that they are less conductive to the flow of
heat, producing a higher geothermal gradient.

An overpressured zone will act as a barrier to heat flow and therefore behaves as an
insulating body. It has been shown that such insulating bodies (porous reservoirs and
thick coals are other examples) disturb the distribution of isotherms directly above them,
producing a reduction in the geothermal gradient.

Thus, as an overpressured or transitional (increasing pressure) zone is approached, a

reduction in temperature may be seen. This temperature will then rapidly increase once
the overpressured zone is penetrated. This is illustrated over the page.
 Formation Temperature

Normal Pressure

Transition Zone

Overpressured

Normal Pressure

Depth

Even though we (the mudloggers) can’t directly measure the bottom hole temperature, the
heat generated by penetrated formations will be transferred to the drilling fluid. We can
therefore measure the temperature of the mud leaving the hole, and a thermal ‘profile’ can
be established as the depth increases.

This profile will not be identicle to the actual geothermal gradient because as well as heat
generated from the formation, additional processes such as drilling action and pump rate
will be producing heat.
However, there are many factors that can affect the temperature of the mud:

type of mud - different degrees of conductivity

hole/pit size - volume of mud to heat
duration of bit run
drilling halts - periods allowing the mud to cool, especially at
surface and in the upper part of the hole
water depth - the larger the riser, the larger the cooling effect
trips - the duration of which will determine how much the
mud will cool off. The start of bit runs will see a
rapid increase in temperature as the mud warms
back to equilibrium
surface additions - obvious cooling effect
climate - different degrees of cooling at surface

All of these factors will affect the actual value of the temperature of the mud leaving the
hole. To gain as much information as possible from temperature measurements, it is more
useful to remove variations in flowline temperature that are actually caused by changes in
the temperature of the mud entering the hole.

Delta T

By eliminating, as much as possible, variations due to surface changes, the differential

temperature Delta T (temperature out minus temperature in) can be used to provide a
trend indicator.

At the start of the bit run, the flowline temperature will show a rapid increase as the
cooler mud becomes heated principally by the drilling and pumping action but also by
newly drilled formations.

Over a period of time, increases in flowline temperature due to drilling and pumping will
become more uniform so that increases in the temperature are representative of changes
due to the geothermal gradient.

A period of 2 days or more may be required for this ‘equilibrium temperature’ to be

reached
The presence of an overpressured zone will be indicated by a greater degree of increase in
the flowline temperature.

Conversely, Delta T at the start of a bit run will be high and show a rapid decrease. With
the duration of a bit run, the normal Delta T trend will be a gentle decrease. A particularly
long bit run may see Delta T become constant.

An overpressured zone will be indicated by an increase in Delta T.

Temperature Parameter

Duration of
Bit Run / Depth

∆T MTO
6) Cuttings Analysis

a) Shale Density

With increased depth and greater compaction, shale density will show a normally
increasing trend. An overpressured zone will be indicated by a decrease in shale density
owing to decreased compaction and higher porosity ie a higher proportion of formation
fluid in relation to rock matrix.

b) Volume, size and shape

The presence of shale cavings or increased volume of cuttings is usually a good indicator
of overpressure, but the engineer has to be careful in their interpretation because other
stress conditions may be responsible.

Cavings are generally considerably larger than the observed cuttings and have two typical
shapes; elongated and concave, blocky and fractured.

c) Shale Factor

With normal diagenesis and cation exchange, clay minerals such as montmorillonite and
smectite will transform to illite, thus a reduction in CEC (cation exchange capacity) will
be seen with depth.

An approximation to CEC is achieved by using Methylene Blue to determine the shale

factor. As with the CEC, the shale factor will normally decrease with depth as the amount
of illite increases.

In an abnormally pressured zone, the increased temperature actual speeds up the process
of cation exchange, therefore the shale factor would show a more rapid decrease.

NB as well as this ‘result of overpressure’ detailed above, note that the cation exchange
can also be a cause of overpressure. A lot of bound water is freed during the cation
exchange and if this water is not released during compaction (as in the normal dewatering
process), increased fluid pressure will result.
7) Mud Parameters

We have already seen how mud temperature can be used to recognise changing trends in
formation pressure. Other mud parameters will also indicate changes in pressure but are
generally ‘later’ indicators, occurring when an influx is already present:-

• Pressure - an influx into the well bore of formation fluid or gas will decrease the mud
density causing a reduction in the hydrostatic pressure. This will be indicated by a
gradual reduction in the standpipe pressure as the influx occurs.

• Chloride content - The presence of an undercompacted/overpressured zone would

lead to an increased porosity, therefore an increased volume of pore fluid. This means
an increase in salinity. From a mudloggers point of view, this will be indicated by an
increase in conductivity (NB this would correlate to a decrease in resistivity from
wireline logs or MWD). These parameters however have to be treated with a great
deal of caution, because factors can affect the apparent resistivity/conductivity such as
temperature, presence of hydrocarbons, mud type and filtration, nature of pore fluid,
changes in lithology or organic matter.

• Density - an increased amount of formation fluid or gas within the mud would clearly
be identified by a reduction in mud density.

• Mud flow and mud level - any increase would clearly indicate the possibility of an
influx.

8) Indications while Tripping

Incorrect mud displacements:-

a) Excessive mud returns while running in the hole.

b) Lower than expected fill (or even a pit increase) while pulling out of the hole.

Any swabbing effects should be analysed. A degree of swabbing may be acceptable

depending on how fast the pipe is being pulled, but excessive swabbing could be due to
formation pressure being close to, or over balanced.
3.4 Pressure analysis using Geophysical, MWD and Wireline indicators

1) Seismic Profile

This will be done once the well has been drilled, so can be used to compare with data
accumulated during drilling. It could also be useful data when determing pressure profiles
for future well planning.

The two-way travel times used to produce the seismic profile can be recomputed to
calculate interval transit times, thus resembling sonic data.

The normal trend would be one that decreases with depth, ie as compaction increases and
porosity decreases.

2) MWD and Wireline

Parameters such as resistivity, sonic, gamma, density may be measured by either of the
above operations.

Clearly, if this data is available from MWD, then these indicators will provide accurate
realtime data that should be used in conjunction with our own realtime measurements.

Wireline data will be produced once the well or hole section has been drilled, so the data
would be used to confirm or negate predictions already made. This data becomes
invaluable for future well planning when establishing pressure profiles.

NB be aware that the accuracy of all wireline readings is subject to the thickness of
individual beds allowing a full response.

a) Gamma Ray

Primarily for the accurate determination of lithology types.

Gamma is a measurement of the natural radioactivity of rocks by detecting such elements

as Uranium, Thorium and Potassium.

A thick shale sequence that has undergone constant depositional conditions such as burial
rate, compaction and source material, will be subject to increased dewatering with
compaction. During the dewatering process, Potassium ions adsorbed onto clay particles
are not totally released, so that an increase in Potassium and therefore gamma will be seen
with depth.
As a reliable pressure indicator, the constant history required is generally unrealistic.

Actual gamma values will also be affected by varying Thorium and Uranium content.

b) Sonic

The sonic transit times are a function of lithology and porosity.

Under normal compaction, porosity will decrease with depth, thus sonic transit times will
show a normal decrease with depth.

With constant lithology, an increasing sonic trend indicates increased porosity,

undercompaction and possible overpressure.

It is often the case that the sonic trend is a good mirror image of the drilling exponent.
Therefore, when drilling exponent data is not reliable due to many possible reasons as
already described, the sonic log can provide invaluable information for trend analysis.

c) Resistivity

Resistivity measures the ability of a formation to conduct electricity and is a function of

the amount and nature of the pore fluid, therefore a function of porosity.

Deep resistivity readings should be used in preference to shallow ones because the data is
generally a true indication of formation fluid and not affected by mud filtrate invasion.

With depth and increased compaction, there is a reduction in the formation pore fluid.
Since fluid is a better conductor than rock matrix, this will reduce the conductive ability
of the formation. Thus, with depth, resistivity will normally increase. A decreasing trend
will be an indication of undercompaction.

The reliability of resistivity as a pressure indicator will be greatly affected by any changes
in the salinity of the formation pore fluid.

d) Bulk Density

As with shale density, the trend should clearly increase with depth as the degree of
compaction increases.
3.5 Direct Measurements of Formation Pressure

The only direct measurements are provided by Repeat Formation Tests and Drill Stem
Tests.

Formation tests such as DST’s are generally only performed to determine pressures of
potential reservoirs. Therefore, only as a by-product, do they yield information that can be
used in formation pressure evaluation.

RFT’s, on the other hand, are often used to confirm evaluations or to solve any doubts
that may have arisen from previous evaluation techniques while drilling. With many
measurements possible on a single wireline run, RFT’s are a useful tool in pressure
evaluation especially in wildcat areas.

Although not a direct measurement, a bottom hole kick resulting in well shut in will
obviously provide an accurate determination of the formation pressure. Only bottom hole
kicks can be considered in this type of evaluation; kicks due to gas expansion from
shallower depths cannot provide a direct evaluation of formation pressure.

If the well has been shut in, an accurate determination of the formation pressure can be
made by using the shut in pressures as described in Part B of this manual.

If the mud weight is close to balance, close consideration of gas trends can also provide
accurate estimations of the formation pressure. This is possible by the monitoring of
background gas and connection gas, together with swab gas, and the affect of these trends
with adjustments in the mudweight.
3.6 Summary of typical trends while drilling

Normal Pressure

Increasing Pressure
(Transition Zone)

Overpressured

Dxc Sh.Dens ∆T MTO Background/Conn Gas

NOTE
These trends are illustrated with the assumption that the mudweight is not increased while
drilling through the undercompacted zones. Under normal situations, the mudweight
would be increased at signs of underbalance. This would obviously reduce the pressure
differential and bring the well back on balance. Clearly, some of the trends would then be
different.

There would be a reduction in background and connection gas. The connection gas would
disappear if the mudweight was increased above formation pressure (unless due to effects
of swabbing).

The temperature trends would be affected by surface additions to the mud system in order
to increase the density.

The drilling exponent may even be affected if the the increase in mud weight required
was large.
Summary of typical wireline trends

Normal Pressure

Transition Zone

Overpressured

Sonic Resistivity FDC

3.7 Quantitative Analysis of Formation Pressure

Up to this point, we have been looking at the way in which trends of various parameters
and measurements can be an indication of increasing formation pressure ie Qualitive
Analysis. This information then needs to be processed in order to determine an accurate
estimate of the actual formation pressure ie Quantitative Analysis.

Our main tool for doing this while the well is being drilled is the Corrected Drilling
Exponent. Wireline measurements can then be used after the event to compare or correct
results.

Before the calculation method is looked at, the determination of the correct compaction
trend, and influences requiring a shift in the trend, should be explored in greater detail.

3.7a.1 Correct determination of the Drilling Exponent Compaction Trend

As already discussed, the Dxc was designed for, and is of most use, where there is a
reasonable sequence of homogeneous shale. Differences will be seen wherever there are
‘impurities’ such as siltiness and accessory minerals. Therefore, preference should be
given to pure shale points which will normally appear to the right of the data points.

Difficulty in accurately determining the trend will be experienced if there are no pure
shales.

• A silty shale sequence for example will tend to move data points to the left. The
compaction trend for shale would therefore actually be positioned to the right of the
observed trend.

• Conversely, the opposite will generally happen with a sequence of calcareous shale.
The compaction trend for shale would actually be to the left of the observed trend.

The selection of the compaction trend is therefore highly prone to different interpretations
by different engineers. There is no substitute for experience in this process.
Although not considered when this method was first formulated, lithologies other than
shale can still yield reasonable trends at times, although the engineer has to be aware of
the typical differences in trends between different lithologies.

• tight, well cemented sandstone will move the trend to the right
• weaker, unconsolidated sandstone will move the trend to the left
• well cemented crystalline limestone will move trend to the right
• argillaceous or porous limestone will move the trend to the left
• siltstone will move the trend to the right

These differences are illustrated over the page.

In general:

The harder; the tighter; the more cemented the lithology; the higher the Dxc value.
The weaker; the higher the porosity; the lower the Dxc value.

NB the pressure program calculates actual formation pressure from the offset of the actual
Dxc values from the selected compaction trend (which is assumed normal), when
compared to the overburden gradient. Therefore, for reasonable depth intervals, the trend
should be selected from the observed points for each lithology. Thin stringers are difficult
to compensate for.
3.7a.2 Example of lithological effects on the corrected drilling exponent trend.

Shale

Cemented Siltstone

Shale

Cemented Limestone

Calcareous Shale

Unconsolidated Sst

Cemented Siltstone

Tight Sandstone

Silty Shale
NCT

Normal Compaction Trend for shale

3.7a.3 Causes of Trend shifts or changes.

Unconformities
An unconformity seperates formations of different stratigraphic ages which may have
undergone a different burial and compactional history. As such, a trend shift may be
necessary. It is quite possible, also, that the trend may have a different slope.

NCT 1

Unconformity

NCT 2

Trend changes due to bit wear

As a bit becomes worn, it would become progressively more difficult to drill the same,
homogeeous lithology. This would result in higher values of the drilling exponent, with
the trend increasing to the right (diagram 1). If an overpressured zone was encountered at
this point, the change could well be masked because the values of Dxc would not
decrease as much as would be normally expected (diagram 2).

DIAG 1 DIAG 2
NCT

Normal Pressure

Bit becoming Transition Zone

worn normal bit

NCT
worn bit
Other situations requiring a shift change

Bit Type
Different bit types such as tooth or insert, together with different hardnesses, will be
suited to different lithologies. Therefore, for the same lithology, different types may well
produce different values of drilling exponent for the same parameters. This type of trend
shift is common. PDC bits are the extreme, often producing constant drilling rates and
drilling exponent regardless of depth and compaction. A near vertical trend for large
depth intervals is not unusual.

Hydraulics
If the hydraulics are not such that optimum bit and hole cleaning is not present, the value
of the drilling exponent will be affected. Significant changes in the hydraulics may
require a shift change.

Drilling Parameters
Although accounted for in the drilling exponent calculation, any major change in weight
or rotary speed may see a trend shift. This will most often be seen in directional drilling,
where not only high RPMs are present, but the WOB seen at surface is not representative
of the weight at the bit due to poor weight transfer.

Hole Diameter
Not only the diameter has an affect here, but with new hole sections, different bits,
drilling parameters and hydraulics will affect the drilling exponent.

examples:

12 1/4” hole Opt hydraulics Tooth bit

8 1/2” hole Poor hydraulics Insert bit

Hole Diameter Hydraulics Bit Type

3.7b Determination of the Overburden Gradient

The overburden pressure at any given depth is the pressure due to the cumulative weight
of the overlying sediments and, for calculation purposes, is essentially a function of the
average bulk density of these sediments.

As bulk density increases exponentially with depth, so does porosity decrease. Plotted on
a log scale, straight lines will be produced (NCTs). Shale points falling on these lines will
be normally pressured.

Knowing the overburden gradient (OBG) is essential for accurate formation pressure and
fracture gradient calculations.

The OBG tends to increase rapidly near surface, then stabilize with depth as compaction
and density increases. For offshore wells, the air gap and water depth must be taken into
consideration when calculating the overburden for the first interval.

Calculation Method

As described before, the bulk density will preferably be derived from FDC wireline data.
If this is not available, it can be derived from sonic transit times or seismic interval
velocities. If offset data is not available prior to drilling a well, the overburden gradient
must be derived from our own bulk density measurements while the well is being drilled.
Recalculation would be advisable when better data becomes available.

Calculation of the overburden gradient is then based on the average bulk density for a
given depth interval.
 let S = overburden stress
ρb = average bulk density (gm/cc)
D = depth

Metric S = ρb x D where S = kg/cm2

10 D=m

SI units S = ρb x D x 9.81 where S = KPa

D=m

Imperial S = ρb x D x 0.433 where S = psi

D = ft

Procedure

• From the average bulk density, calculate the overburden pressure for a given interval

• Calculate the cumulative overburden pressure

• Calculate the overburden gradient

Example 1

Interval Thickness Av ρb Interval Cumul OBG Grad EMW

OB Press OB Pres

(m) (gm/cc) (KPa) (KPa) (KPa/m) (kg/m3)

0 - 50 50 1.25 613 613 12.26 1250

50 - 200 150 1.48 2178 2791 13.95 1422
200 - 300 100 1.65 1619 4410 14.70 1498
300 - 400 100 1.78 1746 6156 15.39 1569

For the interval 0 to 50m

Overburden Pressure = 1.25 x 50 x 9.81 = 613 KPa

Cumulative Pressure = 0 + 613 = 613 KPa

Overburden Gradient = 613 / 50 = 12.26 KPa/m

O/B Gradient EMW = 12.26 / 0.00981 = 1250 kg/m3 emw

For the interval 50 to 200m

Overburden Pressure = 1.48 x 150 x 9.81 = 2178 KPa

Cumulative Pressure = 0 + 613 + 2178 = 2791 KPa

Overburden Gradient = 2791 / 200 = 13.95 KPa/m

O/B Gradient EMW = 13.95 / 0.00981 = 1422 kg/m3 emw

Example 2

Interval Thickness Av ρb Interval Cumul OBG Grad EMW

OB Press OB Pres

(m) (gm/cc) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2/10m) (kg/m3)

(~ gm/cc)

0 - 100 100 1.35 13.5 13.5 1.35 1350

100 - 300 200 1.65 33.0 46.5 1.55 1550
300 - 450 150 1.78 26.7 73.2 1.63 1630
450 - 700 250 1.85 46.3 119.5 1.71 1710

For the interval 0 to 100m

Overburden pressure = (1.35 x 100) / 10 = 13.5 kg/cm2

Cumulative pressure = 0 + 13.5 = 13.5 kg/cm2

Overburden gradient = (cumulative x 10) /(0 + 100)

= (13.5 x 10) / 100 = 1.35 kg/cm2/10m

NOTE 1 kg/cm2/10m = 1 gm/cc = 1000 kg/m3 emw

O/B Gradient EMW = 1.35 x 1000 = 1350 kg/m3

For the interval 100 to 300m

Overburden pressure = (1.65 x 200) / 10 = 33.0 kg/cm2

Cumulative pressure = 0 + 13.5 + 33.0 = 46.5 kg/cm2

Overburden gradient = (46.5 x 10) / (0 + 100 + 200) = 1.55 kg/cm2/10m

O/B Gradient EMW = 1.55 x 1000 = 1550 kg/m3

Example 3

Interval Thickness Av ρb Interval Cumul OBG Grad EMW

OB Press OB Pres

(ft) (gm/cc) (psi) (psi) (psi/ft) (ppg)

0 - 50 50 1.10 23.8 23.8 0.476 9.15

50 - 150 100 1.46 63.2 87.0 0.580 11.15
150 - 350 200 1.72 148.9 235.9 0.674 12.96
350 - 500 150 1.80 116.9 352.8 0.706 13.58

For the interval 0 to 50ft

Overburden Pressure = 1.10 x 50 x 0.433 = 23.8 psi

Cumulative Pressure = 0 + 23.8 = 23.8 psi

Overburden Gradient = 23.8 / 50 = 0.476 psi/ft

O/B Gradient EMW = 0.476 / 0.052 = 9.15 ppg emw

For the interval 50 to 150 ft

Overburden Pressure = 1.46 x 100 x 0.433 = 63.2 psi

Cumulative Pressure = 0 + 23.8 + 63.2 = 87.0 psi

Overburden Gradient = 87.0 / 150 = 0.58 psi/ft

O/B Gradient EMW = 0.58 / 0.052 = 11.15 ppg emw

Exercise 3b Overburden Gradient Calculations

From the table shown in the first example, complete the calculation of the overburden
gradient.

Interval Thickness Av ρb Interval Cumul OBG Grad EMW

OB Press OB Pres

(m) (gm/cc) (KPa) (KPa) (KPa/m) (kg/m3)

0 - 50 50 1.25 613 613 12.26 1250

50 - 200 150 1.48 2178 2791 13.95 1422
200 - 300 100 1.65 1619 4410 14.70 1498
300 - 400 100 1.78 1746 6156 15.39 1569

400 - 500 100 1.83

500 - 600 100 1.89

600 - 750 150 1.95

750 - 850 100 1.99

850 - 900 50 1.96

900 - 1000 100 2.02

Exercise 3c Overburden Gradient Calculation

Using the procedure shown in example 3, complete the table for the following overburden
calculation:

This example will be used in future exercises.

Interval (ft) bulk density Interval OB Cumulative OB Gradient OB Gradient

(gm/cc) Pressure psi Pressure psi psi/ft EMW (ppg)

0 - 50 1.05

50 - 100 1.20

100 - 200 1.29

200 - 300 1.36

300 - 400 1.40

400 - 500 1.46

500 - 600 1.53

600 - 700 1.55

700 - 800 1.59

800 - 900 1.64

900 - 1000 1.69

1000 - 1100 1.67

1100 - 1200 1.75

1200 - 1300 1.78

1300 - 1400 1.77

1400 - 1500 1.80

 OVERBURDEN GRADIENT

Overburden Gradient
100

200

300

400

500

600

700

DEPTH (ft)

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

EQUIVALENT MUDWEIGHT (ppg)

3.7c Calculation of Formation Pressure

There are several methods of calculation, most of which are based on the comparison of
undercompacted shale with normally compacted shale. This requires the accurate
determination of Normal Compaction Trends as already described, and assumes the direct
relationship between the porosity and the pressure anomaly.

Eatons Method is generally accepted as being the most applicable in most regions of the
world, and is therefore widely used in the industry. It is also generally accepted to be the
most accurate method when interpreting Corrected Drilling Exponent data. Datalog uses
this method.

Studies have shown that Eatons Method is the most accurate for formation pressures less
than 1.4sg (11.66ppg emw) whereas the Equivalent Depth method has been shown to be
the more accurate for formation pressures greater than 1.4sg.
3.7c.1 Eatons Method

This method can be used to calculate the formation pressure from the following
parameters:

Seismic interval velocities

Corrected drilling exponent
Resistivity / Conductivity
Sonic transit times

The method assumes that the relationship between the observed parameter and normal
parameter (ie lying on the NCT) and the formation pressure is dependant upon changes in
the overburden gradient.

Let FP = Formation Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)

FPn = Normal Formation Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)
S = Overburden Gradient (psi/ft)
Xo = Parameter, observed
Xn = Parameter, normal

Resistivity FP = S − (S − FPn) (Ro)1.2

(Rn)

Corrected drilling exponent FP = S − (S − FPn) (DCo)1.2

(DCn)

Sonic transit time FP = S − (S − FPn) (∆Tn)3.0

(∆To)

Conductivity FP = S − (S − FPn) (Cn)1.2

(Co)
Taking the Corrected Drilling Exponent equation as an example:

For a given depth, DCn is the value of the exponent that would lie on the Normal
Compaction Trend, whereas DCo is the actual calculated exponent value.

DCo • • DCn

NCT
Dcexp

At 10000ft, let Normal Formation Pressure Gradient = 0.452 psi/ft (8.7ppg emw)

let Overburden Gradient = 1.04 psi/ft (20.0ppg emw)

let DCo = 1.75

let DCn = 1.85

Actual Formation Pressure Gradient = 1.04 − (1.04 − 0.452)(1.75)1.2

(1.85)

= 0.490 psi/ft

= 9.42 ppg emw

The exponents (in this case 1.2) are reliable for universal use, but if sufficient data was
available, they could be refined on a regional basis.
Calculating Isodensity Lines

Isodensity lines are a way of graphically representing the drilling exponent (or other
parameter) alongside curves of increasing equivalent mudweights (representing
increasing formation pressure). Again, the process relies on the accurate determination of
the overburden gradient and normal compaction trend (which represents the normal
formation pressure isodensity line).

The same formulae are used, but Xo, the observed value of the parameter, is made the
subject. This represents the value that positions the isodensity line for a given equivalent
mudweight at any given depth.

Again, taking the drilling exponent as an example:

DCo = (1.2√ (S − FP)) x DCn

(S − FPn)

FP represents the value of the isodensity line being calculated

DCo represents the DXc value where the isodensity line will be plotted

From the numbers used in the previous example:-

At 10000ft, the overburden gradient = 1.04 psi/ft

normal formation pressure = 0.452 psi/ft

DCn = 1.85

Let us calculate the position, at 10000ft, for the 10.0ppg Isodensity line

10.0ppg emw = 0.52 psi/ft

DCo = (1.2√ (1.04 − 0.52)) x 1.85 = 1.67

(1.04 − 0.452)

Therefore, the 10.0ppg isodensity line at 10000ft would be plotted at a ‘drilling exponent’
value of 1.67. This calculation should be repeated for an entire depth interval to produce a
complete isodensity line.
Plot illustrating Dxc with NCT and Isodensity Lines

0.5 1.0 2.0 DXc

NCT
8.8
9.0

1000 9.2

9.4
2000

9.6
3000

4000

Depth

Equivalent Density

This type of graphical representation is ideal in that it shows the actual DXc along with
the Normal Compaction Trend. With the isodensity lines, any deviation from the normal
trend can immediately be seen along with the estimation of formation pressure
(equivalent mudweight).

In the above example, the onset of the overpressured zone is clearly evident at around
2000ft, seen gradually increasing to a depth of around 3700ft, from where it is constant at
9.25 to 9.30 ppg emw.
Exercise 3d

Using the overburden gradient calculated in exercise 3c and the following Corrected
Drilling Exponent plot, complete the following tasks.

Assume that the normal formation pressure is 8.7 ppg emw, giving a pressure gradient of
0.452 psi/ft.

1. Assuming that the complete depth interval comprises an homogeneous shale, position
a
Normal Compaction Trend line.

2. Using the following values of the drilling exponent that would lie on the NCT line,
calculate and position isodensity lines for the equivalent formation pressures of 9.0,
9.5
and 10.0 ppg.

Depth ‘Normal’ Drilling Exponent

100 1.04
200 1.09
300 1.15
600 1.32
900 1.51
1200 1.74
1500 2.00

Example 9.0ppg (0.468 psi/ft) isodensity line at 100ft:-

DCo = (1.2√ (0.487 − 0.468)) x 1.04 = 0.625

(0.487 − 0.452)

3. Verify the position of these isodensity lines by calculating the formation pressure at
1200 ft.
 CORRECTED DRILLING EXPONENT

DCexponent
100

200

300

400

500

600

700

DEPTH (ft)

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

0.1 1 DCexp 10
 DCexp with Normal Compaction Trend

DCexponent
100

NCT

200

300

400

500

600

700

DEPTH (ft)

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

0.1 1 10

DCexp
 DCexp with Isodensity Lines

9.0ppg
DCexponent
100

9.5ppg NCT

200 9.0ppg EMW

10.0pp 9.5ppg EMW

g
300
10.0ppg EMW

400

500

600

700

DEPTH (ft)

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

0.1 1 10

DCexp
3.7c.2 Equivalent Depth Method

As with Eatons Method, the Equivalent Depth Method can be applied to all the main
parameters. The method assumes that every point in an undercompacted shale (I) is
associated with a normally compacted point (E) at a shallower depth; ie that the
compaction at both points is identical.

For a given depth (DI) of the parameter, the method works by extrapolating that value of
the parameter back to a depth (DE) where that same value falls on the NCT.

Taking a drilling exponent trend as an example:-

DXc

DE --------------------- • E

DI ---------------------• I

Depth NCT

Let FPI = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest DI

Let FPE = formation pressure grad at equivalent depth DE (ie normal pressure)
Let SI = overburden gradient at depth of interest DI
Let SE = overburden gradient at depth of interest DE

FPI = SI − DE (SE − FPE) gradients in psi/ft

DI
Calculating isodensity lines

DXc
X

DE E

NCT

DI I

Depth Z Y

Extend the normal compaction trend XY to the depth origin X

Choose point E lying on the NCT

For the selected isodensity value deqlI, calculate the depth DI using the formula:

DI = 0.545 DE
1.0 − deqlI

Derivation of constants:

Assume overburden gradient = 1.0 psi/ft (19.2ppg emw)

normal formation pressure = 0.455 psi/ft (8.75ppg emw)

(0.545 = S − FPn)

Naturally, if more accurate data, or the actual values are known, they should be used in
the formula.
The isodensity lines produced by the Equivalent Depth method will look as follows:

0.4 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 DXc

NCT
Depth
9.6 9.4 9.2 9.0 Equivalent Density
3.8 Calculation of Formation Fracture Gradient

Knowing the fracture gradient of formations and weak zones is essential while planning
or drilling a well.

We have already seen how the formation at the previous casing shoe depth is assumed to
be the weakest zone of the following hole section (because it is the shallowest depth of
that section) and how we calculate the fracture gradient for that depth.

However, we cannot automatically assume that that will be the weakest zone; highly
porous, fractured or low pressured formations may well have a lower fracture gradient
even though they occur at a deeper depth.

Thus, it is important to have accurate fracture gradient calculations in the same way that it
is important to have accurate formation pressure calculations.

Accurate knowledge of the fracture gradient, in particular the weak zones, enables:

• the planning of a drilling program, casing depths and maximum mud weights

• calculation of the maximum annular pressure (MAASP) when controlling a kick

• estimation of pressures required for stimulating by hydraulic fracturing

3.8a General Theory

To calculate the fracture gradient requires the knowledge of the minimum component of
in-situ stresses (S3)

Deformation and fracture is controlled by the effective stress (σ) which is the difference
between the total stress (ie overburden S) and the formation pore pressure (FP)

σ = S − FP

For the minimum stress, σ3 = S3 − FP

The minimum stress S3 is generally assumed to be the horizontal component, so that

S3 = K3σ + FP

where σ = effective vertical stress due to the overlying sediments

K3 = ratio of horizontal to vertical effective stresses

The main differences in the several theories of fracture gradient calculation arise from the
determination of K3:

• evaluating K3 from regional studies of fracture measurements

• assuming that K3 depends on Poisson’s Ratio µ for the in situ material. This assumes
that the formation has not undergone lateral deformation and that it has always
deformed elastically. This is obviously an unreasonable assumption, so that these
methods have to treated with caution.

The relationship between K3 and µ: K3 = µ

1−µ
3.8b Eatons Method

Eatons method assumes that rock deformation is plastic, and on the basis that Poissons
Ratio and overburden vary with depth, Poissons ratio has to be derived from regional data
for the fracture gradient, formation pressure and overburden gradient.

FG = ( µ ) σ + FP where FG = fracture gradient

(1−µ) FP = formation pressure
σ = overburden − formation pressure
µ = Poissons Ratio

Poissons ratio has to be calculated from offset data, preferably prior to drilling the well,
from the following equation:-

µ = FG − FP
S + FG − 2FP

Eatons method is furthered by Anderson et al, who calculate Poissons ratio on the basis
of a Shaliness Index:

µ = 0.125q + 0.27 where q = shaliness index

Hence, for a clean, shale free sand for example, the minimum for Poissons Ratio is 0.27
because q will be equal to zero.

The shaliness index q can be determined from gamma logs:-

The maximum and minimum gamma value should be determined for each formation or
geological time period.

q can then be derived for given depth intervals eg 10 or 20m, from:-

q = GRlog − GRmin
GRmax − GRmin

where GRlog = the average gamma value over the selected depth interval.
3.8c Daines Method

Daines takes Eatons formula as a basis and introduces a correction by way of a

superimposed tectonic stress, so that...

FG = σt + ( µ ) σ + FP
(1−µ)

where σt = superimposed tectonic stress

σt is calculated from the first Leak Off Test, and is assumed to be constant for the whole
well. The FG at this point will be the fracture gradient derived from the LOT. There is
potential error here, depending on the value of Poissons Ratio selected.

Unlike Eatons method, where the Poissons ratio is depth dependant and calculated from
known fracture gradient, formation pressure and overburden, Daines method assumes that
the Poissons Ratio is dependant on lithology.

The following values of Poissons ratio were derived experimentally:

Clay 0.17 - 0.5 Shale

Conglomerate 0.20 calcareous 0.14
Dolomite 0.21 dolomitic 0.28
Limestone siliceous 0.12
micritic 0.28 silty 0.17
sparitic 0.31 sandy 0.12
porous 0.20 Siltstone 0.08
fossiliferous 0.09
argillaceous 0.17
Sandstone
coarse 0.05 - 0.10
medium 0.06
fine 0.03
poorly sorted 0.24
fossiliferous 0.01

For the purpose of deriving the superimposed tectonic stress, if the lithology at the depth
of Leak Off is not accurately known, a default value of 0.25 should be selected for
Poissons Ratio.
3.9 Use of the QLOG software

General Procedure:-

• Determine or obtain Bulk Density measurements

• Calculate the Overburden Gradient at regular intervals
• Select trend indicator and determine the Normal Compaction Trend for the given
interval *
• Calculate the Formation Pressure *
• Calculate or select the appropriate Poissons Ratio and calculate the Fracture Gradient

* NOTE
The Normal Compaction Trend selected and hence the accuracy of the calculated
Formation Pressure will only be as good as the interpretations made by the engineer.
Before selecting the NCT, the engineer will have already made an accurate estimation of
the formation pressure by considering changes in all parameters such as gas trends,
produced gases, temperature trends, shale density etc. The software cannot do this by
itself.
In otherwords, the software can be used to do the hard work of the actual calculations, but
these calculations should only be confirming the conclusions already arrived at by the
engineer.

a. Overburden Program (overburd)

In order for the Formation Pressure and Fracture Gradient to be calculated, we have
already seen that the Overburden Gradient must be known or have been calculated. The
overburden program calculates the gradient for each log interval and will update it into
the database.

The program can normally be run directly from a command line with no user input
required. However, the first time that the program is run, the command overburd +m
(for manual) should be used. This allows you to specify the start and end depths and is, in
fact, the version of the program that is run from the QLOG menu.

The overburden gradient is calculated from the Bulk Density. There must therefore be
bulk density values, for each record in the database, entered into the JW reference
column. This data may be imported from offset wireline data or measured by the
mudlogger at wellsite.
If bulk density values are not available for each individual record in the database, you
must fill, or copy to, the blank records. Every record must have a bulk density value in
order for the overburden calculation to work.

Running the program for the first time:-

• Ensure that the bulk density value in the equipment table is set to zero and that the
Bulk Density column in the database has values for every record over the required
interval.

NOTE that an accuracy problem will exist if the database does not start from surface, ie if
we are requested at wellsite at an intermediate stage of the well.

For example, if the database is started at 2000m and the first bulk density measurement is
1.95 gm/cc, then that density will be assumed for the whole of the first 2000m given an
initial overburden gradient of 1950 kg/m3 emw. This is obviously inaccurate, erring on
the high side, since it does not allow for the density increasing from a low value at surface
to 1.95 at 2000m.

If any data is available from wireline, then we should attempt to calculate the initial
overburden gradient as accurately as possible. This value should then be entered, as an
equivalent density, into the bulk density column for the first record.

For example, if the overburden for 2000m was calculated at 1700 kg/m3, then a value of
1.70 gm/cc should be entered into the first bulk density record.

• Enter the command overburd +m, or enter the program from the QLOG menu.

• Enter your start depth as the start of the database. Your end depth should be the depth
of the last bulk density value entered into the database.

• Choose to update the equipment file and database after the calculation. When the
calculation is done, the equipment table will be automatically updated with the Bulk
Density (equivalent for the present calculated overburden), which will then be used
for subsequent realtime calculations.

• Calculating to the end of the database will calculate past the end depth entered.
• Press F5 to read in the bulk density values from the database.

• Press F7 to calculate the overburden gradient. If you do not select to update the
database, the program will just display the calculated end result for the present end
depth.

After the first proper calculation (detailed above) run has been completed, the program
should be run at regular intervals while drilling. This should be done from a command
line with overburd. The calculation will be automatic - no manual input of depths is
required, the program automatically continues from the depth of the last calculation.

Even better, the logger can set the system so that the program runs automatically at a pre-
determined time interval, by using the cron timing facility (see Advanced QLOG).

If you wanted to recalculate for the whole database, then run the program as in the first 2
steps above, using the overburd +m option.
b. Overpressure Program (overpress)

This program enables you to calculate the Formation Pressure and Fracture Gradient.
Before using this program, the user should be fully familiar with the theory and
techniques of Abnormal Pressure analysis.

The program requires certain information to be in place before running.

To calculate Formation Pressure:-

• the Overburden Gradient needs to have been calculated for the given depth interval
• the Normal Formation Pressure for the region needs to be entered into the equipment
table.

The user can then determine a Normal Compaction Trend based upon a given parameter,
normally the Corrected Drilling Exponent.

The Fracture Gradient calculation is based upon the calculated Overburden Gradient
and the calculated Formation Pressure, together with the appropriate Poisson’s Ratio.

These calculations are performed offline for a depth interval already drilled. When the
calculations are completed, the Poisson’s Ratio together with Pressure Slope and Offset
(relating to the Normal Compaction Trend) are written automatically to the equipment
table allowing for realtime calculation of the formation pressure and fracture gradient.

The parameter most commonly used to determine a Normal Compaction Trend is the
Corrected Drilling Exponent using Jordan and Shirley’s formula. The limitations of this
parameter, however, have to be recognized. A trend can, normally, only be accurately
determined for homogenous shale or claystone. Varying hydraulics, formation, bit type,
size and wear, will all cause changes to the DCexp trend. Always consider the DCexp
along with changes in cuttings character, mud temperature and resistivity, connection gas,
background gas, torque and drag of drillstring etc.

As previously stated, the engineer should have already evaluated all of these parameters
and determined where the formation pressure is normal, where it becomes abnormal and
what the probable new formation pressure is, before using the software.

Based on this evaluation, the selection of the NCT is totally dependent on the engineer.
This will determine the pressure calculations made by the software, so that the software
should be used in such a way as to give the calculations that the engineer considers
correct.
To use the program:

Firstly, select the correct NCT using the overlay plot:-

• Select the parameter you wish to use for the trend line from the first menu -
normally DCexp.

• For the Start and End depths of the interval that you intend to update calculations
for, enter the value of the Normal Compaction Trend (this value is determined from
the scale of the source, ie DCexp). Use ‘ball park’ figures initially - you will probably
have to run this several times before you have the NCT in exactly the position that
you want. The end depth will be the depth to which the data is calculated and updated,
so extrapolate your trend if you are in a transition zone and it will give you the
calculated pressures within that zone.

• Enter Start and End depths of the plot (in most cases, these will be the same as the
NCT start and end depths), and horizontal plot scales (this is the Equivalent
Mudweight, and would normally be left as the default 800 to 2500 kg/m3 EMW).

• Select the calculation method, Eaton or Zamora (otherwise known as the Ratio
method). Eatons is the preferred method.

• BEFORE calculating and updating the database, select F8 to produce an Overlay

Plot - this will be a plot of the DCexp together with your selected Normal
Compaction Trend and is called overlay.plot, accessed from Reports-XYZ plots. You
may have to re-select your Trend start and end values before you are completely
happy with its positioning.

Once you are happy with the positioning of the Normal Compaction Trend, you are ready
to perform the pressure and fracture gradient calculations:

• Enter the Poisson’s Ratio. This is only used in the calculation of the Fracture
Gradient. Properly, this should be a depth based value determined from offset data
using overburden, formation pressure and fracture gradient (see section 3.8, Eatons
Method). If this data is not available to you, you should use the lithologically
determined ratios shown in the help file and this manual (section 3.8, Daines
Method).

• Select Average Size. For example, if your database was every metre, and you selected
an average of 10, the calculated data for each record in the database would be
averaged over the previous 10 records.
• Select Interval Size. This does not affect the calculated data in the database, but
determines the frequency of data points output to the plot. If 10 was selected for
example, only every 10th record would be output to the plot. This means that the
XYZ plot created (these have a limited memory capability) is capable of taking a
greater depth interval.

• Select whether to Update Database and Equipment Table. Obviously, this would
write all of the calculated formation pressures and fracture gradients to the database
and would also write the following parameters to the equipment table to allow for
realtime calculations:-

Poisson’s Ratio
Pressure Slope and Offset (based on the normal compaction trend)

• Calculate to end of database - this would calculate beyond the End Depth already
selected.

• Press F7 to calculate. This will update your database and equipment table and also
produce a pressure profile plot; formation pressure and fracture gradient against
depth, called press.plot

NOTE that the parameters written to the equipment table allow for realtime calculations
of formation pressure and fracture gradient based on your Normal Compaction Trend.
Should there be a lateral shift in this trend, caused by such things as change in lithology,
bit change, change in hydraulics, then it is quite legitimate for you to change the pressure
offset in order to get accurate realtime calculations. This facility should only be used for
these types of shift changes and not for changes in your drilling exponent caused by a
formation pressure change (ie do not change the pressure slope).

You should only change the pressure offset, which effectively shifts your Normal
Compaction Trend, if you are fully confident of what your formation pressure is (this only
comes with experience and by taking into consideration all pressure indicators), - you can
therefore alter the pressure offset so that you get the realtime calculations that you want.

Should you have an interbedded lithology sequence, for example sand and shale, then
your Normal Compaction Trend is effectively shifting for each lithology change. It would
therefore be virtually impossible to keep your realtime calculations accurate. In this
situation, so that you have accurate information on display for engineers and geologists, it
may be advisable to use the override facilities in the equipment table.
Normal Compaction Trends

For calculation purposes, intervals have to be calculated using a single NCT. However, if
you were producing overlay plots for a final well report, then multiple trends can be
selected.

This may be due to a number of causes:-

Shift changes due to bit changes

change in hole size
change in hydraulics or drilling parameters
unconformities (this may also produce a different NCT
gradient)

Multiple trends can be selected by editing the plot data file /datalog/plots/data/trend.dat
which would normally contain the start and end depths plus NCT values that you selected
in the overpress program. For additional trend sections, simply add depths and NCT
values required:-

50 1.26
350 1.42 #NCT 1, 50 to 350m

350 1.56
700 1.68 #NCT 2, 350 to 700m

700 1.44
1100 1.60 #NCT 3, 700 to 1100m

Again, this facility can be very useful for providing detailed plots for final well reports
but cannot be used for calculation purposes.
Appendix Answers to Exercises

Exercise 3a

1. a. 0.494 psi/ft
b. 2.150 psi/m
c. 2.557 psi/m
d. 10.35 KPa/m
e. 12.26 KPa/m

2. a. 5148 psi
b. 4120 psi
c. 3139 psi
d. 45126 KPa

3. a. 15.38 ppg
b. 10.99 ppg
c. 9.53 ppg
d. 12.7 ppg
e. 1359 kg/m3
f. 1019 kg/m3

Exercise 3b

Depth Interval Interval Pressure Cumulative O/B Grad Equivalent MW

KPa Pressure KPa KPa/m kg/m3

400 - 500 1795 7951 15.90 1621

500 - 600 1854 9805 16.34 1666
600 - 750 2869 12674 16.90 1723
750 - 850 1952 14626 17.21 1754
850 - 900 961 15587 17.32 1766
900 - 1000 1982 17569 17.57 1791
Exercise 3c

Depth Interval Interval Pressure Cumulative O/B Grad Equivalent MW

(psi) Pressure (psi) (psi/ft) (ppg)

0 - 50 22.73 22.73 0.455 8.74

50 - 100 25.98 48.71 0.487 9.36
100 - 200 55.86 104.57 0.523 10.05
200 - 300 58.89 163.46 0.545 10.48
300 - 400 60.62 224.08 0.560 10.77
400 - 500 63.22 287.30 0.575 11.05
500 - 600 66.25 353.55 0.589 11.33
600 - 700 67.11 420.66 0.601 11.56
700 - 800 68.85 489.51 0.612 11.77
800 - 900 71.01 560.52 0.623 11.98
900 - 1000 73.18 633.70 0.634 12.19
1000 - 1100 72.31 706.01 0.642 12.34
1100 - 1200 75.77 781.78 0.651 12.53
1200 - 1300 77.07 858.85 0.661 12.70
1300 - 1400 76.64 935.49 0.668 12.85
1400 - 1500 77.94 1013.43 0.676 12.99
Exercise 3d

Isodensity Lines

Depth 9.0ppg emw 9.5ppg emw 10.0ppg emw

100 0.625
200 0.517 0.08
300 0.983 0.697 0.385
600 1.190 0.973 0.745
900 1.391 1.194 0.990
1200 1.623 1.428 1.228
1500 1.880 1.682 1.479

Formation Pressure at 1200 ft = 10.0 ppg emw