CONCRETE

Concrete is an engineering material that simulates the properties of rock being a

combination of particles closely bound together. The word concrete comes from the Latin
word "concretus" meaning compact or condensed. It is simply a blend of aggregates,
normally natural sand and gravel or crushed rock bound together by a hydraulic binder like
Portland cement, activated by water, to form a dense semi homogenous mass. Because of
its general characteristics concrete is sometimes referred to as artificial rock.

Concrete is very strong in resisting compression. In use where tensile stresses have to be
accommodated reinforcement is incorporated into the concrete to absorb tension. Concrete
is the most widely used construction material. It allows flexibility in structural form as it can
be moulded into a multiplicity of shapes. Concrete is used more than any other man-made
material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 cubic kms of concrete are made each year—
more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE

Concrete are classified into different types:

1. According to binding material used in concrete.

2. According to design of concrete.

3. According to purpose of concrete.

ACCORDING TO BINDING MATERIAL

CEMENT CONCRETE

In cement concrete useful proportions of its ingredients are 1 part cement:1-8 part sand:2-16 parts
coarse aggregates. Cement concrete is commonly used in buildings and other important engineering
works where strength and durability is of prime importance.

LIME CONCRETE

The concrete consisting of lime, fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates mixed in a suitable
proportion with water is called lime concrete. In this type of concrete hydraulic lime is generally
used as a binding material, sand and cinder are used as fine aggregates and broken bricks, gravel can
be used as coarse aggregates.

Placing of concrete shall be completed within three hours of adding water in case of concrete is
prepared with hydraulic lime. Concrete should be well cured for a period of at least 10 days. Lime
concrete is generally used for the sake of economy in foundation works, under floors, over roof and
where cement is not cheaply and easily available in required quantity.
ACCORDING TO DESIGN OF CONCRETE

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE

The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called plain cement concrete or mass
cement concrete. This type of concrete is strong in taking compressive stresses but weak in taking
tensile stresses. Plain cement concrete is commonly used in for foundation work and flooring of
buildings.

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)

The cement concrete in which reinforcement is embedded for taking tensile stress is called
reinforced cement concrete. In this type of concrete the steel reinforcement is to be used generally
in the form of round bars, 6mm to 32mm dia.

This concrete is equally strong in taking tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Usual proportions of
ingredients in a reinforced concrete are 1part of cement:1-2parts of sand: 24parts of crushed stones
or gravel. USES: RCC is commonly used for construction of slabs, beams, columns, foundation, and
precast concrete.

PRE-STRESSED CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)

The cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially induced before their actual
use is called pre-stresses cement concrete. in this type of cement concrete, the high compressive
stresses are induced by pre-tensioning the reinforcement before placing the concrete, and the
reinforcement is released when final setting of the concrete take place. Uses : This concrete can take
up high tensile and compressive stresses without development of cracks. The quantity of
reinforcement can be considerably reduced by using this concrete.

ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

VACUUM CONCRETE

The cement concrete from which entrained air and excess water is removed after placing it, by
suction with the help of vacuum pump is called vacuum concrete. In this concrete the excess water
which is added to increase workability but not required for the hydration of cement of concrete is
removed by forming vacuum chamber

AIR ENTRAINED CONCRETE

The concrete prepared by mixing aluminum in it is called air entrained, cellular or aerated concrete.
In this concrete bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated which forms cell and make the concrete
cellular. USES: This concrete is used for lining walls and roofs for heat and sound insulation purpose.

LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE

The concrete prepared by using coke breeze, cinder or slag as coarse aggregate is called light weight
concrete. The concrete is light in weight and possess heat insulating properties. This concrete is used
in making precast structural units for partition and wall lining.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Properties of concrete are influenced by many factors mainly due to mix proportion of
cement, sand, aggregates and water. Ratio of these materials controls the various concrete
properties.

GRADES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in which letter M
refers to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the specified compressive strength (fck)
of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm2. Thus, concrete is known by its
compressive strength. M20 and M25 are the most common grades of concrete, and higher
grades of concrete should be used for severe, very severe and extreme environments.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies considerably for the
same concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative value, known as characteristic
strength is used.

CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more than 5% of the test results
are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving this value only 5% of not
achieving the same)

Characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member

The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67 times the
strength of concrete cube.

Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength

The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as design
strength and is given by

Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for material
strength

The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the
type of limit state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for
concrete and 1.15 for steel.

Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck

TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the cracking strength
of concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by the relations

fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2

The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained experimentally by split

cylinder. It varies from 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive strength.

CREEP IN CONCRETE

Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustain load. Creep strain depends
primarily on the duration of sustained loading. According to the code, the value of the
ultimate creep coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of loading.

SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and hardening is termed
Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure. If this strain is prevented, it
produces tensile stress in the concrete and hence concrete develops cracks.

MODULAR RATIO

Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of elasticity of
concrete.

Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec

Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2×10 5 N/mm2)

Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000 x SQRT(fck) N/mm2)

As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading etc the modular
ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the effects of creep and shrinkage
partially IS code gives the following expression for the long term modular ratio.

Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)

Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm2.

POISSON’S RATIO

Poisson’s ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for weak mixes. It is
normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for serviceability criteria.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. One of the chief
characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its permeability to increase of water and
other potentially deleterious materials.

The desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate cement, sufficient
low water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of concrete and by adequate curing.

UNIT WEIGHT OF CONCRETE

The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of aggregate,

amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26 kN/m2. The unit weight of plain and reinforced
concrete as specified by IS:456 are 24 and 25KN/m3 respectively.

COMPOSITION AND ITS PROPERTIES

Concrete is made up of four main ingredients:

Cement Aggregates Water Admixtures

The ratio of the ingredients changes the properties of the final product, which allows the
engineer to design concrete that meets their specific needs.

CEMENT

Cement is the hydraulic binder (hydraulic = hardening when combined with water) which is
used to produce concrete. Cement paste (cement mixed with water) sets and hardens by
hydration, both in air and under water. The main base materials, e.g. for Portland cement,
are limestone, marl and clay, which are mixed in defined proportions. This raw mix is burned
at about 1'450 °C to form clinker which is later ground to the well-known fineness of
cement.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical

properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement.

Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement
is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As
hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is
very important.
Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality
cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by
excessive free lime and magnesia.

Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various
factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading
conditions and age.

Compressive Strength

It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected
to a compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds
and 80 seconds.

Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, it
does not offer any useful information about the properties of cement now.

Flexural strength

This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40

x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too
low and a final setting time not too high.

Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat
generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of
hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is
calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement
(obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes
weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration
and carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.

Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be
air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying
range of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement
may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has
a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-
slag and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

AGGREGATES

Aggregate is a broad category of coarse particulate material used in construction, including

sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates.
Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of
composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as
reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material.

PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

1. Composition - Aggregates consisting of materials that can react with alkalies in cement
and cause excessive expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete mix should never be
used. Therefore it is required to test aggregates to know whether there is presence of any
such constituents in aggregate or not.

2. Size and shape - The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly influence the
quantity of cement required in concrete mix and hence ultimately economy of concrete. For
the preparation of economical concrete mix on should use largest coarse aggregates
feasible for the structure.
3. Surface texture - The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles
and cement paste depends upon the surface texture, surface roughness and surface
porosity of the aggregate particles.

If the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops. In porous surface
aggregates, the bond strength increases due to setting of cement paste in the pores.

4. Specific gravity - The ratio of weight of oven dried aggregates maintained for 24 hours at
a temperature of 100 to 1100C, to the weight of equal volume of water displaced by
saturated dry surface aggregate is known as specific gravity of aggregates.

5. Bulk density- It is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of unit
volume. It is generally expressed in kg/litre.

6. Voids - The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are known as voids. The
volume of void equals the difference between the gross volume of the aggregate mass and
the volume occupied by the particles alone.

7. Porosity and absorption - The minute holes formed in rocks during solidification of the
molten magma, due to air bubbles, are known as pores. Rocks containing pores are called
porous rocks. Water absorption may be defined as the difference between the weight of
very dry aggregates and the weight of the saturated aggregates with surface dry conditions.

8. Bulking of sand - It can be defined as in increase in the bulk volume of the quantity of
sand in a moist condition over the volume of the same quantity of dry or completely
saturated sand. The ratio of the volume of moist sand due to the volume of sand when dry,
is called bulking factor.

9. Fineness modulus - Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or
fine the aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser
and small value of fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.

10. Specific surface - The surface area per unit weight of the material is termed as specific
surface. This is an indirect measure of the aggregate grading. Specific surface increases with
the reduction in the size of aggregate particle. The specific surface area of the fine
aggregate is very much more than that of coarse aggregate.

11. Crushing value - The aggregates crushing value gives a relative measure of resistance of
an aggregate to crushing under gradually applied compressive load. The aggregate crushing
strength value is a useful factor to know the behavior of aggregates when subjected to
compressive loads.
12. Impact value - The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of
an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. The impact value of an aggregate is sometime used
as an alternative to its crushing value.

13. Abrasion value - The abrasion value gives a relative measure of resistance of an
aggregate to wear when it is rotated in a cylinder along with some abrasive charge.

WATER

Water acts as lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregates and acts chemically with the
cement to form the binding paste for the aggregate and reinforcement. Water is also used
for curing the concrete after it has been cast into the forms. Water used for both mixing and
curing should be free from injurious amount of deleterious materials. Portable waters are
generally considered satisfactory for mixing and curing of concrete. Less water in the
cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will give an freer-
flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause
problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.

Water-Cement ratio is the ratio of volume of water mixed in concrete to volume of cement
used. The strength and workability of concrete depend to a great extent on the amount of
water used. For a given proportion of the materials, there is an amount of water which gives
the greatest strength. The use of an excessive amount of water not only produces low
strength but increases shrinking, and decreases density and durability. According to Abram’s
Water-Cement Ratio law, lesser the water-cement ratio in a workable mix, greater will be its
strength. According to Powers, cement does not combine chemically with more than half
the quantity of water in the mix.

ADMIXTURES

Admixtures are artificial or natural materials added to the concrete besides cement, water
and aggregate to improve certain property of concrete during casting or setting or service
stage.

Classification of admixtures

Accelerating admixtures

The accelerating admixtures are added to concrete either (a) to increase the rate of
hydration of cement, hence to improve the rate of development of strength or (b) to
shorten the setting time. An increase in the rate of early strength development may help in
(i) earlier removal of forms, (ii) reduction of required period of curing, (iii) earlier placement
of structure in service. Accelerating admixtures are also used when the concrete is to be
placed at low temperature.
Retarding and Water-reducing admixtures

The retarding admixtures delay the setting of concrete. They are used primarily to offset the
accelerating and damaging effect of high temperature and to keep concrete workable
during the entire placing period which should be sufficiently long so that the succeeding lifts
can be placed without developments of cold joints or discontinuities in the structural unit.
Some of the retarding admixtures also reduce the water requirement of the mixtures.

Grouting admixtures

Some retarders are especially useful in cement grout slurries, particularly where the
grouting is prolonged, or in cases where the grout must be pumped for a considerable
distance, or where hot water is encountered underground.

Air-entraining admixtures

These admixtures help to incorporate a controlled amount of air in the form of minute
bubbles in the concrete during mixing, without significantly altering the setting or the rate
of hardening characteristics of concrete. The capillaries are interrupted by relatively large air
voids in the air-entrained concrete. Entrainment of a small amount of air results in the
concrete of insufficient durability whereas with the large amounts of entrained air an
excessive reduction in strength may occur. This air-entrainment alters properties of both the
freshly mixed and hardened concrete.

Pozzolana admixtures

A pozzolana is a siliceous material which as such does not possess cementitious property in
itself, but reacts in the presence of water with the lime at the normal temperatures to form
compounds of low solubility having cementitious properties. The pozzolanas can be used in
combination with or for partial replacement of Portland cement. Some of the advantages
obtained through their use are: (i) improved workability with lesser amount of water, (ii)
reduction in heat of hydration, (iii) increased resistance to the attack from salts and
sulphates, and (iv) prevention of calcium hydroxide leaching.

Colouring admixtures or pigments

Pigments are the admixtures added to produce coloured cements. The pigments used must
be permanent and should not react with free lime in concrete.

DIFFERENT TESTING FOR CONCRETE MATERIALS AND ITS COMPOSITION

CONCRETE TESTING

Concrete is inspected and tested to ascertain that all specified conditions meet the
acceptable criteria specified. This is achieved by visual, mechanical, nondestructive, or
destructive methods.
 Mix Designs – MTI can provide mix designs and mix design reviews in its fully equipped
and certified laboratories.

On-Site Concrete Testing and Inspection - Inspection of the placement of concrete and
testing the fresh properties of concrete to verify conformance to the project plans and
specifications. Concrete tests include slump, air content, temperature, yield, unit weight,
water-cement ratio, in addition to the casting of concrete cylinders/beams for
compressive/flexural strength.

Reinforcing Steel Placement - Placement of reinforcing steel is verified for size, quantity,
spacing and clearance in the concrete forms prior to the placement of concrete. A
comprehensive inspection of the forms and subgrade conditions is also performed.

Compressive Strength Testing - Laboratory testing of concrete specimens is performed to

determine the compressive strength of the concrete.

Pre-stressed & Post-tensioned Concrete - Inspection is performed during installation of

unbonded tendons, couplers, anchorage and concrete placement. Calibration of stressing
jacks, gauges and elongation measurements are verified to be in accordance with plans and
specifications.

Pre-cast Concrete Fabrication - Inspection of precast facilities is performed to verify

quality control procedures are being adhered to and construction methods/techniques are
in accordance with project requirements.

Batch Plant Inspection and Quality Control - Monitoring of concrete at the plant is
performed to control key properties; including air content, water/cement ratio, slump, etc.

After Placement Testing of Concrete

Pachometer Testing - Pachometer testing is used to locate existing reinforcing steel in

concrete structures. This equipment can determine the concrete cover, rebar sizes, spacing,
and length.

Windsor Probe Testing - Windsor Probe (ASTM C 803) testing methods can be used for
assessing the general quality, uniformity, and relative strength of concrete members.

Schmidt Hammer Testing - Schmidt Hammer testing is used for the non-destructive
measurement of the concrete/mortar compressive strength and the control of the uniform
concrete quality as well as for detecting weak spots.

Petrographic Analysis - Using varied microscopic equipment and expertise, MTI is able
to perform a multitude of unique analysis methods including petrographic analysis of rock
and aggregate and porosity of hardened concrete, mortar, and grout. A number of
properties can be determined; including air content, aggregate percentages, water/cement
ratio, and others.
CEMENT TESTING

1. Fineness Test

Fineness is the mean size of cement grain. Fineness test is done to measure the mean size of
cement grain. The finer the cement the surface area for hydration will be large and it
increases the strength of cement. But the fineness varies in different types of cement.

Following three methods are applied to test the fineness of cement: sieve method, air
permeability method, and sedimentation method

2. Consistency Test

This test is done to estimate the required water quantity to form a normal consistency
cement paste. It is defined as the percentage of water required for the cement paste.

3. Setting Time Test

Cement has two types of setting time, one is initial setting time and another is final setting.
Initial setting time is the state of cement mortar or concrete when it starts to become stiffen
and unworkable. Final setting time is the state when cement mortar or concrete has
become fully unworkable. Two methods are used to find the initial and final setting time of
cement: Vicat needle method, and Gillmore needle method

4. Soundness Test

Soundness of cement means it doesn’t undergo large volume change after setting. Large
changes in volume produce cracks, disintegration and distortion, ultimately leading to
failure. So it is very important to test the soundness of cement. To test the soundness two
methods can be applied: Le-chatelier method and Autoclave method

5. Strength Test

Cement has two types of strength – compressive strength and tensile strength.

To know the compressive strength and tensile strength of cement following tests are
performed – Cement mortar cube test (for compressive strength), Briqutte test (for tensile
strength), Split tensile test (for tensile strength)

6. Heat of Hydration Test

Cement produce large amount of heat during hydration process. When large amount of
concrete volume is poured the inner temperature is greater than outer surface of concrete -
because outer surface is exposed to weather. Thus surface shrinks rapidly than the inner
and tends to produce cracks. That is why it is important to test the heat of hydration of
cement.
7. Specific Gravity Test

Specific gravity of cement is a comparison of weight of a cement volume to the weight of

same volume of water.

AGGREGATES TESTING

Crushing test

The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under
gradually applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in
standard mould to a compression test under standard load conditions.

Abrasion test

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide
whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works.

Impact test

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel
cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact
testing machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number
of blows. Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0
cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows.

Soundness test

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by

conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing
and thawing are likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such
aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test.

Shape tests

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and
elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher
workability and stability of mixes. The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight
of aggregate particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size.

Specific Gravity and water absorption

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are
required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is
the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature.
Bitumen adhesion test

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free
from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous
construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem
can be dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the
mixing temperature.

WATER TESTING

Recommended Limits for Concrete Construction Water Tests

Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious quantities of
alkalies, acids, oils , salts, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth or other substance that
may be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally considered
satisfactory for mixing.

The pH value of water shall not be less than the following concentrations represent the
maximum permissible values (of deleterious materials in water):

a) Limits of acidity: To neutralize 100ml sample of water, using phenolphthalein as an

indicator, it should not require more than 5ml of 0.02 normal NaOH. The details of test shall
be as given in IS 3025 (Para 22).

b) Limits of alkalinity: To neutralize 100ml sample of water, using mixed indicator, it should
not require more than 25ml of 0.02 normal H2SO4. The details of tests shall be as given in IS
3025 (Para 23).

c) Percentage of solids: Maximum permissible limits of solids when tested in accordance

with IS 3025 shall be as under:

Types of solids Limits

Organic solids 200 mg/liter

Inorganic solids 3000 mg/liter

Sulphates 400 mg/liter

2000 mg/liter for concrete not containing embedded steel, and

Chlorides
500 mg/liter for reinforced concrete work

Suspended matter 2000 mg/liter

ADMIXTURES TESTING

Concrete made with admixtures when compared with identical concrete made without the
admixture shall conform to the requirements appropriate to the type of admixture given in
Table 1 and Table 2, except in the case of air-entraining admixture. In the case of air-
entraining admixtures, a reference admixture of approved quality shall be used in the
control concrete to entrain identical amount of air.

Sampling and Testing of Fresh Concrete:

Test for Workability:

The workability of freshly mixed concrete in terms of slump or compaction factor shall be
determined according to method given in IS 1199. The flow of freshly mixed superplasticized
concrete of high workability shall be determined according to the method given in IS 9103:
1999.

Test for Air-content:

Air-content of freshly mixed concrete shall be determined by the pressure method given
in IS 1199.

Test for Time of Setting:

Time of setting, initial and final, shall be determined as given in IS 8142.

Test for Bleeding:

Bleeding shall be computed at a percentage of the net amount of mixing water in the
concrete. The net mixing water is the water in excess of that present as absorbed water in
the aggregate. Absorbed water in the aggregate shall be determined as given in IS 23 86
(Part 3). The test shall be carried out in accordance with the details given in IS 9103: 1999.

Test for Water Content:

Net water content of the batch shall be computed by determining the absorption water of
aggregate as given in IS 2386 (Part3). Mass of cement per unit volume of concrete shall be
computed as given in IS 1199, and Water-cement ratio shall be determined by dividing the
net mass of water by the mass of cement in batch.
Testing for Hardened Concrete:

Test for Compressive Strength: At least three specimens shall be tested for each type of
concrete and each age of testing. Compressive strength shall be determined as given in IS
516.

Test for Flexural Strength: At least three specimens shall be tested for each type of concrete
and each age of testing. Flexural strength shall be computed as given in IS 516.
Test for Length Change (Drying Shrinkage): Changes in length on drying and wetting shall be
determined as given in IS 1199. The moist-curing period, including the period in moulds shall

TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINE, APPARATUS FOR CONCRETE TESTING

SIEVE - an instrument with a meshed or perforated bottom, used for separating coarse from
fine parts of loose matter

VICAT APPARATUS - a device for determining the normal consistency and time of setting of
Portland cements that consists of a rod weighing 300 grams, having a needle in each end,
and supported in a frame with a graduated scale to measure the distance to which the
needle penetrates the cement.

GILLMORE APPARATUS - determine the setting time of cement. The vertical support shaft
has a device to maintain the horizontal arms in alignment.

SLUMP TEST APPARATUS - measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is
performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with
which concrete flows. It can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch.

LOS ANGELES ABRASION MACHINE - used to measure the degradation of mineral aggregate
of standard gradings resulting from a combination of actions including abrasion or attrition,
impact and grinding in a rotating steel drum containing a specified number of steel spheres.

WATER BATH - a container of water heated to a given temperature, used for heating
substances placed in smaller containers.

AIR ENTRAINMENT METER - used to measure the air content of freshly mixed mortar in
accordance with the air pressure compensation principle.

CONCRETE VIBRATOR - is a construction tool typically used on concrete pouring sites. These
machines and an assortment of attachments are designed for multiple applications built by
a variety of manufacturers. The vibrators are used to ensure that the pour is free of air
bubbles and are even.

MARSHALL STABILITY APPARATUS - used in pavement design to determine the Optimum

Binder Content (OBC) in bitumen pavement.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY BENCH - designed for weighing suspended samples in water when
determining specific gravity of aggregates, hardened concrete, bituminous mixtures,
refractory brick, and similar materials.