BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ELE 290

5.0 DC MACHINES
5.0 INTRODUCTION

DC Generator:
When it operates as a generator, the input to the machine is mechanical power and the
output is electrical power. A prime mover rotates the armature of the dc machine, and dc
power is generated in the machine. The prime mover can be a gas turbine, a diesel
engine, or an electrical motor. The dc machine operating as a generator is driven by a
prime mover at a constant speed and the armature terminals are connected to a load.

DC Motor:
When the dc machine operates as a motor, the input to the machine is electrical power
and the output is mechanical power. If the armature is connected to a dc supply, the
motor will develop mechanical torque and power. In fact, the dc machine is used more as
a motor than as a generator. DC motors can provide a wide range of accurate speed and
torque control. In both modes of operation (generator and motor) the armature winding
rotates in the magnetic field and carries current.
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5.1 CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 5.0(a): DC Machine construction

It consists of two main parts:
[i] Stator as the non-rotating part
[ii] Rotor armature as the rotating part.
The basic construction of dc machine is illustrated in Fig. 5.0a

Fig. 5.0b: General Arrangement of a DC Machine

 The stator of the dc motor has poles, which are excited by dc current to produce
magnetic fields.
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 In the neutral zone, in the middle between the poles, commutating poles are placed to
reduce sparking of the commutator. The commutating poles are supplied by dc current.

 Compensating windings are mounted on the main poles. These short-circuited windings
damp rotor oscillations.
 The poles are mounted on an iron core that provides a closed magnetic circuit.

 The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated iron core with slots.

 Coils with several turns are placed in the slots. The distance between the two legs of the
coil is about 180 electric degrees.

 The coils are connected in series through the commutator segments.

 Two brushes are pressed to the commutator to permit current flow.

 The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the magnetic field is close to zero, to
reduce arcing.

 The commutator switches the current from one rotor coil to the adjacent coil,

 The switching requires the interruption of the coil current.

 The sudden interruption of an inductive current generates high voltages.

 The high voltage produces flashover and arcing between the commutator segment and
the brush.

In a dc machine, the armature winding is placed on the rotor and the field windings are placed on the
stator. The essential features of a two-pole dc machine are shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: Schematic diagram of a DC Machine

The stator has salient poles that are excited by one or more field windings, called shunt field
windings and series field windings. The field windings produce an air gap flux distribution that is
symmetrical about the pole axis (also called the field axis, direct axis, or d-axis).
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The voltage induced in the turns of the armature winding is alternating. A commutator-brush
combination is used as a mechanical rectifier to make the armature terminal voltage unidirectional
and also to make the mmf wave due to the armature current fixed in space. The brushes are so
placed that when the sides of an armature turn (or coil) pass through the middle of the region
between field poles, the current through it changes direction. This makes all the conductors under
one pole carry current in one direction.

As a consequence, the mmf due to the armature current is along the axis midway between the two
adjacent poles, called the quadrature (or q) axis. ln the schematic diagram of Fig. 5.1, the brushes are
shown placed on the q-axis to indicate that when a turn (or coil) undergoes commutation its sides
are in the q-axis. However, because of the end connection, the actual brush positions will be
approximately 90° from the position shown in Fig. 5.1.

5.2 MOTOR/GENERATOR ACTION

DC Machines can he subdivided into two functions namely: dc generator which generates dc voltage
and dc motor which required dc supply to operate. Before we can go directly to dc generation, it i s
better for us to discuss on the generation of the ac signal which can be later needed into dc signal. As
a conclusion:
DC Generator : Supply current to the load
DC Motor : Required/need current from the supply

Refer to Fig. 5.2, assume the coil is rotating. This motion is perpendicular (normal) to the will cut the
electric flux which exist between North (N) pole to the South (S) of the magnet. The coil rotates from
0° into 180° and continues accordingly.
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Fig. 5.2: Physical arrangement of AC generating method

Slip ring : used to generate ac signal
Carbon brush : used to collect output voltage (ac signal)

No Angle Position Emf generated Description

i)   0  0V No flux cutting at all

ii)   30   E sin 30 Flux being cut at 30
iii)   45   E sin 45 Flux being cut at 45
iv)   90   Emax Flux being cut at 90 or +ve max

v)   180  0V No flux cutting at all

vi)   270   Emax Flux being cut at 270 or –ve max

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Fig. 5.3: The moment where the motion cuts the flux for various angle positions

The reading from every instant [i] through [vi] can be plotted in time domain as illustrated in Fig.5.4

Fig. 5.4: Emf generated at various instant (angle position)

It is found that the plotted data is in the shape of sinusoidal signal

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5.2.1 GENERATION OF DC SIGNAL

The generating method of ac signal can be used by minor modification of the generating apparatus.
This can be done by replacing the slip ring with commutator so that rectification process can happen.
The physical arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 5.5

Fig. 5.5: Physical arrangement of DC generating method

When the slip rings are replaced by commutator; dc signal can be generated. This is done through
rectification or commutation process; which converts ac signal into dc mechanically.
Therefore a commutator is called as a mechanical rectifier. The dc signal is illustrated in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6: AC is converted into DC signal through commutation process

Extra reference
http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/electricmotors.html
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5.3 EMF EQUATION

The mathematical equation for EMF generated is given in Eqn. 4.0 below;

zNP
EMFgen  2  …………………………………….. (4.0)
c60
Where z : No. of conductors in the armature circuit
: No. of conductors/slot x no of slots

c : No. of parallel path

: No. of current path
: 2 P (for lap winding)
: 2 (for wave winding)
N : Speed in rev/min (rpm)
 : Useful flux/pole (Weber @ Wb)

P : No. of pole pair

It is difficult to visualize the current path physically, but it can be represented as the
parallel circuits appeared in Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7: Wave and Lap Connection.

5.4 TYPES OF WINDINGS

Machine winding is subdivided into 2 classifications namely;
[a] Armature winding
[b] Field winding
The details of this winding are illustrated in Fig. 5.8.
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Fig. 5.8: Winding Connection in DC Machine

5.5 ARMATURE REACTION

If the magnetic field windings of a DC machine are connected to a power supply and the rotor of the
machine is turned by an external source of mechanical power, then a voltage will be induced in the
conductors of the rotor. This voltage will be rectified into a DC output by the action of the machine’s
commutator.
Now connect a load to the terminals of the machine, and a current will flow in its armature windings.
This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own, which will distort the original magnetic
field from the machine’s poles. This distortion of the flux in a machine as the load is increased is
called armature reaction. It causes two serious problems in real DC machines.

5.5.1 NEUTRAL-PLANE SHIFT.

Defined as the plane within the machine where the velocity of the rotor wires is exactly parallel to

the magnetic flux lines, so that eind in the conductors in the plane is exactly zero.

Explanation: The commutator must short out commutator segments just at the moment when the
voltage across them is equal to zero. If the brushes are set to short out conductors in the vertical
plane, then the voltage between segments is indeed zero until the machine is loaded. When the
machine is loaded, the neutral plane shifts, and the brushes short out commutator segments with a
finite voltage across them. The result is a current flow circulating between the shorted segments and
large sparks at the brushes when the current path is interrupted as the brush leaves a segment. The
end result is arcing and sparking at the brushes.
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Major problems

 Drastically reduced brush life (this problem cannot be fixed even by placing the brushes
over the full-load neutral plane, because then they would spark at no load)

 Can lead to flashover in the commutator segments near the brushes. The air near the
brushes in a machine is normally ionized as a result of the sparking on the brushes.
Flashover occurs when the voltage of adjacent commutator segments gets large enough
to sustain an arc in the ionized air above them. If flashover occurs, the resulting arc can
even melt the commutators surface.

5.5.2 FLUX WEAKENING.

To understand flux weakening, refer to the magnetization curve shown in Fig.5.9. Most machines
operate at flux densities near the saturation point. Therefore, at locations on the pole surfaces where
the rotor magnetomotive force adds to the pole magnetomotive force, only a small increase in flux
occurs. But at locations on the pole surfaces where the rotor magnetomotive force subtracts from
the pole magneto- motive force, there is a larger decrease in flux. The net result is that the total
average flux under the entire pole face is decreased.

Fig. 5.9: A typical magnetization curve shows the effect of pole saturation where armature
and pole magnetomotive forces add.

Major problems
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 In generators, the effect of flux weakening is simply to reduce the voltage supplied by the
generator for any given load.

 In motors, when the flux in a motor is decreased, its speed increases. But increasing the
speed of a motor can increase its load, resulting in more flux weakening. It is possible for
some shunt DC motors to reach a runaway condition as a result of flux weakening, where the
speed of the motor just keeps increasing until the machine is disconnected from the power
line or until it destroys itself.

5.6 EXCITATION (SEPARATELY EXCITED, SHUNT, SERIES, COMPOUND TECHNIQUE)

Divide into 2:
1. Separately Excited Field Winding
There is no direct connection between armature circuit and the field circuit.
2. Self Excited Field Winding
There is a direct connection between armature circuit and the field circuit.

5.6.1 SEPARATELY EXCITED FIELD WINDING

In separately excited winding, normally open-circuit characteristic test is to be conducted. The
schematic diagram is illustrated in Fig. 4.11.

Fig. 5.10: Separately Excited Schematic Diagram

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In separately-excited dc machine (especially dc generator); we normally do the followings:

[i] Run the dc generator at rated speed

[ii] Measure open-circuit voltage, E goc at field current, I f  0 A

[iii] Increase field current, I f gradually until it reaches 120% of the machine rated

current.

[iv] Obtain the table for if versus E goc and plot the graph. This graph is called as open-

circuit characteristics.

5.6.1.1 OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISICS (OCC)

The open-circuit characteristics for separately-excited (normally for shunt generator) is illustrated in
Fig. 4.11.

Fig. 5.11: Open-circuit Characteristics for Separately Excited DC Machine

From the open-circuit characteristic we normally deduce the following parameters

Fig. 5.12: Open-circuit Characteristics for Separately Excited DC Machine

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For critical resistance, Rc :

[i] Draw a tangent of the curve that starts from the origin

[ii] The slope of this tangent = critical resistance, Rc

For No-load Voltage:

[i] Draw a line which has slope m  R f for the shunt generator.

[ii] I excitation  I at the intersection of the two curves i.e.: Open-circuit Characteristics.

And line with m  R f

[iiij Vnoload or stable operating voltage is the voltage at this intersection point.

5.6.2 SELF EXCITED FIELD WINDINGS

In self-excited dc machine, there are three types of excitation method namely;
[a] Series Excitation : the field winding is connected in
series with the armature circuit.
[b] Shunt Excitation : the field winding is connected
inparallel with the armature circuit.
[c] Compound Excitation : the field winding are connected in
series and parallel with with the armature
circuit.

The schematic diagrams for the three types of these machines are illustrated in Fig.5.13 which
includes the dc motors and dc generators. Note that the difference between dc motor and dc
generator is in terms of the current direction

In dc generator : armature current. I a is supplied to the armature.

In dc motor : armature current, I a is received by the armature

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DC Series Generator DC Series Motor

E g  VT  I a Ra  R f  Ec  VT  I a Ra  R f 

Fig. 5.13(a): DC Series Generator and Motor

DC Shunt Generator DC Shunt Motor

E g  VT  I a Ra  Ec  VT  I a Ra 

Fig. 5.13(b): DC Shunt Generator and Motor

DC Compound Generator DC Compound Motor

E g  VT  I a Ra  R f 2  Ec  VT  I a Ra  R f 2 

Fig. 5.13(c): DC Shunt Generator and Motor

Note Eg : Generated emf (for dc generator)

Ec : Counter emf : back emf (for dc motor)

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5.7 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM

Power Flow Diagram (PFD) is normally represented as a fish bone, where it illustrates the power flow
in the machine from the input part into the output part. The branches indicate the losses that
present in the machine.In any machine:

Input power  Output  Losses

5.8.1 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM IN DC GENERATOR

Fig.5.14(a): Power Flow Diagram for DC Series Generator

Fig. 5.14(b): Power Flow Diagram for DC Shunt Generator

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Fig. 5.14(c): Power Flow Diagram for DC Compound Generator

5.8.2 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM IN DC MOTOR

Fig. 5.15(a): Power Flow Diagram for DC Series Motor

Fig. 5.15(b): Power Flow Diagram for DC Shunt Motor

Fig. 5.15(c): Power Flow Diagram for DC Compound Motor

From the power flow diagram, some terminologies are to be clarified:
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[1] For dc generator

Pin  Pout  Total Losses

where : Total losses  Pca  Pcf  P

Pca  armature cooper losses

Pcf  field cooper losses

P  mechanical losses + stray + friction +

windage + etc
[2] For dc motor:

Pin  Pout  Total Losses

where : Pout  VT I L (input power taken from the dc supply)

Developed mechanical power, Pm  Ec I a

Also;

Pm  P  Pout

Total losses  Pca  Pcf  P

Pca  armature cooper losses

Pcf  field cooper losses

P  mechanical losses + stray + friction +

windage + etc
5.9 TORQUE
The basic formula of torque can be deduced from power equation in terms of mechanical formula.
For mechanical power equation:

2N
P  T  T
60
Where   motor speed in rad/s

2N

60
N  Speed in rev/min (rpm)

T  Torque in Nm
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Therefore

60 P
T
2N

This formula can be further specified as torque at different places:

For load torque @ shaft torque @ net torque @ output torque

60 Pout
To 
2N
For mechanical torque

60 Pm
Tmech @ Tm 
2N
For loss torque

60 P
TL 
2N

5.10 EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is defined as:

Pout
  100%
Pin

For DC Generator:

Pout VT I L
   100%
Pin VT I L  total .loss
For DC Motor:

Pout VT I L  total .loss

   100%
Pin VT I L
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Tutorials

1) Draw a typical equivalent circuit for :-

i) DC series motor
ii) DC compound generator
iii) DC shunt motors.

Indicate in your diagram the major components and the direction of current.

2) Explain four types of losses that occur in DC machines.

3) A DC shunt machine ( 25 kW , 240 V, 1000 rpm ) has Ra = 0.15 Ω, Nf = 650 turns/pole. The
machine is operated as a separated excited dc generator. When I f = 1.5 A, the no load terminal
voltage is 240V .When the generator delivers full-load current, the terminal voltage drop to
220V. Determine the:

i) generated voltage at full load.

ii) developed torque when the generator delivers full load
iii) current at rated output if the efficiency of the motor is 95 % at rated output.

4) A 440V, Compound DC generator has the following parameters:-

i) Armature resistance = 0.15Ω

ii) Series field resistance = 0.05Ω
iii) Shunt field resistance = 250Ω

At full load, the line current is at 13A, and the motor runs at 950rpm

a) Draw the circuit diagram & the power flow of the generator
b) Find the generated EMF of the motor
c) Find the input power in HP
d) Find the overall efficiency of the generator, given that the rotational losses as 600W

5) A compound DC generator delivers 50A at 500V to a resistive load. The armature, series & shunt
field resistances are 0.16Ω, 0.08Ω and 200Ω respectively. The rotational losses is given as 520W.
The speed of this generator is at 1500rpm. Calculate the:

i) generated EMF and armature current

ii) efficiency for this generator
iii) output torque of this generator

6) The resistance of series and shunt field circuit of DC generator are 0.10 Ω and 220 Ω respectively.
When the output of the generator is 130 kW, the terminal voltage is 520 V and the g enerated emf
is 600 V. Calculate:

i) armat ure resistance

ii) value of generated emf when the output is 70 kW, if the terminal voltage is then 500 V.
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7) A 200 V shunt motor has the following parameters:

RA : 0.82 Ω RF : 152 Ω Protational : 286 W

On full load the line current is 22.8 A and the mot or runs at 1300 rpm. Determine the:

i) developed power.
ii) output power.
iii) output torque.
iv) efficiency at full load.

8) Draw the power flow diagram showing the various power losses for the following:

i) DC series motor
ii) DC compound motor
iii) DC shunt generator

9) A 220V shunt motor has the following parameters;

Armature resistance = 0.5 Ω

Field resistance = 165 Ω
Stray losses = 230W

On full load the line current is 17.5A and the motor runs at 1750 rpm. Determine:

i) Mechanical power developed

ii) Output power
iii) Output torque
iv) Efficiency at full load

10) A DC shunt machine ( 25 kW , 240 V, 1000 rpm ) has Ra = 0.15 Ω, Nf = 650 turns/pole. The
machine is operated as a separated excited dc generator. When I f = 1.5 A, the no load terminal
voltage is 240V. When the generator delivers full-load current, the terminal voltage drop to
220V. Determine the:-

i) generated voltage at full load.

ii) developed torque when the generator delivers full load
iii) current at rated output if the efficiency of the motor is 95 % at rated output.

11) The resistance of the field circuit of a shunt DC generator is 150Ω.When the output of the
generator is at 150kW, the terminal voltage is measured at 450V and the generated EMF is 465V.
Calculate the:-

i) armature resistance in the DC generator setup

ii) value of generated EMF when the output of the DC generator is at 100kW with the
terminal voltage at 470V using the value of armature resistance obtained above