Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol.
34, January-February 2001, pp 7-13
Crack development in concrete structures due to
imposed strains – Part I: Modelling
D. Pettersson and S. Thelandersson
Div. Structural Engineering, Lund University, Sweden
Paper received: January 11, 2000; Paper accepted: May 19, 2000
A B S T R A C T
In the present paper, a technique for the modelling of
crack development in reinforced concrete structures
exposed to imposed deformations is described. In a sec-
ond paper, parametric studies are performed for a wall
fully restrained at the base. The objective of this research
is to improve the control of cracking in engineering
design.
A two-dimensional Finite Element model with four-
node elements is used to simulate concrete. Closing
forces in cracks are modelled with spring elements. The
spring stiffness is estimated from bond stress – slip rela-
tions for reinforcement and tension softening of con-
crete. Yield of reinforcement is also included in the
model. Temperature change is used as load and the cal-
culations are performed stepwise with opening of nodes
and implementation of spring elements.
It is shown that tensile softening of concrete can be
neglected but multiple cracking must be considered in
the calculations. The progression of cracking in the
structure is simulated in the analysis. Results are given in
terms of development of crack width with increasing
temperature load. The crack widths approach an upper
limit for large temperature loading. The proposed model
can also be adapted to other structures and restraints.
1. INTRODUCTION
Control of cracking of concrete structures is impor-
tant in engineering design, but often treated in a rather
crude way. This is especially valid for structures exposed
to imposed deformations. Reinforcement is used to limit
the crack width by creating several narrow cracks instead
of a few wide-open cracks, but it does not prevent crack-
ing. The required amount of reinforcement to limit the
crack width is normally based on the concept of a con-
crete bar fixed in both ends where the capacity of the
Editorial Note
Prof. Sven Thelandersson is a RILEM Senior Member.
1359-5997/01 © RILEM
SCIENTIFIC REPORTS
R É S U M É
Cette publication présente une modélisation du développe-
ment des fissures dans les constructions en béton armé soumis à
des déformations. Dans une deuxième publication, des études
paramétriques sont réalisées sur un mur encastré à la base.
L’objectif de ce travail est de permettre à l’ingénieur de mieux
contrôler le développement des fissures.
Un modèle bi-dimensionnel aux éléments finis à quatre nœuds
est utilisé pour simuler le comportement du béton. Les efforts
internes de fermeture des fissures sont modélisés par des éléments de
raideur. Ceux-ci sont déterminés par la relation contrainte d’adhé-
rence - glissement pour l’armature et pour le ramollissement en trac-
tion du béton. Le cisaillement de l’armature est également inclus
dans le modèle. Un changement de température simule le charge-
ment, et les calculs sont réalisés par étapes, en contrôlant l’écarte-
ment des nœuds et l’ajout d’éléments de raideur.
Il est démontré que le ramollissement en traction du béton
peut être négligé, mais l’existence de multiples fissures doit être
prise en compte dans l’analyse. La progression des fissures dans la
construction est simulée dans l’analyse. Les résultats présentés
illustrent le développement des fissures en fonction de l’augmenta-
tion de la température. La largeur des fissures atteint une valeur
maximale pour des températures élevées. Le modèle proposé peut
également être adapté à d’autres structures et d’autres modes de
contrainte.
reinforcement at yield should be higher than the force
necessary to create a new crack, see e.g. Jaccoud [1] and
CEB [2]. Cracking due to imposed deformations was
studied with a one-dimensional model by Reinhardt [3]
and Nagy [4].
For other types of structures and boundary condi-
tions, the approach in [1] and [2] will probably lead to an
overestimation of minimum reinforcement and thereby
more expensive structures with decreased functionality.
Crack spacing and crack widths from imposed deforma-
tions in concrete walls fully restrained at the base were
7
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, January-February 2001
e.g. dealt with in ACI Commitee 207 [5], Rostásy [6],
Kheder et al. [7] and Iványi [8]. Stoffers [9] indicated that
the restraint at the base has a crack distribution effect
also for non-reinforced walls. This effect gives that rein-
forcement ratios lower than minimum reinforcement
also will limit the crack widths. Iványi [8] also showed
that the minimum reinforcement can be reduced for
base restrained walls. Harrison [10] showed the inf lu-
ence of the restraint for walls and some other structures.
For further studies of crack widths and crack spacing,
improved methods are needed that can be used for dif-
ferent structures and boundary conditions.
In development of crack calculation methods the
focus must be on the cracking behaviour. Fracture
mechanics deals with the fracture process and softening
of concrete in a single crack, see e.g. Karihaloo [11]. The
closing forces in cracks mainly originate from the rein-
forcement crossing the crack, and are affected by the
bond of the reinforcement in the vicinity of the crack.
Tests of bond stress – slip relations were performed e.g.
by Magnusson [12] and Bigaj [13], and are also reported
in Concrete Manual [14]. Modellings of bond have been
done e.g. by Bigaj [13] and Lundgren [15]. For crack cal-
culations in realistic structures modelling of the bond
behaviour must be simplified.
The studied cracks arise from a combination of
imposed deformations and restraint. CEB [16] deals with
imposed deformations in form of thermal effects. Crack
risks in fully restrained walls have been studied e.g. by
Emborg [17], and for walls and slabs with varying
restraint conditions by Pettersson [18, 19]. Crack devel-
opment in walls as field observations has been studied by
many e.g. Kheder et al. [7].
The present paper is the first in a series of two. The
research is part of a project with the aim to develop
improved methods for estimation of crack widths and
crack spacing in reinforced concrete structures exposed
to imposed deformations. The cracking process in a wall,
fully restrained at the bottom, is analysed with the help
of a two-dimensional Finite Element model. Tension
softening of concrete and yield of reinforcement are
considered. The effect of reinforcement on crack width
under decreasing temperature is studied. The method
can be applied to other structures and boundary condi-
tions, and in the second paper parametric studies will be
performed with the purpose to improve control of
cracking in practical design.
2. MODELLING OF CRACK DEVELOPMENT
2.1 General
The purpose here is to study crack development in
realistic concrete structures and to find a method good
enough to estimate the crack widths and crack spacing
without studying the cracking process in detail. Therefore,
the strategy employed here is to find a model, which is
simple, but yet can describe the cracking process with suf-
ficient accuracy for the stated purpose. In the model, the
8
concrete outside cracking zones is assumed to behave lin-
early elastic. The behaviour in the vicinity of cracks is gov-
erned by tensile softening/cracking of concrete and closing
forces imposed by reinforcement crossing the crack. Both
these effects are modelled by springs in element bound-
aries, with stiffnesses estimated from simplified considera-
tions of fracture mechanics and bond - slip behaviour of
reinforcement, respectively.
2.2 Characterisation of spring properties
The present model is based on the following concep-
tual behaviour. The cracking process starts when the
tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete.
Upon further deformation, the concrete exhibits soften-
ing, i.e. gradual decrease in tensile stress until an open
crack is formed, see e.g. Karihaloo [11]. At the same
time, reinforcement bars crossing the crack will be suc-
cessively activated so that the whole force is carried by
reinforcement once the crack is fully open. In the soft-
ening phase, load is carried by both concrete and rein-
forcement, and both effects are modelled by equivalent
springs. When the crack is fully open, only the spring
representing reinforcement is active.
Concrete softening
Tension softening of concrete is assumed localised to
the fracture crack plane and is described by a linearly
decreasing relation between stress σ and fictitious crack
opening w. For this case, the fracture energy Gf is the area
under the σ-w curve. A characteristic length ch, which can
be seen as a material parameter, is defined as (see e.g. [11]):
G f Ec
lch = (1)
fct2
where fct is the tensile strength and Ec is the elastic mod-
ulus of concrete. In the softening phase, the relation
between stress change ∆σ and change in crack width,
∆w, is:
∆σ = kc ∆w w < wo (2)
where the incremental distributed (negative) stiffness of
the concrete, kc [N/m3], during softening and the width
wo of the crack when it opens (when σ becomes zero), can
be expressed in terms of the material properties as:
Ec
kc = (3)
2 ⋅ lch
Closing effects of reinforcement
The closing force of a reinforcement bar crossing a
crack is represented in the model by a linear spring with
stiffness Kr [force/unit length], connecting the opposite
faces of the crack. A linear bond stress-slip relation for
one reinforcement bar is used to calculate the displace-
ment u(0) of the bar relative to concrete at the crack
faces. The spring stiffness Kr is then given by the relation
between the force in the bar and the slip 2⋅u(0), for the
two faces of the crack. This stiffness can then be trans-
Pettersson, Thelandersson

kb is of interest and it is here estimated as the secant stiff-

ness corresponding to a stress level equal to 0.8⋅bond
strength. The bond stiffness kb depends on test set up,
concrete quality and diameter. From test results pre-
sented in [12-14], kb can be estimated to 60 GPa/m for
ribbed bars with Φ = 12 mm. For bars with larger diame-
ter the value of kb is somewhat lower.
Fig. 1 – Boundary conditions for a reinforcement bar between In the tests, the reinforcement bars are normally con-
two cracks.
fined. For less confined bars in realistic structures the
curves are expected to develop in a similar way but with
formed into a distributed stiffness kr [N/m3] representing lower bond strength, which means that the same kb may
all bars crossing the crack. be used. In reality the action of reinforcement in con-
A general theoretical solution for the displacement crete is distributed along the bar a certain distance from
u(x) along a bar supported by linear, axially distributed the crack. In the FE-model with springs this action is
springs was first given by Volkersen [20]. Fig. 1 shows a described by a concentrated force in the finite element
bar between two cracks with spacing ‘2a’, and the corre- node in the crack. This simplification leads to an error in
sponding linear model. With the boundary conditions the local stress field, but will have negligible effect on
N(0) = P and u(a) = 0, the following solution is obtained: the global behaviour of the structure.
With kb = 60 GPa/m and Φ = 12mm Equation (5)
()
ux = P
λEs A Φ
[
cosh λx ⋅ tanh λa − sinh λx ] (4) gives λ ≈ 10 m-1. For λa ≥ 1.5 we have tanh λa ≈ 1. For a
12-mm bar this is valid when the crack spacing ‘2a’ is
where: larger than 0.3 m. This means that Kr is independent of ‘a’
except for highly reinforced structures which are highly
kb π ⋅ Φ
λ= (5) stressed so that the minimum crack distance becomes very
EsA Φ small. In the calculations, the spring stiffness K r in
and: Equation (6) was evaluated assuming tanh λa = 1, for the
P = the force in the bar crossing the crack [N] whole cracking process.
ES = elastic modulus for the steel [Pa] The modelling of bond behaviour used here is sim-
AΦ = cross section area for a bar with diameter Φ [m2] plified and associated with some uncertainty. The effect
kb = the distributed bond-slip stiffness along the bar, of bond properties on the cracking behaviour will there-
defined as the ratio between bond stress and slip fore be investigated in more detail in the second part of
[Pa/m]. the paper.
Equations (4) and (5) are then used to express the
spring stiffness Kr in the crack for one bar: Total spring stiffness
The average stress in the crack as function of the
Kr = P = λEs A Φ = k b π ⋅ Φ ⋅ Es A Φ
(6) crack width is illustrated in Fig. 3. The behaviour is gov-
()
2⋅u 0 2 tanh λa 2 tanh λa
erned by Equations (3) and (7). The average stress σy
The distributed spring stiffness in the crack from over the cross section at yield of reinforcement is σy =
reinforcement is given by fstρ. A minimum reinforcement ratio ρmin (= fct/fst ) can
be derived from the criteria of not exceeding the yield
K rρ
kr = K r n = (7) strength of the reinforcement at the onset of a crack.
AΦ
where:
n = number of bars per 1 m2 [m-2]
ρ = reinforcement ratio (As/Ac) [-].
Bond stress – slip tests with short embedment lengths
can be assumed to describe the local bond behaviour in
bars. A typical bond stress – slip relation from tests is
shown in Fig. 2. In the present context only the stiffness

Fig. 2 –
Bond stress
- slip rela-
tion from
tests, with
linearized Fig. 3 – Average stress in the crack as function of the crack width
stiffness kb. for reinforced concrete. The influences of changes in fct, fst and ρ
are indicated.

9
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, January-February 2001
2.3 Implementing the spring element
The concrete structure is modelled with plane finite
elements where the concrete is regarded as linear elastic.
The cracking behaviour is modelled with non-linear
springs introduced in the nodes. The properties of the
springs have been described above. Two different
approaches have been used in the analysis, an incremental
solution and a total method giving stepwise valid solutions.
The primary principle for the incremental method is
linear solutions of incremental changes in the system,
with updating of spring properties after each step, taking
into account both softening of concrete and closing
forces of the reinforcement crossing the crack. The
results from each step are superimposed to obtain the
final solution.
In the stepwise valid solution method, the softening
of concrete is neglected and springs describing the effect
of reinforcement are introduced successively. After each
modification, the system is analysed and the range of
validity of each solution is determined. The result is that
the behaviour of the structure (including crack widths)
during the cracking process can be simulated, assuming
that softening of concrete can be neglected.
The Finite Element program can be set up to do this
automatically in a rather simple way, by introducing non-
linear spring elements in both x- and y-directions in all
nodes from the outset. The properties of the springs will
change during the process from practically infinite stiff-
ness (before cracking) to a finite stiffness representing the
closing force of reinforcement in the open crack and to a
prescribed force in the spring representing yield in the
reinforcement. The cracking criterion is based on the
magnitude of the force in the spring elements instead of
element or node stresses, which also means that cracks
can only be created at element boundaries.
By comparing the two methods, it will be shown
below that it is reasonable to disregard the effect of soft-
ening, for the present purpose.
3. THE STUDIED STRUCTURE
3.1 Input data
Fig. 4 shows the geometry for the studied structure
and the load in principle, given as a temperature decrease
in the wall relative to the base. The input material prop-
erties are representative for normal reinforcement and
hardened concrete. The effect of reinforcement in cracks
is described according to section 2.2 with tanh λa = 1.
Calculations are performed for reinforcement ratios, ρ,
from 0.001 to 0.020.
Input material properties
Concrete:
Ec = 32 GPa (E-modulus)
fct = 3.5 MPa (tensile strength)
ch = 0.4 m (characteristic length)
α = 10·10-6 K-1 (coefficient of thermal expansion).
10
Reinforcement/bond, Φ = 12 mm:
ES = 200 GPa (E-modulus)
fst = 600 MPa (tensile strength)
kb = 60 GPa/m (bond stiffness).
3.2 FE-model
The FE-program ANSYS, version 5.4 was used for
the calculations [21]. The concrete structure is simulated
with two-dimensional plane four-node elements, assum-
ing plane stress. The elements are chosen quadratic with
side length 0.1 m. The structure is fixed at the bottom
and the symmetry of the structure is used to limit the
size of the problem. The predefined infinitely stiff spring
elements change status to simulate cracking.
The number of temperature load steps is adapted to
cover a reasonable span of temperature decrease. The
shape of the temperature change is regarded as a reason-
able simplification with respect to outer temperature
changes and the influence from the ground.
4. A STRUCTURE WITH A SINGLE CRACK
A crack predestined to the symmetry line of the struc-
ture is studied with the purpose to compare the incre-
mental method and the method with stepwise valid solu-
tions. All calculations give that cracking first appears about
300 mm above the base where the temperature profile
changes from linear to uniform, see Fig. 4. The crack then
develops upward, but also a bit downward. The position
of maximum crack width then moves upward, sometimes
all the way to the top of the structure.
Fig. 5 shows two curves for temperature change as
function of maximum crack width for a high reinforce-
ment ratio, ρ = 0.020. Tension softening is influencing
the incremental solution at smaller crack widths and
thereafter the curves are almost identical. Generally the
effect of softening is not significant. Calculations show
that the inf luence of softening further decreases with
decreasing reinforcement ratio ρ. The explanation for
this is that softening is only active in cracks with a width
smaller than wo ≈ 0.1 mm. Softening is described with
the material parameter Gf. It is shown e.g. in Hillerborg
Fig. 4 – Geometry and temperature loading for the studied structure.
Pettersson, Thelandersson

Fig. 7 – Order of
cracking for
incremental
method (in the
symmetric half
of the struc-
ture).

Fig. 8 –
Temperature
loading - maxi-
Fig. 5 – Temperature change - maximum crack width, calculated mum crack
with the two methods. width curves in
principal for
structures with
one and several
cracks.

Table 1 – Temperature change and maximum crack width

immediately after cracking for the second node from the
bottom in the symmetry line, here given for two
reinforcement ratios
∆T (°C) wmax (mm)
ρ = 0.005 (1 crack) 13.07 1.39.10-3
multiple cracking 13.34 0.88.10-3
ρ = 0.005 (1 crack) 13.09 1.16.10-3
Fig. 6 – Temperature change - maximum crack width, stepwise multiple cracking 13.24 0.77.10-3
valid solutions.

[22] that larger structures become more brittle and
thereby the influence of softening decreases. The con-
clusion is that softening can be neglected so that the sim-
pler method with stepwise valid solutions can be
employed especially for lower reinforcement ratios.
Fig. 6 shows curves for different reinforcement ratios
ρ obtained with this method. Yield of reinforcement is
shown as a descending of the linearly growing parts of
the curves. A study of the stresses outside the symmetry
line indicates stresses exceeding the tensile strength of
the concrete. Thus, modelling which allows cracking
only in the symmetry line is not sufficient to estimate
crack widths in the structure.
cracking. The short length of the cracks and small dis-
tances between them implies that the initial cracking
zone near the base can be regarded as a softening zone
with more or less uniform softening.
Fig. 8 shows in principle the difference between the
case when only one crack is allowed and the case with
multiple cracking. Table 1 gives, for two different values
of ρ, a comparison of the maximum crack widths imme-
diately after cracking for the second node from the bot-
tom in the symmetry line. It is seen that the crack is
formed at a higher temperature change for multiple
cracking and that the crack width becomes smaller. The
arrow in Fig. 8 also illustrates this. The first crack in the
structure appears for ∆T = 12.8°C.

5. A STRUCTURE WITH MULTIPLE CRACKING

5.1 The incremental method
Fig. 7 shows the order of cracking calculated with the
incremental method with the possibility of multiple
cracking implemented. The first crack (1) arises in the
same position as for one crack. Vertical cracks are then
created with small distances from the symmetry line and
outwards on the same level above the base. Cracks are
formed to about halfway to the end of the structure
before the second node in the symmetry line (X) is
5.2 The method with stepwise valid solutions
This method is more convenient to use, but tension
softening of concrete has to be neglected. As indicated it
is possible to neglect tension softening for one crack and
especially for lower reinforcement ratios. The influence
of softening will be higher for structures with multiple
cracking, because the crack width is spread out to several
cracks. As lower reinforcement ratios are of interest the
method is still regarded as sufficiently accurate.
The order of cracking in structures for the method

11
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, January-February 2001

Fig. 9 – Order of
cracking for
stepwise valid
solutions (in the
symmetric half
of the struc-
ture).

with stepwise valid solutions is indicated in Fig. 9 for the

first eight cracks. This order of cracking is in good agree-
ment with cracking observed in tests. The first crack will
arise in the symmetry line as for the previous cases. The Fig. 10 – Temperature change - maximum crack width, for dif-
ferent number of cracks.
second crack appears approximately in the middle of the
symmetric half of the structure. The next two cracks arise
in the fourth points of the structure. Then, four cracks
arise between the existing cracks. The first cracks are
developed to the full height before the next crack starts to
develop. Some variation of the order may arise for the later
cracks with varying reinforcement ratios.
Analyses were performed where the number of
cracks was artificially limited. Fig. 10 shows the maxi-
mum crack width as function of the temperature change
for different maximum number of cracks in the symmet-
ric half of the structure for ρ = 0.005. As is indicated in
the figure the number of cracks is very important for the
maximum crack width. Without restrictions on the
number of cracks the FE-calculations give that the num-
ber of cracks is limited to eight for temperature changes
up to 40°C. This gives a crack spacing of about 0.5 m, Fig. 11 – Temperature change - maximum crack width, for the
eight different cracks.
which is reasonable. For highly reinforced structures
with high temperature changes minimum crack spacing
may have to be imposed by restrictions in the program. For reinforcement ratios of 0.005 and higher the
The maximum crack width wmax may be located in influence of element size is small. For a reinforcement
any of the cracks and may also change position with ratio of 0.001 and side length 0.1 m, the crack width will
increasing temperature change. Fig. 11 shows the maxi- be overestimated with almost 20% compared to calcula-
mum crack width for each of the eight cracks for the case tions with smaller element. Elements with side length
with free cracking. The curves can be assembled to the 0.1m have been used to limit the size of the calculations,
curve for free cracking shown in Fig. 10. even though smaller element would have given a bit
As is shown, the different cracks develop towards more reliable results. The results from the calculations
almost the same crack width. The maximum crack shall not be interpreted in absolute terms, but will give a
width sometimes decreases with increasing temperature good estimation of crack widths and can be used for
change. The reason for that is that a new crack has been parametric studies.
formed and this leads to partial closing of the cracks in
the vicinity.
The order of cracking is given by Fig. 9 and cracks of 6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
higher order starts at a higher temperature change. Note
the big difference in the starting temperature between A simplified FE-method to calculate crack widths and
the fourth and fifth cracks, which is explained by the crack distributions in reinforced concrete structures is pro-
cracking order. posed. Closing forces in cracks are modelled with spring
For multiple cracking the side length of the plane elements. The spring stiffness is estimated from bond stress
elements in the FE-model affects the crack widths. – slip relations for reinforcement and tension softening of
Larger elements give restrictions for the crack develop- concrete. Yield of reinforcement is also included in the
ment. This implies a bit larger crack widths for larger model. Temperature change is used as load and the calcula-
elements (see Fig. 10). This effect is small for higher tions are performed stepwise with opening of nodes and
reinforcement ratios. For lower reinforcement ratios the implementation of spring elements.
effect is increasing due to increased extent of yielding of Results are given as maximum crack widths as func-
reinforcement. tion of temperature change. It is shown that reinforce-

12
Pettersson, Thelandersson
ment has a closing effect of the crack widths. Multiple
cracking must be considered in the model to include the
crack distribution effect of the restraint at the base.
Crack development for multiple cracking gives reason-
able crack spacing and crack widths approach an upper
limit for high levels of temperature load.
The errors related to simplifications in the modelling
are of minor influence. Most important for the results of
the calculations are reasonable input values. The used side
length for the plane element in the FE-model will give an
overestimation of the crack width for lower reinforcement
ratios, but the results are still reasonably accurate.
Imposed deformation originating from shrinkage in
the concrete is different from temperature action. In the
model used here, with the action of reinforcement
described by springs in cracks no distinction can be
made between imposed strain from temperature and
shrinkage.
In the case of shrinkage, additional restraint is
imposed on the concrete by the reinforcement, which
does not shrink. The onset of cracking due to shrinkage
will occur somewhat earlier (at lower value of the
imposed strain) than for temperature loading. The
restraint from reinforcement in the case of shrinkage is
imposed continuously along the structure in the same
way as restraint acting on the side of the structure. This
means that the reinforcement will be more efficient in
terms of crack distribution when the imposed strain
originates from shrinkage. On the other hand the stress
in the reinforcement will be somewhat lower in the case
of shrinkage since a moderate compressive stress is pre-
sent in the reinforcement before cracking [23]. This
means that the closing effect in cracks by the reinforce-
ment is somewhat smaller. In general, the crack widths
should usually be about the same for shrinkage and for
temperature action, although the cracking behaviour can
be slightly different.
The extreme case with a structure completely
restrained at the ends (and not at the sides) was studied
by Thelandersson et al. [23]. For this particular case, the
crack width is slightly higher for shrinkage than for tem-
perature action, but the difference is small for normal
reinforcement ratios. For other types of restraint the dif-
ference can be expected to be even smaller [23].
Finally, the given method is simple enough to make it
possible to perform parametric studies to evaluate the effect
of reinforcement to limit cracking due to imposed defor-
mations. Another advantage of the method is that it can be
adapted to different structures and boundary conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Elforsk AB – the Swedish Electr ical Utilities
Research and Development Company, financially sup-
ported this work.
13
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