QUALITY CONTROL

Congratulations upon your acquisition of this Pmbctive Coatings lmqectbn Manual.

This Manual Is for your reference and may be consulted on a day to day his,
during Inspector Training or simply used as a gutde by persons not widely
experienced in the Industrial Coatings / Painting Industry.

This Manual will help the Reader to:

Recognige the tasks and duties of a Painting Insmor

List the tasks an Inspector may be miled upon to undertake
Know how to operate equipment in order to measure ambent condiHons
Calculate and interpret results of measurement's of ambient conditions
Use appropriate instruments to measure surface conditions prior to cwatings
being appl~ed
Determine the mnditlon of a variety of prepared surfaces for the application
of coatings
Remgnise the correct conditions required on surfaces to give long term
protecbon to surtaces
Know how metal coatings am applied
Make informed cbices as to the correct coatings to be applied to surfaces
Know the requirements of the locat Health B Satety Requirements, including
(if appropriate) HASAWA, COSHH Assessments etc. and be able to apply the
;regulat~onsaccordingly
Recognise the dUtreS of an lnspecior in app!ying safety regulations

If this is your personal Manual, it may be useful to record your Name, Company and
any other relevant information, below.
NAME: ........................................
COMPANY: .....................................
OTHER: ........................................

To register ownership of this Manual, please complete and return the Registration
Card found in the inside front pocket of the binder.
 f? elcornetec
CONTENTS

-
PART 1 INTRODUCTION

PART 2 - DUTIES OF A PAINT INSPECTOR

PART 3 - AMBIENT CONDITIONS

PART 4 - SURFACE PREPARATION

PART 5 - PAINT & PAIFIT APPLICATION

'PART 6 - METAL COATINGS

-
PART 7 HEALTH & SAFETY

PART 8 - GLOSSARY

-
PART 9 APPENDICES

Conversion Factors

Daily lnspecnon Report - A Cheeklist for Compktion

Basic Cornion

a -
Available as optional exhas:

PART 10 COATINGS & SURFACE DEFECT8 Unduding case hiaories)

PART 11 -THE NATURE OF PAINT

-
PART 12 PAlKT TESTING

-
PART 13 MARINE COATINGS INSPECTION

Prorective C d l n p Inspection Manual ORabinson imin Technicnl Suppod Lid.,

contm England 1994-5.7
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 e elcometec PART 1
INTRODUCTION
Thii Manual sets out the detailed duties of a PalnUng Inspector and provides background
information on the principal aspects of mrrasion, surface preparation, paints, paint
application and the determination of ambient conditbns, to ensure that the paint system will
give the maximum possible protection to the substrate. In addition, Part 7 of this Manual
deals with health and Safety aspects of Inspector's work and shwld be studied in detail.
The Authors have developed this Manual in the belief that it will be used by Inspectors,
Manufacturers, Contractors and Clients throughout the world. With this in mind, there are
several provisos that the Reader must understand.

Firstly, the requirements of all Clients and Manufaclurers d i r to some extent in the areas
of ambient conditions, standards of cleanliness, application techniques and safety
management. The differences are most obvious betwleen geographically spread areas such
as Great Btitain and the Middle East. We have, in sane Sections of this Manual, defined
tasks and operations as 'mandatory' or 'optional'. This may sometimes conflict with your
instructions. The Client specification and Manufacturer's recommendations must be your
final arbiter in these respects. In the absence of these documents, this Manual will provide a
superb guide. Secondly, the Health 8 Safety Legislation and Regulat~onsare vastly
different, in detail, between countries and continents. To ensure we do not recommend
conditions which would be considered unsafe anywhere in the world (at today's date) we
use the UK Safety Management Systems as a yard stick. In this way we are able to detarl
all of the most common forms of Health & Safety Protection, such as, controlling hazardous
substances and assessment of risks to Peeonnel/ Public, Thirdly, the duties of the painting
Inspector may be as wide or as namw as the Client cares to make them. In developing this
Manual we have walked a tightrope, indicating in some areas a reponsibil~tyfor
ENSURING or CONFIRMING a specific result is achieved, and in other areas CHECKING
for the result. The Manual reflects typical requirements in the UK as of 1997. Such paints
should be idenhfied between the Client and the Inspector prior to the commencement ot the
workscope.

The primary task of the painting Inspector is to m u r e that the detalled requirements of the
specification and Manufacturers' recommendatloris are m p l e t e d to the satisfaction of the

@ Client. The guidelines set out in this Manual shwld be regarded as minimum requirements,
which may be superseded by particular instructions contained in the speciiication,
Manufactureh data sheets or Issued by the Client. Deviations from the spectfication may be
necessary to meet plant productton requirements etc. and in such instances any changes to
the specification must be authonsed by the Client, in writing.

An important part of the duties of a painting Inspector is the prepamtion of clear detailed
records of the work Thb is usually accomplished via a Daily Inspechcm Repoh These Daily
Inspection Reports are of immediate interest to the Client as an indication of work in
progress or lack of progress. In lhe longer term they are important traceability documents
for use in the event of coating failure, when full details of location, preparation, coatings and
problems encountered are required. The reports should be compiled so that both interests
are satisfied.

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This Manual is set out in the following menner:

PART 1 INTRODUCTION

PART 2 DUTIES OF A PAINTING INSPECTOR

A comprehensive list of the tasks that a painting Inspector may be called upon to undertake
from lime to time.
The duties are set out as a checklist, so that the Inspectors may ensure they have
completed all the necessary duties related to a particular task

PART 3 AMBIENT CONDITIONS

Details are given of the equipment necessary, the operation of the equipment, method of
measurement, calculation of results and interpretation to determine whether the ambient
conditions are sultable for surface preparation, application of paint or metal coating or other
associated advity

PART 4 SURFACE PREPARATION

Use ot Instruments, interpretation of appmpriate Standards and special tests with which the
Inspector should be thoroughly familiar to ensure that the surface is properly prepared b r
the application of coating materials.

PART 5 PAINT AND PAINT APPUCATlON

Information and tests with which the Inspector should be familiar to ersure that palnf of the
right type is in the proper condition so that when it is applied to the property prepared
surfaceit will give satisfactory long term protection to the substrate.

PART 6 METAL COATINGS

A brief detail of corrosion resistance of metal coatings along with application methods and
choice of coatings.

PART 7 HEALTH AND SAFETY

This subject is incorpomtd as a separate part in order to emphasise its importance. A l

Inspectors should be thoroughly familiar with this part and they should ensure that, at all
times, they act within the spirit of the contents.

PART 8 GLOSSARY

Approximately M O terms assdated with corrosion, Gonosion theory, paints, painting and
similar topics associated with the protection on steel are briefly explained.

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Doc. No: TMA-0147 Issue 02
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PART9 APPENDICES

Contains the following:

Conversion Factors -
Various charts and factors to help in the arithmetic in paint and volume calculations

Daily Inspection Report -

A checldist for Completion

Basic Corrosion -
Conversion factors - An understanding of the nature of corrnslon

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 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR PROTECTIVE COATINGS

To put the duties and rote of the painting Inspecbr in pewpmive, we have reproduced
several quotes from 'British Standard' 8S 5493:1977 Section Four (Code of Practice for the
Protective Coating of Iron and Steel against Corrosion).

The potential dumb!Iifyof a mating system can be reatbed only if it is applied to e sufiably
prepared surface. in the correcf manner and under correct conditions".

"Painting and metal coating differ from many other lnljllstrffalprocesses in that fhay are
susceptible to Operator abuse or adwem envimmental mfluences:
(Inspeclion} primary task Is to check th8t the mating Specification is being prqoedy
*its
mowed and where, for any mason, th13 Is not so, the Inspector should lead to the
instigation ofimmediate remedial actrbn:

The above quotations should form the inspiration for all painting Inspectors to undertake
their considerable responsibili9es, to ensure that potential durability of a coating system is
realised to tt-te satisfaction of the Client and with the cooperation of the coating Applicator.

The Manual sets down the tasks that the palnting Inspector will be required to perfom in
the discharge of his responsibilities. Guidelines are provided such that each task may be
carried out efficiently, and achieve its purpose,

Proteclive Coatings Inspection Manual aRoMnswr hwfn Technbl Support itd..

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? ! ! t elcometec
PART 2
DUTIES OF A PAINTING INSPECTOR

SECTION NUMBER AND TITLE

1.0 THE SPECIFICATION

2.0 AMBlWTCONDrnONS

3.0 SURFACE PREPARATlON

40 PAINT

5.0 PAINT APPLICATION

6.0 METAL COATINGS

7.0 REPORTS & RECORDS

8.0 ORGANISARON OF WORK

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Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Pal2 England 1884-5,7
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 -
SECTlON 1.Q THE SPECIFICATION
The primary responsibility of an Inspector is ta ensure that all work is carried o~ In
accordance with the Clier~l's written Specification and the manufacturers'
recommendations. The spedficablon, which forms part of the legal agreement
between the Client and Contmor, will be the principal document for the guidance of
the Inspector in carrying out his duties.

In the event of a dispute, for whatever reason, between the Cfient and the
Contractor, then the specificatkm provides the basis against which the work actually
carried out will be judged.

Some Clients will give precedence to the Manufacturer's recommendations aver the
paint speclfimtion. However as a general rule, the Cfient specifdon will be the
highest level of guidance followed by the Manufactureh recommendations, where
me specification is ambiguous or indeterminate.

Specific pmjects vtllise the contractors own procedures and method statements as
the basis for contract requirements. In this case, ifthese documents are accepted by
the Client men they will effectively become the Client specifcation.

-
SECTION 2 O AMBIENT CONDITIONS
2.1 Measure (as close as practicable to the working surf@:

2.1.2 Steel temperature

2.1.3 Relative humidity

2.1.4 Dew point

22 Check surface for residual moistore.

2.3 Observe for harmfur atmospheric pollution, cbmicals, salt spray,fumes, dust.

2.4 Determine whether the measuernents and observations taken allow work to
proceed.

2.5 Record all above infonnaiion including:

2.5.1 Areas where work is being undertaken.

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@ 2.5.2 Amas where ambient mndnms were measured.

SECTlON 3.0 - SURFACE PREPARATION.

3.1 Check Specification to establish:
3.1.1 Standard against which work is to be measured.

3.1.2 Level of surface cleanliness required.

3.1.3 Maximum surface profile permitted.

@ 3.1.4 Special t W to be carded out, e.g. rogue peaks. soluble iron corrosion pmdum,
surface contamination, sieve analysis, weld areas.

3.1.5 Requirement regarding a reference panel.

3.2 Identify the areas being prepared and enter on the:

- Plan
- Progress chart

- Ensure that the Daily Inspedon Report is related to the progress chart
3.3 Check the condition of the steel (pesurlace c o n c T i ) before cleaning commences.

3.4 Whew blast cleaning is being mnied wt check:

3.4.1 Identificationand recording of the abrasive.

3.4.2 Check that the abmsiw is free from contamination.

3.5 Carry out Inspection of prepared surfam as nec8ssary and when requested by me
Contractor to ensure that:

3.5.1 The specified standard has been achieved.

3.5.2 Surface proflle is within the specified parameters.

3.5.3 The surface is free from oil, grease, dirt and dust.

3.6 Carry ovt special tests required by the specification, e.g. soluble salt, rogue peaks,
abrasive sieve analysis.

ORobmsun I M n Technical Support Ltd.,

Endand 1994-5,7
3.7 Record the results of the inspection, snsurlng that the areas inspected may be
identified from the reports.

3.8 Where remedial work is necessaqr, ensure:

3.8.1 That the areas are suitably marked up so that they can be identified.

3.8.2 That the Supervisor is aware of your reasons for rejection and requirements for
furlher work.

3.8.3 Recheck t k area under preparation to ensure that the complete area meets the
required standards.

3.9 Wnen the specffication calk for surface preparation by mechantcal cleaning, in
addition to the above, it will be necessary to check that:

3.9.7 Excessive burnishing of the metal is avoided.

3.9.2 Any visible peaks and ridges mat may be produced by power deanlng rftethods
are removed.

SECTION 4.0 PAINT. -

4.1 Check that the paints delivered to site correspond to the requirements of the
specification and data sheets.

4.2 Check that all painls to be used cn a surface am supplied by one palnt Manufacturer
or as specified by the dient.

4.3 Check that the paint is the correct type for the applicaiion method being employed
i.e. brush, splay type.

4.4 Record batch numbers and ensure that the paint is withdraw from stores in proper
sequenoe (usually oldest batch first). The batch numbering sequence shown on the
product will vary from Manufacturer to Manufacturer. Some have dates and some do
not!

4.5 Check the conditions of storage against Manufacturer's guidelines stnce the
warranty (if any) on the material will depend upon proper handling.

4.6 Monitor material usage to confirm mat there is sufficient paint in storage for
completion of the contract, the Contractor has sufficient earmarked for the contract
in a oentral store or that the material can be delivered in a timely fashion without
work had-UP.

Pmtectwe Coathgs Inspection Manual Wiob'msm lmin Technical Support Lld.,

Doo.No:TMA-0147 bsus 02 Part 2 England 1994-5,7
 4.7 Be psoent to Wness he issue of pant lmn the .store at the stan of the work period.
Check that:

4.7.t All materials are thoroughly stirred so that there Is no residue on the bottom of
the container

4.7.2 Multi-pack materials are handled as set out bebw.

4.8 Two pack materials require spedal attention:

4.81 Confin that the materids are mixed strictly in accordance with the paint
Manufacturer's data sheets.

4.8.2 Confin bFat any induction time is r*ridy adhered to (if applicable).

4.8.3 GonfErm that no materfal is used after the expiry of its pot life.

4.8.4 Bear in mind that there is a direct relationship between temperature and pot IHe.
The higher the temperature. the shorter the useful pot life.

4.8.5 At the expiry of the pot life confirm that the paint is dtscarded or placed in
quarantine. Be aware of Exothem reaction if a large volume of rntxed paint is telt
to cure in the paint can.

4.9 Confirm that any additions to paints are strictly [n accordance with the
Manufacturer's recommendatiom.

4.10 Confirm that all necessary sampling procedures and testing have been carrled out
prior to the commencement of work.

4-11 When aocmwriate i.e. at the commencement ot a project !contract, ensure iha
painting do& not start until the muHs of any tests on submitted samples have been
received by the Client, These may indude wet samples. test plates etc.

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 -
SECVON 5.0 PAINT APPLICA710N.
5.1 Check that the paint is applied only to surfaces in a condion fit to receive it.

5.1.1 Check that the ambient conditions and method of application are satisfactory for
the paint.

5.i.2 Check that the particular paint being applied does not have any speclal
restrictions on its application.

5.1.3 Check that the surface to which the paint is being applied is free from oil grease,
dust, corrosion products, grit, or any other material that would advemly affect its
performanceas detailed within the specification.

5.1.4 Check that the surface to which the paint Is being applied is mmct trom the
view point of overcoating time (maximin),

5.2 Check v b t h e r a M p e mt hw been specifled and, ifso, that it has been applied
corny.
5.3 Check that each coat of paint Is uniformly applied and is free from runs, sags or
other visible defects.

5.4 Ensure that any areas of defective m t I n g are marked for remedial atlention.

5.5 Recheck areas preuiously marked as defective to ensure that the remedial work has
been carried out.

5.6 Check pamcularly, the areas which are less readily accessible to ensure complete
merage of all surfaces. Pay particular attention to areas around boA holes, nuts
and bolts, the top side of soffits and I-beams, W
e more difficult comers on angle
beams, areas where water may accumulate, and all other areas which are difficult to
see unless you use an inspection mirror.
5.7 Ensure that the wet film thickness is calculakd from dry film thickness and is
measured and recorded immediatefy after application, and that the dry film obtained
will meet the requErements of the specification andror Manufacturer's
recommendations (see Figure 1).

5.0 Measure the dry film thickness: and ensure that it meets the requirements ot the
specification and the Manufacture* reoommendaffons. Record results and work
piece references.

5.9 Ensure that the dry film thickness is in agreement with the expected value calculated
fmthe wet film thickness.

Protective Coaiings InspeetionManual Moblnsm lmin Technical Support Ltd.,

Dac.No: TMA-0147 bsue 02 Part 2 England 1B965,7
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5.10 In a.e m of a serious discrepancy bemsen the values tor me dry film thickness
determined frwn 5.8 and 5.9, check ihe material to ensure that only authodsed
additions were made to the pint. Values found should be recarded and reported to
the Client.

5.11 C M that the m p l e t e d work Is uniform in calour and finlsh.

5.12 Chedr that the handling of Items during and after painting is carried out in such a
way that the paint coatings are not damaged.

5.13 Check that painted items are not moved before the @nt coating is sufficiently cured
to withstand handling damage.

5.14 When it is not possible to repair damage prior to transportation, ensure that a
0 separate list identifying all damaged areas is submitted to the Client.

-
SECTION 6.0 METAL COATINGS.
6.1 Sprayed Aluminium or Zmc.

6.1 Ensure that Me specification calls far the work to be carried out in accordance
with relevant Standards such as EN 22063 or equivalent.

6.1.2 Ensure that the surface preparation is in accordance with this standard paylng
particular attention to cleanliness, profile and freedom fmm contamination.

6.1.5 Ensure that the ambient condftiins are In amdance with the specification for
the application of sprayed metal coating.

6.1.4 When a holding coat ot metal spray is speciffed and appli6d to R e prepared
surFace, ensure mat the full thickness specified is built up as soon as reasonably
practical (see Figure 2).

is free from lumps, coarse areas and loodely adherent particles.

6.1.6 Where the specification calls for the sprayed metal surface to be sealed, ensure
that this operation is undertaken as swJn as posslbte afier metal spraylng and
under the appropriate ambient conditions.

6.1.7 Check whether the spedfidon calls for a test of the adhesion of the sprayed
metal coating and, if so, ensure that the test is carried out and reported in
accordance with the appropriate section of BS 25691EN 22063 or specification
requirements.

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 6.1.8 Ensure that any areas damaged as a result of testlng are comdy recorded and
repaired in accordance with the specification.

6.1.9 Be aware ol the toxfc hazards of the metals being sprayed and take all
appropriate precadom for p u r health and safety.

6.1.1 0 Remid Manufacturer, bat&, diameter, and physical appearance of wire.

6.2.1 Ensure that the specificalion calls for the work to be carried out in accordance
with relevant Standards such as BS 7293971 or equivalent.

6.2.2 Measure the thickness of the zinc coating as required and ensure that it Is in
accordance with the specification or Bmsh Standard.

Note that In the BTitlsh Slantlard zlnc coating thickness is related to metal
thickness. Hence, it is necessary to quote steel thickness when reporting.

6.2.3 Carry out a very thorough examination of the complete structure chedring for

Barn spob Pimples

Flux inclusions Rust stains
White rust stains

Ensure th&rtthe approp+ate remedial aciion is takenI if any of the above h I f s

are obserwd.

-
SECTION 7 0 REPORTS AND RECORDS.
7.1 Confirm that at the start of a contract, (if speclfled) appropriate documentation is
prepared by the Contractor.

7.2 Complete the Dally lnspactlon Report form using the foHowing:

7.2.1 Ensure that all boxes am completed with the relevant information (see Flgure 3
for typical inspection report).

7.22 Ensurethat boxes not approprfate for a particular day are cmssed out.

7.2.3 Ensure that reports are cross-referencedwith the plans, site instructions and
progress &a& as approprfate ta the project / contract.

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@ 7.24 Ensure that a! areas where w on has been unde~akenare mmaly described
so that, if required, these areas may be identified by another person at a later
date.

7.25 Record time lost due to lack of equipmentlmaZerialsJmanpower, weather,

mechanical breakdown, industrial disputes, etc.

7.3 Complete other IepOrts, as required, by the Client, which may indude the following:

- Weekly summary reports

- Progress and percentage ampletion reports
- Reports of Inspectionon completed areas
- Snag lists at agreed intervals or when handing over to another Inspector
- Final Report

-
SECTION 8.0 ORGANISATION OF WORK.
8.1 Ensure that you effectively organise your time so that you are available for
inspections when required. Critical areas, parlicularly final surface prepamtion,
should be given priority.

8.2 Thoroughly study all sections of the Specification and ensure that any areas of doubt
are clarified by the Client priw to work being undertaken.

8,3 Constantly check on all aspects of health and safety for yoursetf. Contractors men
and olher Workers on site.

8.4 Attend and organise, where necessary, all s[te meetings called, whether periodic or
'ad hoc', to plan or progress the work or to solve a particular problem that has
arisen. Take notes of main points discussed.

8.5 U a k e regular?y wfth the Client's representative on site. At the start of a contract
agree with the Client the level of liaison that he requires, identifying thwe areas
where you have discretion.

8.6 In conjunction with the Client's representathe on Site, determine his requirements for
work measurement and rour res~onsibilitiesin this resoect. This information mav
already be detailed withiithe spe&fication.

8.7 Ch8ck that good housekeeping is o k m d in care of tods and equipment, correct
handllng and maintenance, site tidiness and shop discipline.

8.8 Emure that the Supervisor is aware of, and understands, the wishes of the Cllent
regarding your areas of authority.

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8.9 Confirm that the Operators are property trained and ccwersant with the
rnaterfalsand application techniques being used.

8.10 Check fiat the Cmractors' supervision is aware of the requirements of the
specification.

8.1 1 ~t tha end of the contract, ensure that at1 charts, plans, log books, s~edffcations
and data sheets, punch or snag lists are filed in the appropriate location.

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f!!elcometec
PROJECT:
DAILY INSPECTION REPORT
DATE: REPORT:
a
CONTRACTOR: SPECIFICATION: LOCATION:

COMMENTS:

DATE: DATE:
Figure 3
Typical lnspectlon Report

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Dac.No. TMA-0147 l m e 02 Part2 Et$and t 9965,7
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PART 3
AMBIENT CONDITIONS

SECTION NUMBER AND TITLE

2.0 MEASUREMENT OF AIR TEMPERATURE, REIATeVE HUMIDITY

& DEW POINT USING A WHIRLING HYGROMETER

3.0 STEEL TEMPERATURE

4.0 RESIDUAL MOISTURE

5.0 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

6.0 WORK TO PROCEED

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 NB. This Part does no? delail automatk ambient conditions Instruments; these
should be used as per Manufaclurefsinstructions.
It is vitally important that the painting Inspector can wrrecHy monitor ambient
oondiiions. The objective of thls Part is to determine whether the conditions are
suitable, for the application of coatings, by the measurement of; air temperamre,
steel temperature, relatlve humidity and dew point. Thls Part will detail the use of
coating lmpection instruments for recording ambient conditions, but it can never
replace the e~perienceand interpretations of site Personnel.

For Exarnph?:
If the steel ternperaturn k 1% below &Reation at 7 am and the sun is shinino,
then R maybe OK to proceed wHh work, mversely if the same conditions prevail at
4 prn then condiiions will probably only get worse. In the evPnt of a coating failure,
the Painting Inspector's ambient condition recordings are always reviewed.

SECTION 2.0 -
MEASUREMENT OF; AIR TEMPERATURE,
REMTIVE HUMIDITY % DEW POINT USING A WHIRLING
HYGROMETER. (See Figure 4).
2.1 To Check the Instrument

2.1 .I Thermometers and mercury cdumns am not broken.

Fabric covering the wet bulb is dean,wet and secure at both ends.
Container is filld with distilled water.

2.2 To Take Measurement.

2.2.1 Whlrl the hygrometer dightiy faster than I80 revolutions per minute (3
revolutions per second) for 1 minute.

2.2.2 For best mulff. the hygrometer should be out of dlrect sunliaM while being
whirled. In a stilt atmosphere, the Opetator shou~ciwalk slowly forwad while
whirling so that the readings are not affected #y the body.

2.2.3 Read both thermometers, notlng the wet bulb temperature first.

2.2.4 Whlrl again for a further 1 minute.

2.2.5 Read both temperatures.

2.2.6 Repeat until each thermometer reads a mstant temperature foliowing twa
S u ~ 0 3 ~ ~ hwhirlings
re

Prot&a Coatifga InPpection Manual ORobimn Irwin Technkal S W Ud..

Dac.No: f MA4147 Issue 02 Part3 Enoland 1994-5.7
 2.2.7 Record the wet and dry bulb temperatures.

2.3 Calculate the values for relathre humidity & dew p i n t from taMes provided.

2.3.1 Work out the difference betwen the dly bulb temperature and the wet bulb
temperature.

2.3.2 Frwn the tables, read dorm the columns to the appropriate air or dry bulb
temperature.

2.3.3 Read across the columns to the approphate temperature difference column.

2.3.4 Read off and record the &Hve h u m i d i and dew point.

@ -
SECTION 3.0 STEEL TEMPERATURE (!he Flgure 5).
Select a part of the steel W i n the area b be worked whlch is typical of that area
with regard to exposure to the weather (sun, wind).

3.1 DFal'IhennonWem(Magnetic).

1 Fix the thermometer to the steel surface and note the temperature. The posluon
of fildng should be such that the gauge is not likely to get knocked, blasted or
painted. The gauge should not be in direct sunlight or on a wind exposed
surface. Where high Or low temperatures are a problem, more than one reading
may be necessary.

3.1.2 After 15 minutes, read the tempemturn

3.1.3 Alter a further 5 minutes read the temperature again and continue reading at
about 5 minute intervals until a constant temperature is reached. A dial
thermometer may take up to 30 minutes to reach constant temperature.

1.4 R m l d ha steel temperature a d indude h e ime d readirig and location of the

*we.
3.2 CtigiW Electronic Thermometers.

3.2.1 Engage probe, ensuring lt is inserted cowctty into the instrument socket; with
some instruments this automatically switches on the instrument so that the
temperature of the probe is ind'iied.
3.2.2 Press the probe firmly agdnst the surlace where It is required to measure the
temperature.

Protaettve Casings lnspectlon Manual ORobfnsan Irwin fechnicnl Suppart Ltd.,

k . N o : TMA4147 Lssue 02 Pall 3 England 1984-5.7
Page 3d7
 3.2.3 Hold the probe In posiUon for 20 seconds until a costan$ tempemture is
0
reached.

3.2.4 Record the steel temperature and Include the time of readlng and location where
readings were taken.

3.2.5 Depending on me type of Instrument, elther switch the Iristrument off ot unplug
the probe (autornatlcally switching the instrument om.
Note: Do not drag the probe aver the surface.

CancEusion -
You have measured:

- Air temperature
- Steel surface temperature
- Derived relative humidity and dew point
Consult tb speclflcations and Manufacturer's recommendations to determine
whether ambient conditions are as laid down.

In the absence ot instructim from these documents, the fdlowlng guidelines

should be observed.

Painting or final surtace preparation shall be reviswed and the Contractor

advised when:

- The relative humidity is above

- The arnbwnt temperaturefalls below 4°C
- The steel temperature is less than 3% above the dew point
- The Inspector will d m e n t all such observationsas appropriateto the
specification and projecVmtact,

-
SECTION 4.0 RESIDUAL MOISTURE.
At present there is no satisfactory test to determine the presence ot moisture on the
surlace.

The Inspectw must therefore rely on visual examinatiron. Look for areas of hlgh gloss
and wipe the s u r l m with a tissue, Sprinkle a little talcum powder on the surlace and
then gently blow the talc If the surface is dry and free from oil the powder will be
readily blown off.

Bear In rnlnd that a large steel structure may take a long Pme to warm up sufficiently
to evaporate all moisture from h e surface. Areas exposed b me wind will tend to
dry off more easily than sheltered areas. Look at the ground. windows, unheated
buildings or vehicles parked overnight in the area for ewdenoe of condensation.
Prmsctive Coatings Inspaction Manual eRoblmn I d n Technical S u m Ltd.,
Doc.No: TMA4147 Issue 02 Pert3 England 199.4-5,T
Page 4 a1 7
 Remember that you are acting as the Qualiiy Controller on site and that It Is
generally required that almost all paints are applied to a dry surface to obtain
maximum durability.

Where you are involved with materlds designed to be applied to a damp surlace. it
may be necessary to seek guidance from the paint Manufacturer for a more precise
definition of the application conditions.

-
SECTION 5.0 ATnnOSPHERlC POLLUTION.
fhls must be by visual obsemtion of If19surroundings. Ctearly, if the site is close to
the sea or chemical works, thew is the risk of surface contarnfnation.
Generally, surface contamination wilt not b~ a problem during surface preparation,
when the surface is being primed within 4 hours of deanlng. However, when a paint
system is being applied, there may be delays ot severat days or weeks between
coats, durlng which time, the surfaces may have become contaminated. Under such
circumstances, the specification should be consulted and the Client advised,

-
SECTION 6.0 WORK f 0 PROCEED.
APter taking all the above considemtiorrs into account, ensure that the Contractor's
Supervisor is aware of y w r decision and, where you advise delays on further
treatment, that he understands the reasons behind me decision.

If necessary, and in the event of a disagreement with the Contractor, then it may be
necessary to involve the Glint.

Bear in mind that the condigom at the time of the coating application, and for a few
hours aflemards, will determine whether the paint system will perform according to
the Manufactureh recommendations or fail prematurely.

Note.
This Part does not detail wentiladon requiremem even though these can be as
important to the project as temperatures, relative humidity etc. Ensure that
ventilation is available, especially in confined locations.

P ~ & . 3 ~ I ~ U M I DRobimon Itwin Technical Suppat Ltd..

Doc.No: TMA-Old7 Issue 02 PWI a Engarid 19W5,7
Page 5017
 elcornetec

-
figure 6 Pictorial Blaet S t m i ~ h kSa1,2,~~h
m d 3 {squivdmt)

Prdsdive Coathgs Inspection Manual QR&iwon lmin Technical Suppwt Ud,

~.M:TUMl47U~O2 PM3 En@d 1984-5,7
 PART 4
SURFACE PREPARAT1ON

SECTION NUMBER AND TITLE

1.0 OBJECTIVE

2.0 REFERENCE PANELS

3.0 STANDARDS

3.1 Swedish
3.2 British
3.3 IS6 8501 (BS 7079: 1988)
3.4 European Scale of Degree of Rusting

4.0 SURFACE PROFILE

4.1 Profile Gauge

4.2 Testex
43 Gauge Comparator

5.0 SPECIAL TESTS

5.1 Rogue Peaks

5.2 Soluble Iron Corrosion Products (Soluble Salts):-

-- Fedcyanide Test
Mertkoquent Test

5.3 Oil, Grease, Dust, ete.

5.4 -
Abresives S i e Analysis
5.5 -
Abrasive Contamination
5.6 Weld Areas

6.0 WET ABRASIVE BLAST CLEANING

7.0 ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE WATER BLASTING

Pd&e 'AmtInw tmpectbn Manual @Robinson lmin fschnical Suppwt Ud.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Parl4 England 19965.7
Page 1 of 25
 -
SECTION 1.0 OBJECTIVE.
To determine that the state of the steel surface is such that the ooeling system's
applied can provide long term protection up to the &sign life of the coating.

Surfacepreparation is vltally important to the life of a protective mating system. The

(Coatings) Quality Control Inspector must be familiar with remgnlsing standards,
conducting tests such as profile, salt test etc.

At the start of a contract the Client may request that reference panels are produced
by the Contractor. T h e panels should be prepared using the same plant,
Operatives and operating conditions as will be employed on the contract worlrscope.

The reference panel must meet the conditions of the specification andlor the Client
Instructions, with regard tm

- Cleafliness
- Surface profile
- Density of profile

and it must be agreed by the Contractor, Client and Inspector that these conditions
have been sabisfied.

The reference panel should be stored in contact with VPI (Vapwr Phase Inhibitor,
rust-Inhibiting paper) paper, or in a sealed bag whfch also contains sillm gel to
absorb moisture.

Similar portions of the reference pane! should be held by the Clknt, Contractor and
Inspector for the duration of the Contract.

During the preparationof the ~ferencepanel. it is essential that the Inspector makes
complete and detailed notes of the conditions and procedures adopted. Any delays
and the reasons, and any changes in ambiem or operational conditions, must be
particularly noted.

Protective Coalings Inspection Manual

Doc. Ncc TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 4
DRobinaoo l M n Technkal Sumrt Ud..
Endand 184C5,7
0
Page 2 of 25
 f!? elcometec
-
SECTION 3.0 STANDARDS.
The cleanliness of a steel surface is judged in comparison with agreed standards. At
present, there are three series of standards in common usage; Svenslc Standard SIS
05 59 00 - 1967 (Swedish Standard), end BS 4232:1967 {British Standard). The
third standard is a combination of both: BS 7079 (IS0 8501-1) 1988, although
Inspectors should also be aware of the American Standard - SSPC (Steel Structures
Painting Cwncil) series. IS0 8501 is currently under review and will supercede the
afore mentioned Standards (see Table 1).
The standard equivalents are as follows:

BS Swedish SSPC IS0 8501

First Quality Sa3 Whtte Metal Sa3
~ a c o n dOMIN ~a2'k Near-White sa2'ip
Third Quality Sa2 Commercial Sa2

3.1 Swedish Standard.

Applies to steel Hmieh is being prepared by blast deaning Or mechanical methods

(scraping and wire brushing).

The standard provldes both a description and an appropriate photograph of the

surface condition of the steel prior to any surtace preparation and atter surface
preparation.

Where new steel work is being prepared for painting, the Inspector shall examine
the steel surface and decide which of me conditions, A, 8, C or D best describes the
surface. The facts should be entered into the appropriate box in the Daily Inspection
Reporl.
The Inspector should be familiar wjth the photographs and description for all levels
of surface preparation, but they should pay particular attention to the ~a2'12and
Sa3 gmdes which are defined as follows:

saz112 -
Very thorough blast deaning. Millscale, rust & foreign matter shall be removed to the
extent that the only traces remaining are slight stains in the form of spots or stripes.
Finally, the surface is cleaned with a vacuum cleaner, clean dry compressed air or a
dean brush. It shall then correspond in appearance to the prints designated ~a2'12.

Sa3-
Blast cleaning to pure metal. millscale, rust and foreign matter shall be removed
completely. Finally, the sutfaoe is cleaned with either a vacuum cleaner, clean dry
compressed air, or a clean brush. It shall then have a uniform metallic colour and
correspond in appearance to the print designated Sa3. It should be noted that the
Swedish Standard makes no menlion of surface profile.

@ Prateztke Coatings lnspedlon U n u I

Doc.Na TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 4
mobinson Innin Technical Suppart Ud..
England 1894-5,7
Page 3 d 25
3.2 British Standard.

Refers only to the condition of the steel surface after grit blasting (It should be noted
that this standard and the Swedish standard are only strictly applfcable to dry grit
blasting).

f he standard provides a detailed description of the levels of surface cleanliness. In

additfon, the standard makes reference to surface roughness (profile) and the use of
abrasives.

The Inspector should Be familiar with this standard and should pay particular
attention to the First and S m d Qualities of cleanliness which am definecf (in
reverse order) as:-

Second Quality -
The entire surface shall show blast cleaning pattern and shall be oornpletely free
from contamination of oil grease, dlit or other matter, except that tightly bonded
residues of millscale or rust shall be permissible up to the following Ilmik:-

For the whole surFacs -

An average of not more than 5%, i.e. at least 95% of the surface shdl be clean bare
sted.

For any single square of 25mm (1 inch) side -

Not more than 7 OD/a, i.e. at least Wh of the square shall be dean bare steel.

Areas that appear shadowed solely because of differences in h e blast-cleaning

pattern or the strudture of me steel shall be classed as clean steel.

First Quality.

The entire surface shall show blast-cleaning pattern and shall be clean bare steel
completely free from any contamination or discolouration.

Areas that appear shadowed solely because of dffferences in the blastcleaning

pattern or the structure of the steel shall be classed as clean steel.
Note.
While the Swedish and British standards are generally regarded as interchangeable.
there are some minor differences as indicated above. It is essential that the
Inspector should be aware of these differences and in the event of any
disagreement, he must ensure that he is using the standard that has been specified
by the Client and that he is interpretingthis standard correctly.

Plotdetive Goatmgs Inspection Manual mFTeBdnswr llwin Technical Suppal Lid..

Doc. No:JMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 4 England 14965,7
Page 4 of 25
3s is0 ssol-1 (Bs m79: 1988) (see ngun li in P m t 3 for Pinorial Standards).

This document is now In common use since it is an International Standards

Organisation (ISO) standard, and incorporates the pictodal standards from the
Swedish standards SIS 055900-1967.

- The IS0 standard also gives pictorial standards for surface preparation using
dinerent types of abrasives and tor flame cleaning. The International Standards
Organisation is producing supplements to this docxlrnenl which include surface
profile and cleanliness measurements.

3.4 European Scale.

The European Scale of Degree of Rusting for Anti-Cwrosive Paints ('Re1-scale) is

used in the description of the surface condition of painted steel @or to preparation.

This scale for painted surfaces, is similar in structure and format to the Swedish
standard rust grades A-D, for unpainted steel.

Again, the r€?pmWntatiOnis pietorla! although there is an accompanying description

given as percentage of rust.

It should be noted that where penmiages of coating breakdown are quoted, these
apply only to visible rust which has broken the surface of the paint film.

Where Inspectors are invohred with maintenance painting, they shall note the
condition ot the painted suflae, prior to preparation, by comparison with the
photographs 'Re'O to 'Re'9, and enter this information on to the Daily Inspection
Report as appropriate.

Note.
Readers should also be aware of the International Standards IS0 4628-1 to IS0
4628-6,which define and categorise intensity, quantity and size of common types of
defects i.e. blistering, flaking, chalking, cracking and rusting.

Mabinson lmin TeshnicJ S u m La.,

Part 4 England 6994-5,7
Page 5 d 25
 Table 1
IS0 Standards for Surface Preparation
PW&e Coatings Inspeaion Manual llwln Technical Support Lld ,
OR~b/ll~on
Doc. No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 4 England 1994-5.7
Page6of25
 -
SECTION 4.0 SURFACE PROFILE.
Abrasive blast cleaning, using both grit and shot, produrn a roughened surlace and
the subsequent pmfile size and density is important.

Grit blasting i
s usually wnducted with angular abrasive for open blastlng methods.
Shot blasting uses round shot and is usually used for automated systems (i.e..
wheelabrator).

The profile may be defined as the greatest vertical distance between the summit of
any peak on a blast-cleaned surface and the bottom of an immediately adjacent
trough, but without tak~nginto a m u n t any exceptional 'rogue' peaks which may be
formed by partides of abrasive embedded in the surface.

BS 4232:1967 recommends a maximum profile size (often called the amplitude) of

100 microns, although generally smaller amplitudes are advisable depending on
coating system type and thicknesses to be applied.

See also Section 5.1 for information on rogue peaks.

4.1 Sufiace Profile Gauge (See Figure 7).

- Needle gauge
- Glass plate tor calFbration
4.1.1 Insbuckions for Use.

To zero the instrument, press down the foot of the gauge onto the surface of the
glass plate using light pressure and note the readrng of the pointer.

Repeal the above at least three times on different parts of h e glass plate and
note readings.

If the readings are within two small dhrisiom elther side of zero the instrument is
calibrated ready for use.

I f the readings are consistent but not on zero, then readjust the zero on the dial
by releasing the damp on the rim of the instrument (on the top left side) and
rotating the dial until the pointer reads zero.

Re-CgMen the damp.

Recheck the zero by the procedure above.

Mobihson Irwin Technical Swppat Ltd.,

PW4 England 1894-5,7
Page 7 01 25
 If the readings are not conslslent, and the inconsistency is not due to the surface
of the glass-plate, or if the small dial does not read zero, then the instrument is
a
not operating correctly and shwld be replaced.

4.1 2 Calibration.

Prwiding me instrument is zeroed correctly it is not norrnalv necessary to

calibrate it.

If in doubt, calibration must be carried wt

Zen, the instrument as detalled above.

Place hm shims of the same thickness or. if available, a shim rmh a notch cut in
it, under the base plate so that the needle Is clear.
a
Note the dial reading which shall correspond to the thickness of the shim if the
instrument is calibrated com&y.

4.1.3 Reading.

The maximum readma on the dials is typically 800 microns, though this should
be confined before Glibration using the instritmmt ~anufacturesinstructions.
Thus. the instrument is calibrated such that typically-
1 rewlutlon = 200 microns
1 division - TO microns
f small f ~ i s i o n - 2 microns

4.1.4 Method of Use

Check that the area to be measured is free from all dust and grit.
Check that tho instrument has been zeroed correctfy.
Press down the foot of the instrument m to the surface of the steel and note the
position of the pointers. Record the reading in microns.

Continue to lake readings wer an area of approximately one square metre until
a minimum of 10 readings have been obtained.

Calculate fie average value in microns.

Record the values on Ihe Daiiy Inspection Report.

Protective Coatings Inspecthn h a l DRchinsonlmrin Technical Suwort Lid.,

Doc. No: TMA-0147 Issue M Part 4 Endand 199447
Page 8 of25
 The profile of the 'Mast-cleaned surface may be considered acceptable if the
average value does not exceed the maximum value specified or the individuat
readings do not diner by more than 25 microns or 25% whichever is the smaller~

If the readings Indicate that the proflle of the surface is not amptable then:

This must be drawn to the attention of the Contractor's Supemisor and

appropriate adjustments made.
Readings must be taken as indicated above until the surface profile is within the
agreed specification.

Assuming acceptable values tor the surface profile have been obtained as above
then:

For automatic blast-cleaning, wntinue to take readings as indicated above at

the rate of 5 readings per square metre o w r the next 10 square metres.

If the resub are consistent and within the agreed specification, then the rate of
readings may be reduced to 1 per 5 square metres.

A careful visual inspection will be maintained to ensure that the surface profile
remains uniform and that there is no change irl grit size or working conditions.

The number of readlngs taken may be reduced, as experience indicates that

uniform results are being obtained until the surface profile readlngs are being
taken at approxfmatety hourly intervals.

If it is found that the surface profile readings are outside the limits specified then
it will be necessary b follow through the procedure as laid out above.

Where manual blast-cleaning Is employed then surface profile is subject to

considerable variation, due to the Operator. It will, therefore, be necessary to
check the performance of each Operator and to continue checks at frequent
intervals over the work period untll consiaent results have been obtained and
confidence in the operators performance has been established.

The frequency of readings will be as laid down above.

Proteclive Coatings lnspeebian Manual gRablnsan Irwin Technical Suppatl Ud..

Da.No: TMlm47 ISSIN 02 England 1994-57
4.2 Testex Pres8-o-Film Tape [See Figure 8).

The tape comprises hwo layers:

- Incompressible
- Compressible

The tape was developed in. and Is manufactured in, America. Due to its country of
origin, the tape and micrometer gauge are calibrated in both microns and mils.
However, all of surface profile may need to be converted into microns before being
recorded on the Daily Inspection Repork, A this is the measure detailed in the
specification, using the conversion:

1 mil = 1 thou = 25 m i m s - (It should be remembered that the exact conversion is

1 thou = 25.4 microns).

The Testex tapes are available in two grades:

- -
- Coarse for profiles 0 51 microns (0 2 millthou)
- -
- X (extra) coarse for pr~files35 1? 4microns (1.5 4.5 millthou) .
4.2.1 Method.

Select the tape appropriate to the profile to be measured.

Peel ofl the backing paper and press the tape onto the area selected for
measurement.

Rub the circular cut-out area with a burnishing tool until the entire circular area
has unifarmly darkened. Special h a d plastic round-headed spatulas are
normally supplied although the rounded end of a ball-point pen or pencil would
suffice.

Set the spring micrometer by ensudng that the amrils are dean and the spring
operates smoothly.

Adjust the dial by releasing the clamp on the rim of the instrument and rotating
the dial so that with the anvils clused the dial reads zero.

Re-tighten the clamp and check that the needle continues to read 0 after the
anvils have been opened and closed several times.
Remave the tape from the steel and pface the darkened circular portion between
the laws of the anvil, ensuring that the tape is centred.

Jake several readings over the darkened area of the circular cut-out. These
readings should be constant to within two small divisions of the scale.

Protective Coallngs InspectionManual BSRebimoo lmrln Technical Suppafl Lid.,

Doc. No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 4 England 1994-5,7
Page 10 of 25
f
! elcornetec
Note the reading on the dial, m r t the reading to microns if necessary and
deduct the incompmsible portion of the tape from your readings. Then record
this infomation on your Daily Inspection Report

Note.

1 fhe did gauge Is set at 0.Themfore to make allowance for the incompressible
portion of the tap which is 2 thou (51 mlmns) in thickness the figure read from
the gauge should be deducted. An alternative is to set the dlal in not at zero, but
at zero whflst reading a 51 micron shim. In ttris manner, the actual dial reading of
the used tape gives the surface profile directly.

2 fhe dial is calibrated as follows:-

1 revolution = 10 thou - ?(kniUthou(250 microns)

1 division (0-10) = 1 thou - 1 miVthou (25 micmns)
1 small division = -
0.1 thou 0.lrniVthw (2.5 microns)

3 k can generally be expected that dlal readings in the range 2 - 4miVthw, 2-4
-
thou, and 50 1Oomicrons will be obtained.

4.3 Comparator Gauge (See Figum 9).

This Instrument provides a quick and effedive method of ascertaining the grading of
surface roughness. The surface profile comparator conformsto IS0 8503 Parts 1 to
4. and is usially made from Nickel or other corrosion resistant material.

Two sets of comparators are available, o m for surfaces pfqmed using grit (G)and
one prepared using shot (S), each having four segments of differing grades d
roughness. The appropriate comparator is placed against the substrate. A visual or
tactile comparison between the comparator and the test surface can be carried out
by means of a lens or by passing a finger nail over the surfaces. Record the grades
confirmed for all tested areas of the surface.

ProffleS equal lo segiII€%nt1 and up to, but excluding,

Fine
segment 2
Profiles equal to segment 2 md up to, but exduding,
Medium
segment 8
Pmfibs equal to segment 3 and up ta, but excluding,
Coarse
segment 4

QRoMnarm Irwin Technical Suppafl Ltd..

Part 4 England 18646,7
kg8 IF d Z 5
!!!!f elcometec
-
SECTION 5.0 SPECIAL TESTS.

These may be defined as peaks ol excqlional hdgM in me blast-cleaned surface,

which may not be indicated by the narmaf methods ot surface profile measurement.

The presence of rogue peaks may be demonstrated by:

Viewing the surface through an inumlnated magnifier.

Rubbing lightly over the surface with a clean cotton glove. Care must be taken to
ensure that no cotton fibres remain on the steel.

The presence of 'rash rwting' on the prlmed surface, due to the peaks not being
m t e d with primer.
If rogue peaks are found, hey may be removed by tightly scuffing the surface
with emery paper, a metal bar or, prefarably, by hand. It is essential to check that
all dust and other contamination is completely removed after the sanding
operation, also that the operation has been successful in the removal of the
rogue peaks.

5.2 Soluble Imn C o r n i o n Products (~oluble'~alts).

When Rlsted steel has been blast-cleanedand Is acceptable to an Sa3 or equivalent

Ylsual standard, it is All probable that the surface is mtarnlnated with 'soluble iron
corrosion products'.

The 'soluble salts' are formed by the actron of sufphate or chloride contamInams wlth
the steel to give salts which are almost colourless and dl be located at the bottom
of mrmsion pits. If left under the paint, these substances encourage the passage of
water through the paint film, the water hen forms more corrosion products thus
producing, in time, large volumes of mst which will break the adhesion bond
between the coatings and the sumte. Obviously, the Importance of this factor will
depend upon the degree of exposure to wet conditions. Generally speaking, all
paints will last longer an a surface which Is substantially free from 'soluble Iron
corrosicm products'.

Currenfly, two tesls are recognlsa for the detection and determination of 'sduble
iron wrroslon products':
Ferricyenids Test (See Fgure 10).

This test is descrihl in BS 5493:1977, Appendix G, which should be consulted

for details.

P r o t e e Coatings I n a p c h Manual ORobimn Innin Tachnlcal Suppoll Ltd..

Doc. No: TMA-Dl47 Issue 02 PW 4 England 1994-5,J
Page 12 d 25
f?elcometec
The test papers are made by mating f i b r pper in a freshly prepared 5%
solution of potassium Crricyanide in water, and allowing the papers to dry.

If it is necessary tor the Inspector to prepare the test papers on site, he must
make himself aware of the health and safety hazarddwhen handling this
chemical.

The disadvantagesof this test are:

It is exlremely sensitive, hence it is very difficult to obtain a Mast-cleaned
surface from preiously rusted steel which does not give blue spotting on the
paper.

The test is not quantkttve.

Merckoquant Test.

Thls test will provide a semi-quantitative measurement of the level of soluble iron
corrosion products in the profile of the blast-cleanedsurface.

This test, with perhaps sligh! modificallons, may become adopted as an

International standard. Detalls of the test are as follows:

Reagents and Materiala.

- -
Indicator test strips for ferrous ions Merckoquant or similar
- Distilled water or water of equivalent purity
- Pure cotton wool
- Small rod for stirring
- Ruler and chalk, or other device, for rneasurlng area 150mm x 150mrn

Procedure.

Measure 22.5ml of dlstflled water into a beaker or polythene bag.

Measure an area on the blast-deaned surface of 2,250 sq. rnm (approx. 6 x 6").

Using 2-3 small pieces of cotton wool, each weighing abwt 0.5gm, wash the area
measured. Ensure that the cotton wool holds only sufficient water to wet the surlace
and does not run off the test area. Dry the surface with a fresh piece of cotton wool.
Wear sterlle gloves to prevent skn salts 8 other Impurities contaminating the results.

Mix all the cotton wool used and the water together uslng the rod and squeeze the
water from the wool 2 3 times. The test should be completed in about 5 minutes.

Dip tk indicator sMp brieliy into the liquid and then Fold tt in the air for 10-15
seconds until the wlour develops.

Pmtectivs Coetimgs Inspaion Manual m ~ b ilrwln

~ Technical
~ l Support Ltd.,
Doc.Na TMAOlll l u * 02 Part 4 England 1m 5 , 7
Page 1 3 d 2 5
 Compare the colour of the test $hip against the standard colour patches on the slde
of the test sMp contafner.
a
Record the resub on me Dally Inspeclion Report as mg f e w ion per square
metre of blast-cleaned surface.

Note.
The area washed and the volume of water used have been chosen to glve fie level
or iron dlrectfy on these units.
The report should also include a complete i&nWaiton of the test area using
sketches if necessary.
5.9 Oil, Grease, Dust, etc.

Vlsual examination is the best method lor c W n a for the oresence of these
contamtmnts. i f in doubt, the use of an illuminated magnifler may'prove benefldal.

The presence of loose dust on tbe surface may be demonstrated uslng clear
'Sellotape' The tape should preferably be 25mm (1 inch) wide. Hadng pressed the
tape onto the surface under inspection, it will retail indications of surkice
contamination and may be kept as a permanent record by sticking onto good quality
white paper.

5.4 -
Abrasives Sieve Analysis.

Equipment:

- Set of sieves to BS 410 (Calibrated)

- SoftBrush
- Scales (Galibrated)
- Hard Brush
- ffi 2451:I963
Sample:
It is essential to ensure hat the sample taken Is representabive of the bulk of
abrasive used. Thus, for a bag of grit it is not sufficient to take a sample from the top
of the bag, since the larger particle sizes will tend to concentrate there and the
smaller partlcle sizes will tend to go to the Eattom of the bag. It is, therefore,
necessary to ensure that a) the bag selected is representative of the batch, and b)
the contents of the bag are thoroughly mixed prlor to sampling.
-
Procedure A Quick Check.

-
Consult BS 2451 Table i for shot and Table 2 far grit - and from the table check
the mesh numbers of the sleves through which (a) all the sample should pass and
(b) none of the sample should pass, e.g. for 624, Table 2 shows a) all sample
should pass 1.mmm slew and b) na sample should pass 0.355mrn sieve.

FmtectiveCoafmgs Inspection Manual ORoblnsm lmin Tcchnlcal S u m Ltd.

Doc. Nw TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 4 England 19%-5,7
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 Take a relatively large representative complete sample, e.g. about 500g (a self-seal
plastic sample bag Qcmx 12cm comfortably filled).

Pour on to slew set comprising: lid, 1.00mm sieve, 0.365rnrn sieve and receiver.

Shake the slew set for 5 minutes.

Check all materiai has passed through top sieve and been retained by bottom sieve.

Note.

1 For thk test,the actual quantity of grit is not critical.

2 Et Is sufficient to take grlt frwn several different pam of the bag and test all parts
together.

Weigh out 200grn of shoVgrit taken fm a wpresentablve sample, where a large

quantity, e-g. one bag, has been thoroughly mixed prior to sampling. From the
appropriate table in BS 2451 select the mesh sizes of all the sieves tor the shot or
grit under test, e.g. lor G24 the sieves are:

Arrange the sieves in order wlth the largest mesh size at the top and a receiver
under the smallest mash size.

Pour in the weighed sample and shake the sieve set for 5 minutes. It ts essential
that shaking is continued for a full 5 minutes.

Welgh the contents of each sieve and record the results. Express each weight as a
percentage of the total weigM sample.

w r
e ss the results in a c c o with~ BS 2451 format, e.g. for 624 Total sample
passes i.OOrnm mesh sieve, at least 70% is retained by 07tOmm mesh sieve, at
most 15% passed the 0.6M3rnm mesh sieve, none passed the 0.355mm mesh sieve.

Note.
It is absolutely essential to ensure that dl sieves are completely dean prior to the
start of a test. This can best be achieved using a hard brush (a paint brush mth
bristles cut d m to 5mm) from the underside.

The removal of grii by poWng h m the underside using a metal point should never
be done. This is likely R damage the mesh and disturb the mesh size.

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5.5 -
Abrasive Contamination.

To check abrasives for dust or oll contamlnatlon, the Following tests should be
applied:

Dust. Take a represenlath sample of about 100grn of abrasive into a clean

container, preferably a transparent jar. Povr clean water on to the abrasive untll
it is lust covered. Stir to ensure wetting and removal of air. Any dust in the
sample will be clearly vfsible floating on the surface of the water.

Oil. From a represenwhe sample take about IOOgrn of abrasive into a dean
container. For this test the container should not be plastic. A clean tln. ceramic
cup or glass beaker should be used. Pour clean xylene on to the abrasb until it
is just covered and stir. Pwr ofl some of the liquid on to a clean glass plate and
allow the sdvent to evaporate. Any oil or grease will be detected as a smear
when IIgMfy touched by a dean finger.

Note.
Xylene Is flammable, hence no smoking should be allowed in the vicinity and there
should be adequate ventilation when camyhg out tMs test
Other solvents may be wed for tMs test but it may be necessary to allow a longer
n the d and evaporation of the solvent.
time for ~ l u t i c of

5.6 Welds.

Weld areas require particular amntlon during surface preparation. A mechanicalv

sound weld does not necessarily provide a satisfactory surface for painting without
preparation. It is important, therefore, to bear in mind that a welding Inspector will be
looking for diffemt things and may pass as completely satisfactory a weld which is
not in an ideal state for painting.

With regard to the surface prepamdon of weld areas for painting, the fdfnning shaft
be checked, using the letlers W U S F S as an ald to memory:

W = Welds. Sh0~1ld be mntjnuous and free from sharp pmjedons.

11 E Undemtting. Should not be excessive and rough.
S = Spatler. All weld spatter should be chipped away. (See Figure 12)
P = Pinholes. Should be marked for filling.
S = Slag. Should be removed by chipplng so that the underlying weld may be
Inspected.

Generally, normal blast-cleaning opera?ionswill not satisfactorily prepare weld areas

for painting and it Is necessary to use a grinding wheel to produce a smooth Clean
weld fine.

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Any undercutting, pinholes or dicontlnuity in the welds wlll require re-welding and
grinding. Mechanical grinding, discing or solvent cleaning rmy also be required for
the treatment of:

G = Contamination of the surface by oil and grease which must be removed by

sohent cleaning.
L = Laminations. The surface shculd be checked both befors and after
blast-cleaning, since the blastlng operation is likely lo partial[y tear out
laminations from the steel surtace. Serious laminations may lead to a
weakening of the steel
E = Edges. Should be radiused to provide a smooth, rwnded surface to which
the paint adheres satisfactor~y,providing good covemge and protection.
B = Burrs. Should be removed as above. Check particularly tmlt holes and other
areas where cutting has been carried out.

The above provide the letters C L E 8 as an aid to memory durlng inspection.

In connection with the lnspectlon of weld areas, the Inspector should be aware of
alkaline deposits left by sorne welding processes.

These are normally removed by blast-deanfng, but if for any reason the weld areas
are only receiving ltimlted preparation then It may be necessary to wash the weld
areas with dean water.

Where remedlal work is belng canIed out on painted areas that have been subject to
welding, it is important that the area is Mast-cleaned back to sound paint which has
goad adhesion. This may be up to 20m from the channel area,

It is also lmpwtant to bear in mind that the heat produced by the weldlng operation
will be transmitted through me steel and may cause damage to paint-work on the
other side. Again, the remedial blast-cleaning operatin should be undertaken untl
sound paint is reached. (See Figures 11 and 12).

Om hal point to be considered when pparlng the watd surface is the dtflerence in
metal surface hardness. The zone of the weld Itself and the affected parent metal
wound it may have been tempered during the weidtng process. This muld result in
the inability to profile that area as quickly or efficlenly as the nan affected areas.
Occasionally speaal preparation techniques may be necessary, such as a change in
the grit used.

CONCLUSIOM.
The preparation of a satMactorfly cleaned sutface Is the first clStical stage in the
provision of long term protection by a coating system.

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SECTION 6.0 WET ABRASIVE BLAST CLEANING.
Wet abtasive blast cleaning Is a method of sutiam peparation which uses open
abrasive blast cleaning wlth a mixture of water as a method of of surface
preparation.

Tke main problem so far as jnspection is concerned. Is to see that the surface is
properly cleaned whilst it Is dl wet. One suggestion is to lake an area that has been
cleaned by dry grit blasting then to wet it so that you have some Idea as to what you
are looking for.

It may be interesting to cavy out tests for 'soluble iron c o m l o n products' using
Merckoquant test strips. The level of soluble salt should be such that it is low and
should be reduced further by m h i q the surface.

Wlth regard M the application of !he prlmer or firs? coat, check carefully that it is
suitable for applicafion to a mdst or damp surface. Look dso on the Manufacturers
Instructions for any deflnitton of dampness.

Generally, such materlak am not suhble for appllcatlon to a surface that has
running water on it. If the surface is just damp, I.e. a tery thln film of water, then R
may be acceptable.

Some water tdasHng !3yitems incorporate the use of a cormslon Inhibitor. If it is

present, check that it is being used at the oorrect concenttationand that it is properly
mixed and dissolved. Some mrmsfon inhibitors may adversely affect the coating
adhesion, so check selected areas of the cured coating to ensure that if has
satisfactory adhesion.

W i wet blastrrrg, flash-ruMng may be a problem. Increasing the concentration of

c o m i m inhibitor will not get tTd of Hi. Providing the level of soluble salt is
sufficiently low, say below 2Smg/sq. metre, slight flash-rusting may be acceptable.
The Client should te consulted for mRrmatbn of this acceptability.

If them is any doubt concerning the use of the cormsfon tnhibftor then you shwld
recommend that it Is omitted.

While R may be possible to apply the specially formulated primer to a damp surface,
subsequent mats must be applied to a dry surface and this should be carefully
checked in the normat manner.

If sea-water is used for the initial preparation then It is essential that the surface is
washed with clean fresh water, prlor to paint application.

Water pressure has a good scouring actlon and it is obsewed that the cleaning
action improves as the pressure is increased. fighity bonded rnlllscale may be

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 removed at 70-105 MNlsq. metre (10,000-15.000 psi). At over 140 MNlsq. metre
(20,000 psi) It is possible to cut through steel.

It has been noted that the wet Mast cleaning method on lusty steel, is m e t i m e s
not as good as dry blasting because the high p r e s s u ~water seems to ilcochet off
the surface and not dwell long enough to penetrate or clean, by capillary action, the
soluble rust-producing products at the bottom of rust pits. If some abrasive, usually
slim free sand, is mixed with the water, faster and more efficient cleaning is
achieved.

Wet abrask deaning is not as m m o n now as it has been for the last 10 years.
Although havfng the advantages of removing salts and spark hazards, the wet
abrasive blast cleaning technique is being replaced with high pressure water
blasting.

-
SECTION 7.0 ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE W A E R BLASTING.
1.0 Introduction.

Hydroblasblng, sometimes called Uttra High Pressure (UHP), Water Blasting,

Aquablasting or Hydrojetting is a term used to describe preparation of surfaces as
an alternative to wet bfast cleaning.
Due to environmental legislations and the need to m o v e soluble salts from steel
surfaces, hydroblasting is becoming a highly developed technology and receiving a
great deal of support from the paint industry.

Simply, hydroblasting wnsists of using high pressure and water as a method of

surface preparationfor painting. The pressures vary, depending on the requirement.

20 Definitions.

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It is widely estaMFshed that high pressure vvater washing and high pressure
hydroblasting pumps can effeclively remove paint a H n g breakdown, i w e rust and
foreign contamination.

However, as reliable pumping systems were developed at e m higher pressures, R

became apparent that operating pressues In excess of 2,000 bar (30,000 PSI)
could be used much mom efficiently for a method of surface preparation, Thls type
of technique is known as Ultra High Pressure (UHF) Hydroblasting.

UHP systems are a ~ l l a b l efrom a number of Manufacturers throughout Europe and

the United States. Pump technology is elther based on conventional triplex plunger
pumps or hydraulic over water fluid intensifiers. The triplex plunger pump brands are
well known in the marine industry for their long history of application at lower
pressures for tmdltlonal hulf washing and general heavy duty cleaning.

They operate mainly at amund 30,000 PSI (2,000) bar wfth flows of about 20 IRES
per minute. Intensifier systems can operate at much higher pressures, presently up
to 60,000 PSI (4,000 bat), but typically, for steel preparation, at around 40,000 (PSI)
(2.750 bar) at flows of between 8 and 12 litres per mfnute. High pressures at lower
flow rates may have between 8 and 12 litres per minute. Hlgher pressures at lower
flow rates may have the advantage d better cufflng power when tightly adhered
primes have to be removed, and also af less fatigue to Operatots due to lower
reaction force.

No chemicals or abrasives of any kind are used, but the kinetic energy developed by
an UHP water iet traveltinu at over twice the soeed of sound is sufficient to
completely rem& even thetoughest rust deposits'from steel, any type of coating
and practically all invisible contaminates, principally salts.

This latter aspect has been of particular interest to coatings Manufacturers. Resldual
chloride levels of less than 10 microgrammes per square centitnetre, and sometimes
as low as 5p@cm2, virtually elrninate the risk of sdt-Initiated corrosion Cdls below
the newly applied coating. This Is another major advantage of UHP fresh water
hydrobladng over open, dry abrasive grit blasting where quite high salt levels can
be measured after surlace preparation. The abrasive ikelf can also be salt
contaminated.

These negligible salt levels, together with the increasing environmental pressure
coming upon open, dry grii blasting, led to the deflnition and publication of
hydroblasting standards by professional institutes and paint Manufactuers. Most
major paint companies now recommend a range of products suitable for applying to
correctly hydroblasted steel surfaces.

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 Use of UHP hydroblasting is now widespread. The system is particularly well suited
to spot blasting, as spot blasting maintenam programmes are beoomlng more and
more widely implemented. Corroded areas can be hydroblasted to bare metal w~th
great precision, with no overblast and wasteful 'tracking' between spots as is
normally seen afler abrastve spot blasting. Much less paint 1s therefore used and the
Contractor eliminates the costly problem of abrasive disposal and yard cleaning. The
big beneficiary is, of course, the environment; the dust and debris from open. dry
abrasive blasting has been a major nuisance for years, but was an evil necessity in
the absence of any practical cost effedve alternative. Yards in tfie United Kingdom,
Europe, Scandinavia and the United States are all currently facing serlous
opposition from local environmental bodies on the grounds of dust and paint
overspray pollution.

In the marine industry, water letting had been used by mobile crews and Contractors
as a method of surface preparation for a n u m k r of years, although there are
obviws disadvantages of water jetting as opposed to UHP hydroblasbng.

Because high volumes of water were being used at around 10,000 PSI (700
bar), sea water was the only option available which then defeated the object of
remwing salts from the substrate. Fresh water rinsing tends not to be carded out
very effectively.

The jet vdocrties of these pumps is insufficient to satfsfactorily remove old

primers and corroded steel.

Reactlon force form the high pressure produced from these machines results in
additional down time due to labour fatigue.

On the other hand, the use of UHP hydroblasSng produced a diiereni picture quite
dramatically:-

1 Due l o the low volume requirement of water, the ships evaporafors can normally
provide very high quality, de-lonlsed fresh water. A 12 litre per minute gun will
only typically use about 5 tonnes of water in a normal working shift and most
evaporators can easily provide this from surplus prcduction.

Due to the higher jet velocity, all the s& are removed from the substrate
available so a much higher standard of preparation can be achieved.

Low wlume means low reaction force to the Operator, and productivity can rise
as the fatigue factor diminishes.

Low volume, low reaction force tools can be taken into ballast tanks and dwble
bottoms at sea, vastly improving the potential scope of work in mat the process
can be carried out whilst the ship is mobile.

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 5 Standard of work k high. and paint Manufacturers are therefore much more
flexible as they have confidence in the performance of the coating system
applied to a known preparation standard.

6 With the correct lightfng, vendlation and access arrangements, UHP

hydroblasting is particulally well suited to ballast tank and endosed locations
type work.

7 Hydroblasting has made an impact with tanker Operators and offshore

Operators. Ttte ability to cany out surface prepatations without risk of spark has
obvious attractions.

Hydroblasting has made signlkant inroads as a new marine maintenance

technology and a number of new products are available which will result in belier
performance and greater reliability.

4.0 Standards.

4.1 As Ultra High Pressure Hydroblasting leaves the prepared surfaces sllgMly damp,
new paint products are constantly being developed by the paint fndustry. Visual
standards, prior to application, are also avalable both by industry bodies and by
paint Manufacturers.

These standards define the visual UHP appearance of steel substrates after
hydmblasting, although experienced Quality Control Inspectors will agree that visual
standards for 'slightly damp' substrates may cause some discussion during the
process work.

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 PART 5
PAINT AND PAINT APPLICATION

SECTION NUMBER AND TITLE

1.0 OBJECTWES OF PhRT 5

20 MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS E DATA SHEETS

3.0 STORAGE

4.0 MIXING AND STIRRING

SPECIFIC GRAVlTY

YlSCOSlTY

METHODS OF APPUCATlON

WET FILM THlCKNESS

DRYING TIYE

DRY RLM THICKNESS

CONVERSION OF WET TO DRY FILM THICKNESS

OVERCOATlNG TIYES

WASHING AND OTHER INTERCOAT PREPARATION

TESTS ON THE DRY FILM

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SECTION 1.Q OBJECTIVES OF PART 5.
To ensure that the paint is of the correct type and state, so that when prope*
applied, he materlal will give satisfactory long tern protectionto the steel substrate.

In order to achieve the above objectives, it is necessary to errsure that the coatlngs
are applied at the thickness and under the conditions recommended by the paint
manufacturer or as smified bv the Client. The matinas must be fimhv adherent and
uniformly applied to the pmperiy prepared surlace wgovt misses. inciusions, runs or
other defects.

The following sections will deWl the use of Manutadurers' data sheets, storage of
materials, the mixing and stirring ol paints and materials, specific gravity and
viscosity. A brief discussion on paint application is also given along with wetldry film
thickness and the testing of coatings and linings.

SECTION 2.0 - MANUFACTURERS' DATA SHEETS.

Data sheets provided by the paint manufacturer are the major source of i n b m l i o n
concerning the materials being used. It is essential that the Inspector has the latest
data sheet for all the materials being applied on his project.

The data sheet, together with the specification, will provide the Inspector with the
informationto draw up a set of quality control parameters.

-
SECTION 3.0 STORAGE.

In the absence of specific instructtons the following general guidelines should apply.

Paint should be stored so that it is protecmd from the elements in such conditions
that (typically) Its temperature is maintained between 4OC and 27OC.

Ventilation should be such that if oondensationdoes w r on the tins then It will not
lead to the containers being in prolonged contact with water, leading to the
posstbility of rusttng. In addition, adequate ventilation will help to keep the solvent
concentration at a low level, thus reducing any risks due to fire or explosion.

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SECTION 4.0 MWING AND STIRRING.

41 Single pack palnts, particutady those with heavy plgrnents such as zinc or
micaceous iron oxide, must be thoroughly stirred prior to use to ensure:

- No settlement of plgrnent on the bottom

- No separation of solvent at the top

A is, therefore, essential ta ensure that stirrers will reach the bottom of the can.

A further useful check Is to examine empty cans to ensure that mixing procedures
have been thoroughly undertaken.

@ 4.1 For two pack painis I is essential that

- The components are m i d in the ratio specified by the paint Manufacturer.
- Very thorough stirring is carrid oat b ensure complete mixing of the components.
(See Rgures 13 and 14).

Pattiwlarly for two pack materials it Is recommended mat mirdng Is carried out
mechanically, using an air motor or spark proof electrjc motor for safety.

The palnt should be stirred for at lwast 5 minutes and,as with single pack systems, it
is necessary to ensure that there is is settlement of pigment on the base of the can
by using a stfrrer of sufficient length.

-
SECTION 5.0 SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
A test which may be carded out to chedc

- Paint has been thoroughly mixed

- Paint has not been diluted

5.1 Equipment required:

- Weight per gallon cup

- Set of scales weighing up to 300gm to accuracy of 0.1 gm.

The weight per gallon cup comprises a straight sided cylindrical container made from
metal which, when fied with its special lid, holds exactly 1.00rnl of liquid.

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 The lid is designed so that when the cup is filled with llquld and the Ild pressed firmly
down, then excess liquid will be ejected h r n the small hole in its centre.

Steps to follow are:

5.2.1 Weigh the cup and lid, empty, and record weight.

5.2.2 Fill the cup with pdnt to within 2mm of top.

5.2.3 Allow the paint to stand for 2 minutes to ensure the removal of all alr from the
paint sample.

5.2.4 Press the lid onto the cup, ensurfng that some of the paint is ejected through the
centre hole. If there is no paint ejected then it is necessary Po remove the lid and
add additional paint.

5.2.5 Wipe dean all extemd su*o%s.

5.2.6 Weigh the cup. lid and paint and m r d weight

5.3 Calculation.

Step 1 Weight of cup + lid + paint

Step 2 Weight of cup + fidonly

Mwe the decimal point 2 places to the left and record the figure obtained as the
specific gravity.

Example No 1.

Weight of cup + lid + paint =

WeigM of cup + lid only =

S.G.
Record value as

Example No 2.

Weight of cup + lid + paint =

Weight of cup + lid only =

S.G.
Record value as

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GonsuH Manufacturer's data sheet to ensure that values obtained am in agreement
with the Manufacturer's recommendations or guidelines.

Manufacturer's data sheets may quote specific gravity (S.G.), density, weight per
gallon (rare these days) or weight in kilograms per 5 lires. Specific gravity and
density have the same numerical values. For weight per gallon, divide by 10 to
obtain SG (i.e. 132 Ibs per gallon = 1.32 S.G.) and for weight in kilograms per 5
litres divide by 5 to obtain S.G. (i.e. 6.44 per 5 litres = 1.28 S.G.).

&ia check on the accuracy of your scales and that yau are using the cwect
technique, the determination of the S.G. of water should give a value of 1.00.

If the determined value is lower than the value stated in the data sheet, the most
probable masons are insufficient mixing or the sample has been taken from the top
of the can or improper addition of solvent,

Altemativaly, the material in the can is not as stated on the data sheet

If available, another sample af the same material shwld be tested.

In the event of a large difference behveen the determined value and that recorded in
the data sheet, the material should be set aside until the reasons can be
established.

-
SECnON 6.0 VISCOSITY.
The following wps are available:

BS flow Cup to BS 3900

DIN flow cups
Ford flow cups to ASTM Dl200
IS0 flow cups to IS0 2431
Zahrrflow cups.

It is. therefore, essenblJ to ensure that the correct type and orifice slze of cup is
used. The Manufactureh data sheet should state the cup to be used.

Ncm.
The viscosfty of ofcertain hlgh-build materials, such as MI0 or thixotropic materials.
cannot be measured satisfactorily using a flow cup.

H It is required to measure the viscosity of such rnaterlals, consult the paint

Manufacturer.

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 IMPORTANT
Particularly for paints, temperature has a marked effect on viscasity. It is, therefore,
essential that the sample to be taken and the viscosity cup are at a known standard
temperature, usually around 20% or 25OC. If a sample of paint C brought into a
warm room from outside. it may take several hours and considerable stirring to
achieve uniform ambient temperature.

The usual method for the measurement d viscosity is to measure the time taken for
the liquid to run through a small hole of known diameter from a container of standard
volume.

Apparatus:

- Standard cup
- Stopwatch
- Thermometer
- Stand for cup
- Container for paint

The cups are available in different sizes, I.e. BS flow cups Nos. 3, 4 and 5 are
available. This information will be stamped on the cup and shall be recorded.

B S Cup

Method.

- Warm or cod the cup and paint to the standard temperature.

- Cover the hole at the bottom of the cup from the outside wfth the flnger.
- Completely fill the container so that some of the paint flows over the rim into
the outer container.
- Scrape off excess from the top of he cup using a Rat blade.
- Ensure that a container Is under the hole.
- Remove the finger from the hole and simultaneouslystart the stop watch.
- Observe the flow of liquid, which shodd be as a smooth conih.mus stream.
- When the smooth stream breaks to droplets, stop the watch.

Record.
- Type and number of cup used.
- Temperature at which measurement was undertaken.
- Time In seconds through the cup.
- ldentlfication of sample with reference and batch numbers.

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a -
SECTiON 7.0 METHODS OF APPLICATION.
Check carefully that all areas are properly coated, particularly areas of diiimtt
access where it will be necessary to use a mhmr and torch. Look behind.
underneath and on top of areas being coated, check particularly that all comers are
properly coated.

TMs is the second critical state in the use of paint for the long-term protection of
steel. The aim is to prwide a Smooth mat of uniform thickness which is free from
any sags, runs, misees, bestem, indusions or any other defect As the Inspector, you
are not concerned with the rate of working, but with the quality of the applied
coating.

It is not the intention of this section to comprehensively Mail every facet of the
applfcation techniques fisted. but merely to introduce them. It is expected that the
Inspector will have a competence in the safe handling and use of such equipment
before reaching this stage of professional expertise.

Application methods in general use are:

- Brush
- Rdler
- Conventional Spray
- Airless Spray

Check that the material supplied 'Is the correct grade for the application method
propcsed.

Where spray equipment Is being used check that the tip or nozzle size, spray angle
and pmsure are as remmrnended by the palnt Manufacturer.

-
Brush Application shwld be enowraged where the areas being coated are not
straightforwad. For areas where spray application is permitted, it All probably be
necessary for the painter to use a brush to mat difficult areas, e,g. bolted joints,
welds etc. This coat is often referred to as Stripe Coat. When completed the Stnpe
Coat w~llhave placed an extra layer of paint over those areas which may otherwise
not retain a full spray applied coat i.e. sharp edges etc.

-
Roller Application Whlle this method is quicker than brush, particularly for large
areas, the quality of the work Is generally inferior to brushing from the point of view
of long term protecbion. Usually, the coating tends to be rather thinner and more
porous (wicking effect) due to bits dewsited In the fllm from the roller. MI0 can cut
the fibres of the roller and cause contamination of the film.

PKneaive Coatings Inspection Manual ORobinson Irwin Technical Svpport Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 5 England 1W-5,7
Page7d25
 Painting Contractors prefer to use rolbr applbtion rather than brush because of Its
faster appfication. If this method of apphtion is permitted by the specification, it is
essential that the Inspector keeps a very dose check on film thickness, both wet and
dry-
Conventional Spray Application -
Conventional spraying equipment utilises comparatively (cornpared b airless spray)
low pressures to deliver atornised paint to the prepared surface. A simple description
of a conventional spraying unit follows:

Paint is drawn {sucked) under pressure of around 20 to 60 psl, ?oa spray head.
This spray head forces the material through a n a m orifice where it is then
m~xedwith a dual flow of air. The force of the air entering the paint stream
results in flne atomisation of the material, which settles gently on the sudace to
be coated.

One disadvantage of conventional spray techniques is the level of overspray

produced. Since the paint is very finely atmised, some of the droplets drift off
away from the surface. This drift is called overspray.

A second disadvantage is the low quantitles of paint w h i i can be delhred and

hence smed of workina. She advantaoes are realised when a verv smooth finish
is demahed or when 6ne control of the spray is required. ~onwr;tionalspraying
then is very useful for coating operations on intricatelyconstrvcted surfaces.

Airless Spray Application -

Airless application differs from conventional in several key mpects. The q u a w of
coating deliverEd to the surface can be very high indeed making for rapid working wl
large or simple structures. The pant is delivered from a container, having been
sucked into a pneumatic pump. She pump is typically of the piston operational type
(though @hers are available).

The plston of the pump is driven up and down, drawing paint into a compression
chamber and !hen delivering it at an increased pressure. Typically the air pressure
driving the pump will be at around 80 ta TOOpsi. The ratio of the paint del'wry lo the
driving air will vary depending upon the type of pump used, though is usually
between 26 to 1 and 44 to 1. That means a 44 to 1 pump driven by 100psl will be
capable of delivering paint at the spray head at 4,400psi. The force of the paint
being delivered through a narmw orifice forms a dropfet mist This process requires
no atornising air.

Spray application generally allows greater actual applkalion speed of working but it
Is necessary to carefully mask off and protect gauges, etc. and adjacent areas io
protect from the effects of overspray, hence it rs not always the most effective
method.

Protective Coatings Inspection Manual QRoblnson lmin Technical Support Lid..

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 5 England 1%5,7
p ~ a o l s
 -
SECTION 8.0 WET FILM THICKNESS.
The following will be required:

- Wet film thi* gauge (See Figure 15)

- Material Manufacturers data sheet

The most common instrument for measuring wet film thickmess is the Comb gauge.

The two wknnost teeth of the ccinb are the same in length while the inner teeth
are progressively shorter. me gauge is pushed firmly into the wet paint so that the
outermost teeth make matact with the substrate steel or previously painted surtace.
The gauge must be at right angles to the painted surface.

The gauge is removed and th% teeth examined. Some of the heads of the teeth wil
be mated with paint while the remainder will be uncoated.
The wet film thickness, therefore, lies between tfie last tooth that is coaled and the
first tooth that is uncoated. This is determined by adding together the readings of the
two teeth then dividing the number by 2. For calculating the dry film thickness, the
mid point value between these two teeth shall be used.

Note.
It is important to ensure that the wet film thldonw reading is taken within one
minute (at the latest) of application. The teeth of the gauge should, at all times, be
kept clean and free from dned paint.

Care must be taken to ensure that when measuringw t film thickness over relatively
soft high build dry film, that the dried c d n g is not penetrated.

Very quick drying paints ars Impossible to measure h W i way and d m the
subsequent mats on top of chlorinated rubber, since the previous mats are
softened.

Several readings should be taken over a small area to obtain a reliable average
value. The value obtained should be checked against the data sheet to ensure that
the recommended dry film thickness will be achieved and that this value will satisty
the requirements of the specification.

Painters should be encouraged to measure thelr own wet Rlm thickness. Where this
is not being carried out, it would be reasonable for the Inspector to suggest to the
Contractoh Supervisor that his men be equipped with wet film thickness gauges
and shown how to use them correctly. This will not only help to make the job of the
lnspectw easier but may &so help the Painter.

RotecUve W i n g s l w p d o n Manual QRobinson lmin Tgchnkal Suppart LM.,

Dm.NI TMA-0141* u e 02 Part 5 England lgW-5,7
Page D d 25
 Remember, it is easier to apply the required film thickness the first IIme than to build
up coats or rub down excessive thiikness.

-
SECTION 9.0 DRYING TIME.
The period when:

- Solvent is evaporating frwn the film

- Curing by oxidation or chemical reaction is taldng place

Both the above are affected by:

- Temperature
- Ventilation (air movement reducing me concentration of solvent irnmediatety
above the surface)
- Paint tilm thickness
Generally, Manufacturer's data sheets quote three drying periods:
-
Touch dry When the film is suftidentty hard to perrnl measurement d dry film
thickness arid may be hard enough for the objec?to be carefully handled without
damage.

-
Qvereoating Time When the product is deemed suitable for overcoating
wlthout any adverse effects.

Full cure - When madmum chemical resistance has been hllt up withh the
coating.

The above drylng Mnitions are dependent upon temperatute and film thickness.
The Manufacturers assume that the coaling has bean applied at the recommended
film thickness and excessively thick films will take considerably longer for all the
solvent to evaporate from the coating. This is paparticularly so when excess solvent
has been added to the coating. Srrnilarly, coatlngs that cure by oxidation, i.e. the
oxygen must be absorbed from the atmosphere, will take considetably longer for a
thick film to cure properly.

Paint Manufacturers should quote the temperature at which the drying times are
applicable. Generally, a laboratory tempemlure is quoted which may be 20°G (W°F)
or higher. When paints are being applied on site at ambient temperatures down to
5OG, it may be necessary to multiply the quoted drying times by a factor of 4 or
more.

Proteaive Coatings Inspection Manual bRobinmn lnnrin Technical Suppat Ltd.,

Doc No: TMA-3147 Issue 02 Part 5 Endend 19sd5.7
Page 10 d 25
e elcometec
Paints sensitive to low temperatures are the convertible type, where drying is by
chemical reaction wiihin the film. Thus, epoxy, polyurethane and coal tar epoxies will
take longer to cure at low temperatures. Particularly in the case of epoxy paints, it is
generally recommended that they will not be applied when the ambient temperature
is below 5OC.

Some typtcal examples of the effect of temperature and curing agents on curing
fmes are shown below.
Arnide o m d epoxy -
-full cure afier 5 days at 30'~
- full are after 20 days at 1 0 ' ~
-dust dry after 8 minutes et 30°C
- dust dry after 30 minutes at 1o°C
Amine cured epoxy -
- full cure after 3 days at 20%
-
full cure alter 14 days at t O°C
-
full cure after 24 days at 5%
- overcoating time 6 hours at 30OC
- overcoating f me 48 hours at 5'~
Isocyanate cured epoxies are generally spedbd where appllcatlon must be carried
out at low temperatures. There are formulations available that can be applied at
temperatures down to -20°c, although - 1 0 ' ~is more usual. As above, overcoating
time and times to full cure are considerably lengthened at the low temperatures.

A typical example gives:

Substrate temperature +lO°C 0% -loOc

Minimum overcoating time 4 hrs 16 hrs 24 hrs
full cure 3 days 5 days 8 days

Coal tar epoies are similar to straight epdes in that they are affected by
temperatures.

!t should be noted that paints such as chlorinated rubber, which dry by solvent
evapomtion, will be affected by temperalure, in that at low temperatures, it will take
longer for complete evaporation. Retention of solvents in chlorinated rubbers may
affect the adhesion Icohesion of the primer, particularly ant rich types.

However, the difference between chlorinated rubber types and the epoxy types is
that with the latter, the resistance properties of me film may be adversely affected.

Pmective C d n g a Inspection Manual ORcbinson lrwln Technical Support Ltd.,

OmHo: IIIk-Olbl -l 02 ' Part 6 England 1W 5 , 7
Page 11 d 25
SECTION 10.0 - DRY FILM THICKNESS.
me measurement of dry film tfiickness is of consklerable importance because:

- It is the only positive value which may be checked at any time after the event,
withwt damage to the coating.
- It may be wdften into the speciffcation.
Measurement of dry film thickness will normally be carried out uslng an electronic
(see Figures t6 and 17) or magnetic gauge which requires callbratian immediately
prior to use.

?Thefollowing methods will be adopted for callbratron of dry film thickmess gauges:

Zen, and calibrate the instrument on sted whose surface profile matches the
profile of the painted surface being measured. Some spedficaifons may ml For a
Rat plate to be used here, or even a smooth surface plate.

Using shims of know thickness, calibrate the instrument over the mnge within
which it is ertpected that the measuredthickness will lie.

It may not always be possible to measure the suhm protile on the same surface
that is being coated, i.e. it may already be primed or the coating operation
completed. Information on the exp.ected surface profile should be available from lhe
specificat~onor previous inspection repork.

The ideal system, which should be followed wherever possible, Is to obtain a small
sample of steel about 15cm x 10cm and have this Mast cleaned by the contractor at
the start of the contract. This panel will then form a reference panel for the duration
of the contract as to the surface profile standard that is agreed and a calibration
panel for setting up dry film thickness measuring instruments.

Atternativety use the sample panel pruducilon method indicated safer in this
Manual.

Experiments have shown that when an electronic or magnetic dry film thldmess
gauge is calibrated on a smooth surface and then used on a grit blasted surface of
50 microns profile,the difference in apparent coating ZhickneSs will be of the order of
up to 25 microns on an actual coating thickness of 250 microns (1 0%).

Having calibrated the gauge, an a d d i a l check to ensure the accuracy of the

gauge is to measure the dry film thickness of the mating as mqulred and then
re-measure the same area over a thin shim (25 or 50 microns) and ensure that the
gauge c o W 1 y m r d s the increased thickness.

ORoblnson lrwln TechriicalSupport Ltd.,

Part 5 England 1991-5,7
Page 12d25
e elcornetec
The calibration of the instrument should be checked at the sta~of each working
perlod and whenever the dry film thickness is being measured on a new item. ff the
gauge is being used contirmwsly on the same item, the calibration should be
checked abwt every two hours.

Bearing In mind the importance of the dry film tt11ckne-s~measurements, it is

essential to ensure that suffident readings are W e n over the area to obtain a
representative value.

Following calibration of the gauge, readings should be taken.

Take readings withln a drcle of 25mm (1 inch) diameter un61 three consecutive
readings agree within 25 mlcrons. Record the average of the three readings as m e
reading.

On a fat area, at least two point readings shwld be taken per square metre.

On complex shapes, the number of point readings should be increased appropriately

and the Inspector should concentrate on the less accessible areas.

Measurements shwld not be taken within 12mm (% inch) of edges, holes or

adjacent steel work, unless there is good reason ta believe that dry film thickness is
significantfy low in these areas, since there may be some 'edge efteel' distortion of
the gauge reading.

It shwld not be anticipated that film thickness rneasulrement wlll be low in these
areas, since such areas should have received an additional stripe coat.

The Client specificatbn may indicate a specjfic method and system (such as a
statistically corrected sampling plan) fw the taking and recording of the dry film
thicknesses.

Having obtained and recorded en appropriate number of point readings for dry film
midmess, it is necessary to mnsult the specification to determine exactly the
requirements, i.e. whether the value should be mean, minimum, nominal or
otherwise stated.

Mean value implies that the average of all point values recorded should be in
agreement and above the value specified.

Minimum value implies that all point values recorded shwld be in agreement
and above the specified value.

Nanlnal value implies that the average of all polnt values recorded should equal
or exceed the nominal value and there should be no value less than 75% of the
nominal mlue (BS 5493 Seciion 19).

P F d d e Coatings lnspecllon Manual mobin- lmin Technical Support Ltd.,

DocM: TMA-0147 l u a D2 PW 5 England 1994-5,7
Page13d25
 Unless the Client di- requests othennrise, the Inspector should quote mean and
minimum values for dry film tfiidmess.

In addiion to rnaklng a careful check on dry film thickness values to ensure that the
coating is in compliance with the specification, it is also essential that the Inspector
carries out a thorough visual examination, using a telescopic mimr and torch where
necessary, to ensure mat all areas are completely and uniformty coated.

Any areas where there are sags, runs, blisters or rnlsses should be marked up for
appropriate action by the Conmctor. It is not sufficient that the Inspector only
identifies such areas but he must give dear notice of hls findings, and where the
specification demands it, pass instructions to the Contractor upon the actlon
required, such possibilities may include:-

Hand rub or sweep blast the surface to remove excessive mating thickness and
to provide a key for good i n t e m t adhesfon.

Completely remove the coating applled and commence re-work as Iffor the first
time.
Ensure that additional coatings are applied within tlwr Manufacturer's
recommended over-coating times, having due regard to temperature.

Washing or other surface pre-b-eatment as required.

It is also essential to record when defects are remedied.

-
SECTION 11.0 CONVERSION of WET to DRY FlLM rlTI1ICKNESS.

Wet film thiclaness (W.F.T.)

Dry film thickness (D.F.T.)

Example A -
Volume solids Is 3%, wet Ckn thickness is 150 microns
Dry film thickness is 150 x 37 = 55.5 microns
100

Example B -
Volume solids is 54%. dry film thickness is 50 r n i m
Wet film thidtness is 50 = 92.5 microns
54

Pmtective CoaNngs InspectiDn Manual 63Robim I d n Technical S u w r t Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 fssue 02 Parr 5 England 1884-57
Page 14 d 25
 -
SECTION 12.0 OVERCOATING TIMES.
As already indicated, the paint Manufactureh data sheet will carry
recommendations for mlnimurn and, with certain materials, maximum limes for
overcoating. The data sheet should quote a temperature for which the values are
applicable.

It is essential that the Inspector notes the time intemls required and ensures that
the Contractor operates within the limits stated.

A mlnimum overmating tlme is requid to allow solvent to evaporate from the

-
coating and pemlt chemical reactions 10 take place where this is applicable.

Where recoating has taken place too quickly, the Inspector should check for
evidence of blistering or wrinkling, such defects may also be due to excessive film
thlclmess and consequent solvent entrapment.

When mardmum wemating times am smted these generally apply to coatings

which cure by chemical reaction to give a film which has good resistance to
chemical attack.

If such malings are not reaated within the maximum time specffled then poor
adhssFon of subsequent coats may resutl and it Is generally necessary to sweep
blast or use other methods for roughening the surface to provide a good key for the
adhesion of the subsequent coat.

Note.
~ v e m t i n gtimes are dependent upon temperature for all types of paint. It is,
therefore, essential to consult the paint Manufactvreh data sheet for information on
the effect of temperature.

Particularty for two pack materials where the maximum owM be quoted as 3 days at
20% then at high amwent temperature, 1.e. 30°c, the maximum overcoating time
may be reduced-to 1-1.5 days. However, the paint Manufacturer should always be
consulted for detailed information on each paint system.

aobhson lnnrin Technical Support Ltd.,

Pen? 5 England 19W5,7
Page 15 d 25
 -
SECTION 13.0 WASHING & OTHER INTERCOAT PREPARATION.
Any mating which has been Jlowed to stand for some time prior to the applcabion
of further coats, e,g. items first coated in the works then finished on site, a thorough
wash is recommended.

A sultable washing llquid is 2% detergent solution, normally some proprietary

rnateial is used. Such solutions should be made up using clean water and it is
essential to ensure that the detergent additions are kept around the 2% value. The
use of very mncenimted detergent solutions could lead to more harm than good by
leaving a film of detergent on the surface to be painted.

Following a detergent wash with the use of scrubbing brushes to aid the removal of
dirt, the surface should be liberally washed with a considerable quantity of clean
fresh water.

Note.
Zinc rich paints, which ate frequently used on uff-shore locations, are particularly
prone to the bufld up of soluble w m s b n products if not recoated wlthin 7 days
(generally). Such coatings may requlre a water wash and scrub prior to further
coating.

Following a water wash, it 3s essential to ensure that the surface is compfetely dry
before further coatings are applied.

-
SECTION 14.0 TESTS on the DRY FILM.
14.1 Adhesion.

The strength with whlch one coating bonds to another can only be tested
destructively. Tests of adhesion should only, therefore, be undertaken where there is
reasonable suspicion that something has gone wrong, where the CIierrt is in
agreement with such tests and where means are available to ensure that the tested
area can be adequately re-protected. Such tests will not, normally, be undertaken as
part of an Inspector's routine evaluation.

Two field tests for the adhesion of coatlngs are generally used as described
overleaf.

Protective Coatings Inspection Manud QRobimon Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part5 England 1884-5,7
Page 1 6 d 2 5
e elcometec
Cross-Cut Test (See R g m 18).
Details are laid down in BS 3900 Parf E6:1974.

The meting fs cut using a sharp blade having a specified angle (e.g. a Stanley kniie)
so that the cut penetrates to the steel substrate.

A series of 6 or 11 lines are cut vertically and Me same number of lines cut
horizontally to give a box containing 25 to 100 squares. The distance apart for the
lines is either Imm or 2mm as agreed between the interested parties. Generally, for
film thicknesses up to 125 microns a Imrn spacing is used and the 2mm spacing is
used for thicker films.

Having made the cuts, the box of 25 or 100 squares is emmined and tfre number of
squares that are detached is noted. In additfon to noting the number of squares that
are detached, the layer of coating failure and whether the failure IS adhesive
(between layers) or coheskre (within the layer) should also be noted.

The adhesion I cohesion of the squares is additionally demonstrated by applying an

adhesive tape over the test area and removing in a stipuEated fashion. This may then
be retained to indicate the results determined.

The British Standard lays down a dassification for the test results according to the
degree of flaking along the edges of the cuts.

Direct PulCMf Test (See Figures 19 and 20).

A 'dolly made of aluminium alloy or similar is stuck on to the coating system under
evaluation, using a suitable adhesive. After the adhesive has cured, the 'dolly' is
removed by direct pull-off using a special tool and the force required is measured.

It Is essential to ensure a good bond between the ooated surface and the dolly, Both
surfaces are cleaned and lightly abraded, 'draldifec 2 pack adhesive, which sets in
24 hours, has been found to be satisfactory.

If quick results are required use onepack cyancectylate adhesive. On a good palm
system, the quicker setting adhesives tend to break first and, under these
drcumnces, the test gives very lMe useful information. Opinions differ as to
whether the mating should be scored round the 'dolly' and there is no laid down
standard for guidance. for thicker film in excess of 500 microns, the paint should
dways be scored down to bare metal. For thinner films scoring is not essential,
providing that the fact is recorded with ibe test resutts.

QRobmson Irwin Technical Support LM.,

England 18865.7
f!!?
elcometec
It should be noted that the 'ddy Is shaped with doping shoulders. The jaws of the
pull-off test grtp under the square section end and it is, therefore, necessary to
ensure that the 'dolly' is fixed to the caated surface as Indicated.

The instrument measures the force (in k i l q m s per square centlmetre [ k ~ , dPSI
]
or MPa) required to break the coating system. In addition to recording the force
required for removal, further Information may be gained by noting where failure
occurs in the system and whether such failure is cohesive (within the fifm) or
adhesiw (between successb layers). Such facts should be recorded, together with
the percentage coating adhering to the surface of the 'dolly'.

The direct pull-off test win indlcate the weakest llnk In a coating system from the
point of adhesion but does not necessarily glve information on the long term
durability of the system.

The adhesion tests describd have only a limited value, usually when mparlng the
relatlw performance of the same types of coating system from different paint
Manufacturers applied under monitored conditions.

Both the tests described are open to interpretation (and misinterpretation) and
should, thedore, only be used following discussion and agreement with the Client

Note.
The Inspector must conduct adhesion tests as specified and to the relwant
adhesion standards (i.e. ASTM D3359, Part A for site and IS0 4624 tor pull-off
tests).

The most useful field test Is the ewrlenced Inspector's thumb nail.

Coatings which are soft and 'cheesy' am definitely under-cured. Generally, the
coaHng should be firm and hard to the touch with some resilience.

It should be noted that it may take up to seven days, or longer In cold weather, for a
coating to reach a satisfactory state of cure. Providing thm is a gradual hardening
of the coating then the dryingcuring mechanism is taking place.

However, If the coating rernalns soft then some fault with the material should be
suspected, the most common being insuffident mixing and, in the case of two pack
materials, the use of the component in the wrong proportions wiibout stirring andlor
outside the material's useful life (induclion time, pol life).

Generally. if the coating rernalns cheesy then there is no alternative but to effect
complete removal and reapply using a fresh batch of the material.

Pmtectivn Coatings InspectionManual bRdAtson Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,

Doc No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 5 England 189d5,7
PagBlSof25
 m e hardness of the coating may be evaluated using pencils graded for hardness.
Pencils can be obtained ranging from 6H through HB to 5 B (softest). It is important
to ensure that Constant pressure is applied and this may be achieved either wnting
your signature Or, more usually, using the pencil ground flat and exerting maximum
pressure.

There is no British standard method for carrying out the pencil hardness test so that
if this test is used it is necessary to report the procedure adopted. The most
common prcmdure is:

1 Grind lead to a flat point.

2 Hold the pencil vertically and draw down on the surlace using madmum pressure.

3 Wok from the sofiest to h a m pencil and record the hardness of me pen that u i n
@ just mark the surface.

i.e.
3H marks easily
2H just marks
H does not mark
Pencil hardness value is 2H

W e r e coating materials are being used to provide chemical resistance and

particularly where access will be difficult when the surfaces are in servlce, e,g. tank
intemals, pipelines, the speciiicatjon may call f w some formd pinhole, pore, miss or
hollday test to be undertaken.

Such tests operate on the principle of establishing an electrScal circult through the
metal at the uncoated point
The instruments used appty a DC mtkge which may be varied wlth m e
Instruments, through a conductive brush or sponge onto the coated surface under
te§t

At a m b h the coating, the drcuL will be completed vla an earthing strap to the test
piece, and this will give rlse to audible or visual warning.

The voltage used is generally dependent upon Uw coating thldtness under test,
hence at high voltages there will be a tendency for the mating to break dovm at
points of weakness, tbereby creating damaged areas.

@ P r d h e Coatings I r p d m Manual
Dlr.M: TMA-OI47keue 0.2 Part 5
Paw 18 d 25
Q R o b i m Irwin Technical Suppart Ltd.,
England 1994-57
 Sponge Test (See Figure 21),

There am two models c u m t l y available:

- 9 volt sponge hollday detector for thickness up to 300 microns

- 90 volt sponge holiday detector for thickness up to 500 m i m s

Boih models make contact dtfi the surface using a damp sponge. The sponge
should be such that excess moblure is not left on the surface. since this may give
rise to 'tracking', i.e. the water on the surface will conduct current to a pinhole some
distance away f m the sponge. Similarly, tha coated surface should be dry to obtain
reliable results.

High Voltage Test (See Figure 22).

The M= voltage Is variable up to NKv, depclndlng on the instrument At these high

voltage settings, such imtruments are easily capable of bumlng holes in the
mahngs. Hence, they must be used with discretion and only at the voltage
recommended by the coating Manufacturer, or as stated in the Speclficatlon. If the
Inspector is required to undertake pinhole detection and no voltage setting IS
recommendedthen a reasonable procedure is:

Select a noncM1 area of the coating, or if tlme and resources permit, have a
sample panel cleaned and coaled in accordance with the specification and data
sheet.

With the DC holiday tester appropriately earthed to the test item, gritdually
increase the voltage until the coating shows clear signs of breakdown as
indicated by almost coniinuous sparking or other sign of coating Failure.

S d the voltage at 75% of the voltage required for breakdown, as above, and test
the item at that voltage.

Ensure that the instrument model number, voltage setting and areas b k d are
correctly recorded.

Pmtmke Coaiings Inspection Manual ORaMnson l&n Technicel Suppwt Ltd.,

O a . N a TMA4147 Issue 02 Pert 5 England 19965,7
P w 20 of 25
Top (Fgum 13) MMng Two P8ck P e i m
Bottom (Figurn 14) Mechanical Mixing
 I s Top (Figu bt Film Combs
Dry Ftlm Thidmew Gauge .
Bottom (Figure 16) ElbuuWma. .

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0 o c . b TMA-0147 hW Patt5 W=J j98C5.7
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P t O l l . e b k . ~ ~ W QFI~lrrrinT.chruccll~Ltd,
Pat6 En- lB865.7
PqpTJd25
 and
Figure 22 High VoHege Holiday DeteUor along with Attachments

c Rtrrectivs~lnspectknMPnual
DDI.M~TUM47~0. Pat 5
P q 26 d 25
Mobheon Irwin Technical Suppo~tLtd.,
Engand 199d5.7
?!!f elcometec
PART 6
METAL COATINGS

SECTION NUMBER AND TlTLE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 ALTERNATIVE TO PAINT

3.0 CODES AND STANDARDS

4.0 SELECTlON OF METAL

5.0 NINETEEN YEAR TEST

6.0 LIFE EXPECTANCY OF COATINGS

7.0 METAL SPRAY PROCESS

8.0 SEALING OF SPRAYED METAL COATINGS

9.0 ADHESION VALUES

10.0 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

P r r i i M~ ~n r- 1 Manual Moblnson Irwin Technical Suppart LM.,

Doe.No: TMA-0147 lsrnre 02 Part 6 England 1894-5,7
Page1 of19
 -
SECTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION.
Metal coatings are widely used to pmtect steel from corrosion. Tin cans', galvanid
buckets, chromium plated car trim and copper plated plpes are examples of heir
use. In these notes only metals used for the protection of structura! steel and
components used For constructions will be considered. In thh category there are
three metals to be considered -
- Zinc
- AlurnlniomlAloysof Aluminium
- Cadmium
Of these, dnc is used to a much greater evlent than the other two. Cadmium has
used for mrnponents, but is being replaced due to its polsonous nature. Alurninbm
is employed as a structural steer coating.

For corrosion control, specifically in the offshore industries, paints containing a high
percentage of zinc, mown as zinc-rich, are sometimes considered to be metal
coatings, but since the influence of the paint Mnder is of considerable signlflcance to
the overall properties, it is more rightly considered as a type of paint.

This section will detail the use of thermal sprayed coatings as an afternative to
organic and inorganic paints, codes of practices, inspection, testing, ~ p o r t s ,
recommendations and health and safety.

The uses of thermally sprayed coatings are on the increase and ths lflspe~tor
should be familiar with the processes and uses of these metab and applications.

Protective Coatings Inspection Manual Mobinson lrvvin TechniFal Support Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA-Dl47 Issue 02 Part B England 1994-57
Page2of19
SECTION 2.0 -
THERMALLY SPRAYED ALUMINIUM AS AN
ALTERNATIVE TO PAINT SYSTEMS.
Sprayed metal coatings have hfound on exposure testing programmes l o have
superior life to paint systems assuming adequate preparation of steelwork and
appropriate application procedures are carried out. Sprayed aluminium may be left
exposed in many situations and, when sealed, may be regarded as a superior
priming system for overcoating.

A)thwgh both flame spray and arc spray methods are available, arc spray, a newer
method of application, has been shown to give faster output and superior adhesion.
For fabricated structures, born methods may be used especlaly where access to
difficult areas favours flame application and where broad plated areas favwr arc
spray.
The application of thermally sprayed aluminium requires more applicator training
than paint coatings together wtth additional attention to health and safety measures.
However, major benefits can be gained by the use of a coating which Is capable of
being handled almost ~mmediatelyafter application, showing little damage when
used as a fabrication coating and which can be applied to part of a structure (e.g.
leaving weld areas) for later completion or repair.

Sprayed aluminium has been shown to be effective for offshore structures as well as
against cormsion under Insulation, which might have become wet due to leakage of
rainwater through me weather cover.

Thermally sprayed alwminlum works well on plant operating at elevated

temperatures, coated with ewxy sealers up to 120°C and with a silicone aluminium
sealer above that temperature.

Pmt&e Coafings Irbspedm M Y Y * QRobinsm Irwin Technical Support LM.,

Om.Ne: TMA-QIdS h u e 02 England l9SiI-5,7
 -
SECTION 3.0 CODES AND STANDARDS RELEVANT TO THERMAL
METAL SPRAYING OF ALUMINIUM.

EN 22063 Sprayed metal coatings

(ES2569)
IS0 1463 Metal and oxide coatings - measurement of coating thickness -
micmcoplcal method.

IS0 2063 Metallic coatings - proEecffonol imand steel against c o m l o n - metal

spraying of zinc, aluminium and alloys of Wee metals.

IS0 2064 Metallicand other nun-organic coatings - Definitions and mventions.

IS0 2178 Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates.

Measurement ot coating thickness.
Magnetic method.

IS0 4624 Paints and varnishes.

Full-offtest for adhesion.

IS0 8501 Preparation d steel substrate's before application of paints and related 1
1-4 products.
Surface rnvghness characteMcs of blast-cleaned steel suf?&ates.

NPD Guidelines for mrroslon protecblon ot irtstallations.

NS 476 R u b for the Approval of Surface Treatment Inspectors (Norwegian).

MS 1975 Rules for Me Apprml of Surface Treatment (Norwegian).

SS 2626 Thermal Spraylng equipment - requirements and testing.

SSPC , Steel Structures Palnting Manual Volume 1 & 2.

ProtecHve Coatings lnspectlm Manual QRobinam Irwin Tedrnkal Suppart Lid..

DOCNO:TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 6 England 1984-6.7
Pege4of19
 -
SECTION 4.0 SELECTION OF METAL; ALUMINIUM & ZINC.
Metats such as nickel, Monel, stainless steel and bronzes which are cathodic to steel
should be used onty if they are Impermeable. These metals are used only for
machine element work such as for pump plungers, pump rods, hydraulic rams,
packing sections of steam turbine shafts, boat tailshafts, valves etc.
These metals should preferably be sealed with organic seales.
4.1 Aluminium and Zinc.

Aluminium and zinc are the two metab recommended for atmospheric protection of
iron and steel and also for protection in salt and fresh water immersion.

Zinc is ~ ~ u a l99,9Y0
ly pure and is not contaminated in the spraying process. The
result is that metallised zinc coatirigs are much purer than those applied by hot dip
galvanfsing, for instance, since zinc used In galvanlsing plm-up a oonsidemble
amount of iron as an impurity.

Aluminium is often 99.00% to 99.7% pure alumlniurn and is used for corrosion
protection work. Thwgh 95% alumlnium and 5% magnesium alloy is becoming
popular today. Some other specialist work may requlre metal with a different allay.

For the protection of artides on a oanpetitrve basis with meihxts such as painting or
plating, thin coatings of sprayed zinc are used. Zinc, 25 microns thick, provides
excellent protection for small hardware items such as nuts, screws etc., which can
be prepared and metallised in tumbling barrels. While the cost of aluminium coatings
is slightly less than that of zinc of equal thickness, aluminium requires more
thorwgh surface preparation. Also aluminium 1s not rewmmended in thicknesses
less than 75 microns. Therefore, where the cost of preparation must be kept at a
minimum or where very thin coatings are sufficient. zinc should be used.

Zinc has a higher electnolytic potential than aluminium, and offers better protection
on work which is not readily accessible at all points around ils surlace. Small
uncoated areas such as scratches or voids on the underside of imperfectly headed
wets are protecterl electrotyticallyby zinc better man aluminium.

Although zinc and dumlnium are both classed as non femus metals, the thickness
of coating of both metals applled to steel can be measured by magnetic or
electro-magnetic gauges as both metals are not, themselves, magnetic.

Protective Coatingsn-1 Manual W4obinsan Irwin Technical Suppoil Ltd,,

O ~ . N I TMA4lll h u e 02 Part 6 En+& 1994-5.7
Page 5 d 10
SECTION 5.0 -
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY 19 YEAR
CORROSION TESTS.
AWS Tests Prove Superiority of W l l i r p e d Systems.

In 1974 the American Welding Sod* mpleted a 7s year study of wmslon

pmectjon afforded by wife metallied aluminfum and zinc coatings applied to low
carbon steel. Here k a summary of the results:

1 Alurninlum coatings 0.1303in to 0.007 in (0.OBmm to 0.15rnm) thick, both sealed

and unsealed, gave complete base metal protection from corrosion for 19 years
in sea water and in severe marine and industrialahnospheres.

2 Unsealed zinc sprayed coatings requld 11.012 in (0.30mm) minlmum thick-

to give complete protection in sea water for 19 years. In severe marine and
industrial atmospheres 0.W9(0>23mrn)of unsealed zinc or 0.003 in to 0.006 in
(0.08mm to 0.15mm) of sealed zinc gave 19 years protection.

3 In severe marine atmospheres, application of one coat of wash primer plus one
or two coats of aluminium vinyl enhanced the appearance and extertdd the life
of zinc coating at least 100%.

Witfi almlnturn, the sealing systems primafly enhance appearance, became

both sealed and unsealed systems showed no base metal rust after 19 years.

The only seated zinc panels tested in sea water were coated with chlorinated
rubber.

This seal coat did not prove effective.

4 Thin coats of metallised alwnlniurn perform better; have less tendency to

develop pits and blisters and therefore are expected to give extended life.
5 Where aluminium coatings showed physlcal damage such as chips or scmpes,
corrosion did not progress, suggesting the occurrence of galvanic protection.

Pratedive Coatings InspectiDn Manual CRobmsdn Irwin Technical Supped Lid..

-.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 PwI 6 England 1894-5,4
Page6 oi 1B
a Resub of AWS 19 Year Corrosion Test of Metallised Coated Steel.

The co8tings listed betow atforded ample& protectionto low carbon $Peel panels.

E I & ~
~mof MetaIlised,Aluminium Wlid Z i m Coatings
- coatings
0.0003" (0.08mm) to 0.12" (0.3m)unsealed
Sea Water Eqmure 0.0006' (0.15mm) sealed
(a) and unsealed
-
0.0003" (0.08mm) to 0.009"(02.3111) u m e d e d
M W Arnosphelic 0.0006" (0.1 5mm) sea!& 0.003' (0.OBmm) sealed
m u r e (b) end umeah!
O.OOW" (0.OSmrn) to 0 . W (023m)unsealed
Industrial Atmospheric 0.0006" (0.15mm) sealed 0.003' (0.OBmm) sealed
and unsealed

Source: American Welding Sodety

Notas:
a Both below low tide end mean tide level.

b Both sewre marlne and salt air.

h d d e Coatings Inspection Manual mabinson Imcin Twhnkal Suppoil Ltd.,

hM~TMA4147I~eO2 Patl 6 Endand 1sB65.7
Page 70flQ
 -
SECTION 6.0 LIFE EXPECTANCY OF COATINGS.

The life expectancy of a metal structure and the durability of its aesthetic
appearance depend essentially on the quality of preparation of its surface and on
the performance characteristics of the coating which is to be in dlrect contact with
the steel. In this context zinc and aluminium play a fundamental part not only
because of the inherent resistance to the aggressiveness of the external
environment, but also by virtue of the exceptional active protection which they impart
to the steel.

These materials are comparable In cost to high pedormance paints ye? when viewed
over a 25-30year lie span offers huge savings in maintenance costs as shown
below.

-------
l
h Pack (CRP)
I
1 One Pack lCRPl

(200Mkmns)

The chart illustrates the life expectancy of watlrtp (based IXBS 5493).

P m t d e Coatings Inspection Manuel CMobinstm Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,

Ooc.No: l'MA-0147 Issue 02 Par16 England t 9965.7
P a g e e d 19
 Thermal metal spray (like paint) has advantages and disadvantages over its use.

Advantages Disadvantages

P r e d i i l e Ib EnvinxKnental shop resMctims

Supplies cathodic protection Blast deanlng essential
Gcud abrasion resistance Operator skills
Can be sealecUtop mated
Immediate inspection

There are many metals used in thermal spray process althwgh only two are
generally used in the wrstnrction industry, their attributes indude;
Aluminium -

- Hfgh temperature mistant

- Lightweight
- Exceltent resistanceto polluted and marine environments
- Forms oxide layer
- Reduces corrosion

Zinc -
- Excellent for cathodic protection
- Excellent resistance to mechanicaldamage
- Life propoltionat to thickness (except when sealed)
- Used in anti-corrosive primers

Metals by Environment -
Prim to the use of thermal spray metals, review of the environment must be
considered.

S m e metals perform better in one environment as oppased to another. It h prudent

to research the local environment (1.e. acidic, alkaline etc.) Some environments will
be obvious to the Designer or Contractor (i.0. polluted sewage tank, water tank etc.)

Examples:

a. In a hlgh alkaline environment, zinc coating w l d be the preferred choi~eof metal.

b. In a high acidic environment, aluminium coating would be the preferred choice of

metal.

Notwithstanding the above, thermal spray malings can be sealedltapcoated with a

coating that wilf resist the given environment. Advice should be sought from paint
Suppliers. Section 8.0 gives more detail on the use of sealers/topcoats.

ProtectiveCoethga lnspscticn Manual CRobinson I k n Technical Support Ltd.,

Doc.Mi THC0117 h u e 02 Part 6 England 1894-5,7
Page B d 19
 -
SECTION 7.0 METAL SPRAYING PROCESS.

The process for application of thermal spray metal is relatively simple and con&b
of the following stages:

1 Melting me metal at the gun

2 Spraying the molten metat onto the prepareds u m t e by means of armpressed air

3 Mdten particles are deposbd onto the cleaned subsbate.

Alternative Application Methods;.
There are two main types of wire application available today namely, ARC SPRAY
and GAS SPRAY.
ARC -
A pair of wires are etectricalry energked so than an arc is struck across the tips
when brought together thrnugh a pistol. Compressed air is Mown across the an: to
propel the stream of partlcle onto the prepared work piece.

GAS -
In cornbudon flame spraying the con%nuousfymoving wire is passed through a
pistol, melted by a c o n i d jet of burning gas (propane or acetylene fuel mixed with
oxygen), The molten wire tip enters the cone, atornises and is propdfed onto the
substmte.

When using either process, operator experience will develop with time, but some
general guidelines include the development of an optimum distance between the
gun and substrate to maintain a satisfactory temperature at m c h the sprayed metal
hits the surface. This distance, combined with the speed of laterat movement of the
gun, controls the rate and hence thicknes of metal deposiy In order to conhnl an
even thickmess on large flat areas, small areas about 0.5m , are marked out by the
Operative with the sprayed mew and then 'filled in',

Thickness checks are made regularly and areas lower than specificafion can be
brought up to thickness immediately. As the spray application produces dust
(especially the arc methml), it is necessary to progressively clean in front of the
sprayer to enwre fresh metal is deposited on clean surfaces. The operation
becomes a two-man team, with oo-ordination of cleaning, application and thickness
checking, reducing Operator fatigue and rnaintainfng production.

Prm&e Coatings inspection Manual ~ o b ' m s a rlmin Technical Support Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 -8 England 1994-5.7
Page 10 d 19
 SECTION 8.0 - SEALING OF SPRAYED METAL COATINGS.
There is a ra-l dierence between 'sealing' and 'palntlng' coats. A sealer is of low
viscosity and penetrates into the pores in t b sprayed metal, preventing the
penetration of an electrolyte to the substrate 'through which the galvanic act~onis
i n l i t e d wlthout necessarily adding to the total thickness d the protective scheme.

Sealers/tqmats vary fm project to project depending on environment, colour,

requirements, track record and cost.

As a minimum, one coat is usually recommended as this will penetrate the open
pores and reduce the exposed area of metal and its corrosion. Some projects have
been known to utilise 3 and 4 coats of paint up to 250 mlcrons. Some typical
examples of sealingfpainting include:

1 Offshore Modules (undenvater) 1 sealer coat - 25 mlcrorts D.F.T.

2 Offshore Modules (tqpsides) 1 sealer coat - 25 microns D.F.T.

plus 1 topcoat - 40 microns D.F.T.

3 PetrOChemlcal Steelwork 1 sealer coal- 25 microns D.F.T.

and brldges 2 coats of hi-build epoxy at 100 microns
D.F.T. per coat.
plus 1 coat of urethane acrylic

The thicker the sealer coats, the smooiher the surface wlll be, thus redudng dirt and
grime. Sea!er coats can be pigmented to obtain most mlours, although at high
temperatures, aluminium flake is generally used in a silrcone binder resin.

When revlevdng sea4r costs. the choice of aermal spray coatings will have a
deciding factor. This was highlighted in the AWS 19 Year Report (see Section 5.0).

The lie of sprayed zinc is greatiy extended by sealing. espedally m e n immersed in

water. The life of aluminium coatings Is extended rather less, because duting the
early stages of exposure the aluminium becomes sealed naturally by the formation
of hydrated axidised films that block the pores. Sealing prevents h e brown staining
of thin (75 - 100 microns D.F.T.) aluminium coatlngs where this might occur.

A Id of research and development has gone into the Formulationof suibble sealers
for thermal spray coatings. Most ot the major paint Suppliers have satisfactory sealer
coats which are generally of low viscosity farmulation {to ensure gcmd penetration
Into me thermal spray coabing).

@ Protectbe Coatings Inspecban Manual

O P . N ~~ - 0 1 4 I7m * 02 Part 6
Paga11dIQ
Wobinarm Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,
England 1994-5,7
 Although most sealer coats have relatively low volume solids (15-25%), thelr
chemical resistance aml mechanicalproperlles varies between Suppliers.

Some projects specify the exact wmposltiwl requfments of the m l e r coat. The
sealer coat is by far the most important coat if a number of coals are utilised.

Application.
Application d the sealer mats Is by the usual meffiods i.e+brush, spray or rofler,
although some projects spedfically request application of the sealer coat be
conducted by bush to ensure full penetration of the sealer into the thermal sprayAd
coating.

It is important that the sprayed metal surfaoe is free from loose particles, dust etc.,
and is quite dry and un-contaminated by soluble salts such as chlorides and
sulphates that may be present in the atmosphere.

To rninimise me risk of airborne contamination, the sealer coats should be

mducted as scan as practicable i.e. as soon as the thermal spray has w l e d and
the dry film ffiidcness is acceptable. It is important that me Contractor is fully aware
of the specification requirements for the sealer coat. Some common terminologies
used in specifications include:

- Fully seal the thermal metal spray

- Apply twa sealer mats to the thermal metal spray
- Obliterate thermal metal spray with a suitable sealer coat
- Fully 'wet' substrate leaving a continuous drj film

N~standiq the above, the sealer coat should be applied as directed by the
paint Suppliers in respect of thbkness, iype of application etc, wfth the emphasfs on
achieving a continuous closed film, especially on awkward locations. Poor
application of the sealer coats can lead to 'rust staining'; although nut detrimental,
this does look unsightly.

It must be rernembebered that the really effective treatment is the first coat The daily
work schedule should be planned to allow for all areas that have been metd
sprayed to be sealed before ahnospheric contaminatbn occurs, particularly dust or
condensation. Dust should be Mown off with clean, dry air and preferably be vacuum
brushed.

As previously mentioned, it is at the Client's dlscretlon to paint on top af the sealer.

Certain Organisations involved with thermal spray technology believe painting on top
of sealer coats is not necessary and additional pafnt is therefore uneconomical.
Ofher Organisationsspecify 2-3 wts of paint on top of the sealer m t .

Pldeclive Caatings Iwpeckn Manual Mobinson Irwin Technkal Support Ltd.,

0oc.No: TMA-0147 lssue 02 Parl6 Endand 1994-5,7
Page 12 of 19
?!!f elcometec
One particular danger with thick coats of paint on thermal sprayed coatings is
'moisture absorption' through the paint, leading to blisters and ultimate paint
breakdown.

-
SECTION 9.0 ADHESION VALUES.
Gas application can achieve values of over 600 PSI I4.05MPa

Arc sprayed aluminium can be M e v e values over 1000 PSI I 6.76MPa

A pull off strength of approx 1500 PSI I 10.14MPa is often specified for arc spray.

The reasons for specifying hlgh adhesion values are v a M and mnge from Me
~erceotionthat increased adhesion eauals increased setvice life to the need to have
high adhesion values to ensure that ihe metal spray is retained when subsequent
applications e.g. fireproofing and thermal insulation are later removed.

Further work on tlw satisfactory level of adhesion standards Is on-going in different

parts of the woffd where metal spraying is widely used and an industry standard may
well eventually emerge.

Abrasives.
Suitable abrasives for preparation of carbon steel to be aluminium or zinc
metal sprayed include:-

- Chilled iron grit

- Crushed slag
- Aluminium oxides
- Silicon carbMes
- Afuminium silicates

SECTION 10.0
ENVIRONMENT.
- METAL COATINGS - HEALTH, SAFETY AND
Health & Safety and Environmental considerations in Aluminium Metal
Spraying.
Experience over a number of years has show that thermal spraying of aluminium
and zinc results in little serious health or s a w problems, but like many other
industrial processes requires attention to application procedures and equipment to
avoid hazards.

Prirt* Coatings Inspection Manual

O ~ . H ~ ~ 4 I 1 T * a r Q 2
 Thermal processes fnvofve the use d highly concentrated heat sources, and
soravinu nroduoes dust. In certain instances bdc. flammable or emlmive hazards
may'bep'resent and care needs to be taken in the.buming of gas= br high intensity
electric energy from the arc process.

Precautiwls are reviewed under separate headings which would apply to one or
more types of process.

Compressed Gases.
The usual gases used in Ram spraying are acetylene or propane with oxygen, and
the cylinders should be stored securely and full containers separated from empty
ones. Oxygen should be stored separately from other gases.
Pressure regulators shwld always be fitted to cylinders in use and only connected
to the equipment using the special hose supplied.

Electricity.
Although the open clrwit h arc spraying equlprnent daes not usually exceed 50
volts, it Is normally connected to 440 vult supply mains and therefore connections
should k made by a competent electrician.

During metal spraying dusts can be created whfch in worst cases can cause short
circuits and therefore earthing and appropriate circuit breaking measures should be
ensured.

Radiant Energy.
Themal spraying involves elechwnagnetk waves and precautiis should be taken
against ultra-violet energy, especidly where the brilliant blue light from UE electric
arc, produced in electrical welding or melting of metals, which has high U.V.
mcentration. The eyes especially should be protected, not only those of the
operator, but also those of other operatives and Inspectors. Operatives should wear
dark goggles and visors at all times, other people in the area should wear datk
safety glasses.

10.1 Safety in Apptication of Metal Sprayed Comings.

Cumnt Regulations.
There are no national regulatlom that specifically cover metal spraying but most
European countries have regulations which control aspects of the metal spraying
process and specifiers need to be aware d the potential hazards. Most of the
processes will be covered by legislation intended to reduce danger to Personnel or
to protect the environment.

Protective Coatings Inspection Manual m&inson Irwin Technkal Support Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 6 England 1894-5,7
Page 14 d 19
 In the UK, the Health & Safety at Work Act. the COSHH Regulations and the
Environmental Protection Act etc.

Main considerations are:

- DustS
- Health
- Environment
- Plant & Equipment
- Training

From an Health & Safety aspect several problems or hazards are caused through
the dusb produced whilst metal spraying. The quantlties of dust evolved In the
p m s is my much dependant upon the efficiency of deposition of the process a5
it is set up. For example, in arc spraying very high amperage can produce massive
amounts of unstable energy at the wire rnefting head and this results in a none
uniform spread of the molten wire and hence poor deposition, similarly the poorly
controlled u w of gas on the flame spray situation. The molten wire which is not
deposited on the surface of the object being sprayed will cool In the atmosphere and
form dust partides.

This is not the only criteria to affect the evolution of dusts, but does Illustrate the
point.

Dusts can pose a hazard because of a combination of parlide size and

concentration in the immediate atmosphere. High concentrations of many dusts are
known to be hazardous, but aluminium metal spraying dust is particularly onerous.
since aluminium is so e losive J flammable in given forms. Airborne concentrations
T
of as little as 35 mg/m have been known to result in explasion and fire when
subjected to a source of ignition.

This last figure of 35 mw3 is not quite as fixed and dear cut as it appears s h m the
concentration at which the mixture may became expbsive will vary dependant upon
the pattide size. The size one may expect from a spraying operation can range from
sub-micron, wMch is respirable level dusts, up to 30 - 50 microns. As a very broad
rule of thumb, the larger me particle size the greater the concentration required to
become explosive.

This dust erplosion problem may becwne apparent long after the actual spraying
operation is complete. Dusts wlll ~01lF4CtOn the floor, on ledges or in ducts amund
the spraying area and this can be reintroduced as airborne dust through kicking up
on peoples feet or sweeping operations. Again the concentrations will need to be
considered to determine explosivity.

@ Plotoctive Coatlng~InepsEtkrn Manual

Dab:TMA4117 1- 02 Part 6
Pw15di8
M a i n s o n Irwin Temical Svppolt LM..
England 1994-5.7
 Extmction is the method most usually used to maintain dust levels below the
explosive limits. The extraction must be sufflcimtly efficient to ensure all smaller size
particles are removed from the air during operations. The quantities required to be
extracted should be calculated uslng the effiaencies of the spraylng as a guide. Dust
build up in the extrad'on duds is a particular hazard which should be considmd
whilst design~ngthe equipment laywt.

Handling of dry dusts causes m e problems when extrecled dusts are collected In
a hopper or chamber. Obviously the chamber will have a high concentration of dust
and must therefore be inhinsicaltv safe to avoid emlosion risks. When the dusts are
removed from the collection chahber and aim when dusts are collected from the
floor of the spraying area, spark free methods should be empbyed. The material
needs to be sealed into containers and air excluded if possiMe. Because of the risks
associated with dusts of this nature, a secure storage area and disposal method
should be developed.

One partial solution to the extraction and collection proMem Is to utitii a wet system
of dust collection. This wuuld typically imrolve the use of extractors with wet filtration
systems and a tank to hold the wet dust. This in addialon to wetblng of fimr deposits
to make it easier to collect without clouding up.

This solutlon is partial slnce it only maintains ttre dust at low levels whllst the dust is
wet and also, aluminium dust will release a quantity of hydrogen gas whilst wet. If
this is sealed into containers then obviously me gas will expand to pressurise the
container.

10.1.2 Health.

The types of concern common to metal spraying opetallom revolve around

protection of Personnel local to h e operation. The process of am metal sprayfng
produces large quantities of U.V. light energy. This can damage the eyes in a very
short period of time, without the person being aware of I immediately. Protedion is
really only possible through the use of dark Cens glasses or visors, to a similar
standard used during welding.

The process also ghres offa quantity d ozone. The ozone is believed to dissipate
wimin feet if not inches of evdutfon and in most circles is not considered significantiy
harmful to the Operator or others.The real harmtul aspscts of WE spraylng operation
come to the fore when one considers the respirable portion of the dusts evolved.

Respirable dust is a major hazard and can only reasonably be pmteGted against by
the use d Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE). Full breathing equipment
enclosing the head is the only acceptable protedon when using arc spray
equipment and full visor protection when gas spraying. The equipment should be air
fed, though a back up filter pack would be valuable II case of air supply failure.

Protective Coetmgs Inspection Manual mobinsan Irwin Technical Support Ud..

Doc.No: TMAb.147 Issue 02 Part6 England 7094-5,7
Page 16d19
e elcornetec
The pssibility ot absorption lhrwgh the Skin or even skin penetration try particles
must be considered a real risk. To this end preferably all areas of an operators skin
should be adequately covered and protected.

The liw effects ol over expowre to the substances used in both an:and gas metal
spraying include:

- Metal Fume Fever

- Am E w
- Skin rash when penetrated by metal partides
Some discussion has been raised over the likelihood of Alzheimets disease being
caused by the build up of aluminium in the body and the brain in particular.
However, currently the UK H & SE have not made this official and will not condone it
as fact. In the short term however the implementation of zero ingestion as a target
for Operators and others will protect against this if it is, in the future, considered to
be a contributory factor to disease.

q0.1.3 Environment.

Environmental protection has -me a m@r Factor in the evaluation of the use of
metals as a corrosion prevention coating medium. In many respects the potential
environmental concerns are diminished when coatina with metals since no solvents
are used in the manufacture or application of the wiie. ORen however thii factor is
diffused by the application of a solvent based sealer or colwr coats d paint, applied
later in the protection coating system.

The main polfits of concern are the release of airborne dusts and the handling and
disposal of other dust partides produced and collected manually or automaticalty.

Airborne Particulate.
The Environmental Protection Act defines gulte clearly the quantity and amount of
particulate which may be released to the atmosphere in the UK. Currently the figure
is 50 mg/mg and is similar in most European countries. The most effective method of
mirolling the outfall of particulate is through the use of full enclosure operating
areas.

Enclosure.
Full endosure can be developed in several ways; most common is the workscope
being within the confines of a workshop with scald access, but also a tented type of
system can be effective. In either case the movement of air must b? controlled to
ensure any movement is fmm the outside of the enclosure to the Inslde. The best
way of ensuring this is to use an afr extradon system creating a negative pressure
internal to the enclosure.

ProtectiveCoathgs Inspection Manual mc&insan

Imjn Technical Supprt Ltd.,
DDLN~TMA-OII~~~*O~ Part 6 England 19&5,7
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 Extraction.
OMousfy any extracted air dl have to be filtered to ensure the exhausted gasses
have a quantity of particulate below that acceptable in the area or country of
operation. Systems must be put in place which shut down production when the
negabve pressure enclosure is breached or the fugitive emissions reach above the
set levels.

Monitoring.
Monitoring of the emlsstons must be &ed out emer continuously or regularly.
dependant upon your area authority or country regulations. Often this revolves
around the measurement of outlall frnm the exhaust of the extraction units, or
regular monitoring of the dkpersement of partfculates in a gkren area around the
work sae or location. In this last instam a great deal of envlmnmental sampling
may be required.

Waste Particulate.
The handling and disposal of waste material may cause prlicular c o r n ohce it is
still in a state h m which it may e w k into flammable dust clouds. This can be
caused by poor handling techniques during colection or by poor storage where it is
released into the atmosphere later in the handling cycle. The potential gas
propagation from damp aluminium storage is also a consideration.

Dispoeal.
The disposal of the dusk produced and collected may pose a prnblem in m e
countries. In the UK for example, small quantities may be land fiTled as
non-hazardous waste. This method is constantly reviewed by each individual area
authority so may not be the case everywhere. Quantities of over 1 ton can be
re-cycled economically, though some waste handling companies may store and
amalgamate your wme with that of other producers to make up the minimum
quantities required.

Other forms of disposaf Include amalgamation of the waste into some other
substance where it will be totally encapsulated and so sealed, followed by disposal
into a hazardous waste land fill s k , Sealing in solid containers and again land filled
as hazardous waste.

10.1.4 Plant L Equipment

A thorough understanding d the mechanics and operation of the metal spray

equipment is essential to its safe use and maintenance. In the case of both arc and
gas metal spraying equipment the potential for fatal accMents is always present.

Arc.
All an: spraying equipment may present a hazard and be dangerous simply because
of the use of hfgh voltage electricity. In ktf the equipment is designed and buiN,
genemlly, to be totally safe. The potential danger arises when the equipment is not
maintained properly or when the operator Is untrained in the setting up or handling.

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 The vdtage used at the spray head is failly low and is men considered by
ineqdenencedOperators to be &significant, though in reality the operating current
inside the spray eneqiser unit is lethal if improperly treated.

The air feed to the equipment must be maintained as dean as possible to ensure
both proper operation and also to restrain potentially flammable substances being
fed into the deliwry system. Component breakage must be dlowed for and potential
misfeed of wire both at the spray head and in the wire feed system can cause injury
to the operator.

Earlhing of the equipment is obviously a major concern when high amperages and
vokages are encountered. The energiser u n k must be maintained in a clean area
athenvise tthe cooling fans will draw in large quantities of the p a w l a t e sprayed.
This may cause a shorl circuit or worse in the energiser unit

Gas.
The safe opemtbn of gas equlpnwnt is pernaps more widely respected due to Its
camman use in fabrication industries. The handling of gas equipment and gas
bottles Is adequately discussed in the Bdtish regulations. Safe handling procedures
are available in most countries. The mixing of gas and the poor maintenance of
gauges etc. seem to account for most incidents involving gas metal spraying.

In both gas and arc metal spraying the potential for bums is obviously huge. The
processes both produce sufficient energy to destroy flesh instantly if contact is made
wfth the melting area of the spray unit. The surfaces sprayed can also cause bums
to operators and others working around them, since heat is retained in the surface
for some considerable time following sprayfng. The temperatures of a medium
deposited thickness of aluminium On a 3 - 4 mm thick steel surface may be around
80 - 120°C.
10.1.5 Training.

Most halnlng for he& and Safety of metal spraying Is undertaken during production
or discipline tminiw. General safety training is obviously essential but added to this
should be more in-depth understahding of the specifid hazards of metal spraying
processes. The extm hazards can entail noise, high pressure gasses and air, ultra
violet radiation, working with electricrty, operation of breathing equipment, high
temperature operation, negatively pressudsed full endosure and extraction.

f he most suitable method of instilling the howledge and requirements of the higher
safety standards is through a special training programme designed around a
particular project. Wlth the larger projecb this is possible and cost effective though
with the smaller ones a more generic form of tmning is required.

Trainees must show a bask level of competence in the operation of the safety
systems involved in the process. Competmce should preferably be demonstrated by
testing and obsenmnce on the work scope.

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Patt 6 England 1094-5.7
Page TO d 10
 e elcometec
PART 7
HEALTH AND S A F W

SECTION NUMBER AND T m E

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK

3.0 DUTYOFEMPLOYER

4.0 DUTY OF EMPLOYEE

5.0 CONTROL OF SUBSTANCES H U R D O U S TO HEALTH

6.0 RISK ASSESSMENT

7.0 CHECK LIST FOR A NEW CONTRACT

0.0 CHECK LIST FOR A NEW SITE

9.0 PRO1ECTlVE CLOTHING

1o.a PROTECTION OF EYES

11.0 FIRE

12.0 -
PAINTS CODE OF PRACTICE FOR SAFE HANDLING

13.0 PERSONAL PROTECTlON ADVICE

14.0 SCAFFOLDlNG

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Dm*. TMA-0141 Iswe cc? Part 7 Endard 19965.7
Page 10117
 -
SECTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION.
This Part defines the general descripti of Health and Safety. The paintingbating
Contractor is respmslble for the health and safety of worMorce and Personrtel.
Every person is responsible for their orm safely, which of course includes the
Quality Control Inspeclor.

This Part of the Manual details the requirement of the Contractor and gives typical
statements and responsibilities that are legtslation. This should be read in
conjunction with the main lntroductfon shown at the beginning of thfs Manual.

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)and Risk Assessment am

detailed along with checklists, Personnel protection, fire protection, safe handling,
personal protection advice and scaffold.

The painffng Inspector most be aware of the basic fundamentals of safety and the
risk of using hazardous chemicals and solvents. Remember everybody is their o m
Safety Officer and if you are unsure of anything do not be afraid to ask someone
more knowledgeable.

Health and Safety pmcedunes and data sheets must be reviewed prior to
commencement of work. especially in confined lomtians such as tanks, ships holds
and double bottom eic.

The Contractor conducts safely assessments cm the hazards to Personnel (including

the painting Inspectors). These are issued to productfan and quality control.

-
SECTION 2.0 THE HEALTH AND SAFEW AT WORK ACT 1974.
This Act alms to promote the health, safely and welfare of all persons at work. One
of the purposes of the Act is to involve everybody, whether Employer. Employee,
self-employed, Manufacturer of plant, equipment or materials, to ensure so far as is
reasonably pracricabk, the health, safety and welfare of all persons.

The tern 'reasonabiy practicable' has many definitions. In general il Is accepted to

mean usfng 'Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs'. Excessive,
in turn, is offen considered in relation to risk i.e. If a result would be fatal without
investment. then no cost mav consideEd excessive. If however. the best available
technique's are simple training or respiratory protection equiprnek you would not be
expecled to invest in massive new extraction equipment etc. This is just a very broad
guide and it is for the Courts to decide, case by &e, what is reasknabre and what
is not.

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 There are specific duties and responsibiiiliesset down by the Act for both Employers
and Employees and these are outlined.

It is important to remember that both Employer and Employee have an obligation in

law to cumply with the relevant requirements of the Act. it is possible that
prosecuSon could be brought on the Employer or Employee, even if no accident has
taken place, on the gmnds that reasonable care has not been exercised.

This Part contains advice and guldance for all Employees to ensure, so far as it is
reasonably practicable, their health, safety and welfare.

Complete m p l i a n c e with a particular section should be regarded as only a

minimum requirement. The nature of our business means that the working
conditions for Inspectors are variable. The Inspectors are, therefore, expected to
think for themselves beyond the minimum requirements, to obtain any necessaly
help or tminlng to ensure the health, satety and welfare of themselves and all other
persons who may be affected by thet acts or omissions.

-
SECTION 3.0 DUTY OF EMPLOYER.

1 To ensure, so far as is reasonably pradcable, the h a & , safety and welfare at work
of h i Employees.

2 To provide such information, Instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to

ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, ihe health, safety and welfare at work of
his Employees.

3 To conduct his business in such a way so as to ensure. so far as is reasonably

practicable, that persons not in his employment who may be affected, thereby are
not eqmsed to risks to their health and safety*

4 To provlde information as nseeuan, to psrsms rho a. not his Employees on

undertakingsthat may affect their health and safety.

5 Prepare and revise, as necessary, a witten Statement of his general policy wilh
regards to health and safety at work of his Employees.

6 Arrange for the implementation of that policy, defining dearly the role and
responsibility of Management.

7 P
& all necessary protective and safety dolhing and equipment at no charge to
the Ernpioyee.

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 -
SECTlON 4.0 DUTY OF THE EMPLOYEE.

1 To take reasonable -re for the bath, safety and welfare of hlmsdf, his fellow
Employees, Employees of Clients and Contractors and other persons who may be
affected by his acts or missions.

2 To co-operaie WWI his Employer to enable him (the Employer) to caw out hls
obligations under the Act.

3 To use pmperty, and maintain in satisfactory condition, all items of equipment andor
clothing provided by his Employer In the interests of health, safety and welfare.

4 To make himself aware of and observe all safety prwisions, whether stalutory, as
laid dawn in the Cornpan~srules In this booklet or those applying to h i place of
work at the site of a Client or Contractor.

SECTION 5.0 -
CONTROL OF SUBSTANCES HAZARDOUS TO
HEALTH (COSHH) (UK).
This legislation was errforced in 1988. It is the m s f b i l i t y of the company to:

1 Assess the potential rl* of exposure of Personnel to substances hazardous to

health, whether used by t h m s e b or by others at a particular work site, also, to
inform others p0tWttially affected by exposure to hazardous substances used during
performance of a task.

2 Prevent or control the exposure of personnel to substances hazardous to health.

This is possible through one or more of these measures.

- Efirnlnationof exposure risk Zhmugh elimination of substance.

- Minimisation of risk by use of engineering mtrd methods. Such as extraction.
-Substitution of the material for a less hazardous material.
- Protection of personnel via personal protective equipment, i.e. gloves, goggles,
breathing apparatus equipment etc.

3 Ensure as far as possible, lhat all personal protection equipment supplid fed pproperly
worn by training Employees and also that any such equipment is examined,
rnainlainedand tested.

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 4 Maintain regular surveillance as he h m l h of all Personnel walking in high h k
areas.

5 Train and inform aH Company Employees in lhe requirements of the regulation,

implementation d the assessment results and me use of protective equipment and
measures in their task areas.

6 Ensure engineering control measures put in place are maintained as effective. This
would indude testing of the exlractlon systems and proving of me breathing air as
pure etc.

See Figure 23 for Ty@cal Example of COSHH Assessment

@ -
SECTION 6.0 RISK ASSESSMENT.

The advent of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 has
prompted Cmtmclors to adopt rlsk assessment procedures. All Companies with five
Personnel or more must undertake mitten assessments of the risklincident or injury,
whilst underlaking activities associated with the workscope.

All work lacatlans will have to be assessed to show any potential risk lo working
Personnel.

1.e. A Painter spraylng pdnt in a confind area is a high risk and steps must be
taken to reduce or eliminate the risk wherever possible.

Risk assessments are conducted by lhe Supervisors and Management, who must
be trained in the development of rlsk assessment. The paintmgmating Contractor
should have a risk assessment procedure available.

-
SECTION 7.0 CHECK LIST FOR A NEW CONTRACT.

En tfielr preparation for undertakfng a naw contract, the Inspector should ensure that
the items detailed below have been fully covered.
The Inspector should bear in mind the location of the contract. The regulabons with
regard to health and safety, may be signlmntly different in ottler countries.

7.1 Main Documents.

- Specifiition
- Manufacturers Satety Data Sheets
- British or International Standards

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Os.No: Will l u * 02 Part 7 Englaml 1984-5,7
Page5of17
7.2 Specifications.

Health and Safety requirements.

Additional requirements that may be necessary but that are not laid down in the
specification.

Any omlsslons should be brwgM to he attention of the Client.

The Specification may place certain responsibllltles for health and safety onto the
Inspector. He must therefore, ensure hat he has received the necessary training
and equipment to enable him to undertake these responsibilities.

7.3 Safety Data Sheets.

The particular health and safety requirements of the coating materials should be
studied.

If the information is not provided or is Inadequate then the Inspector should consut
the Manufacturer.

The Inspector should study the information provided and ensure that he has
recetved the necessary training and equipment to enable him to wmpiiU with any
health and safety hazard that may arise due to the rnaten'al.

7.4 Instruments.

The Inspector's standard instrument kit should be in correct working order.

The Inspector shouId moonsult the specification and data sheets for any addmonal
tests that may be required and ensure that he is in possession of the necessary
equipment.

Any special test equipment may pose an additional hazard, i.e. is the equipment
intrinsically safe? The Inspector must, therefore, ensure that he has received the
necessary train~ngin the use of such equipment and understands any potential
hazards that may be involved.

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Doc.No: TMA-0147 Ismre 02 Part 7 Engfand 1994-5.7
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@ -
SECTION 8.0 CHECK LIST FOR A NEW SITE.

What is the:

- evacuation signal?
- evacuation procedure?

Where are:

- nearest fire alarms?

- fire-fighting appliances?
- assembly points?

Do you know how to operate the fire alarm and flrefightlng appliances?

What immediate first aid facilities are available on site in event of an accident?

What are the site requirements regarding the wearing of protective clothing?

What additional protectlye clothlng does the job require?

Do you h o w the name, location and internal tebphone number of the site Safety
mcef?

Is the sib a 'llama source free' area or does it contain such areas wfthin its
boundary? The regulations with regard to equipment containing batteries, metal
objects that could cause sparks and clothing (particularly nylon) should be checked
with the site Safety Officer. prior to entry.

Ensure that you are familiar with the slte regulations with regad to smoking. The
regulations applying to 'No Smoking' areas shall be strictly obsenred at all times.

@ -
SECTION 8.0 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING.
9.1 Duty d the Employer.

To provide any necessary clothing or equipment for the health, safety and welfare of
the E m p l o p at no cost to the Employee.

To ensure that the Employee undepstmds the functions and limitations of any
clothing or equipment provided for his health and safety at work.

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Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Paat7 England 1884-5.7
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9.2 Duty of the Employee.

To use, in the proper manner, anq item of clothing or equipment provided by the
Employer for his health and safety.

To ensure that any item of clothing or equQrnenf provided tor health and safety at
work is maintained in a serviceable manner and is r e n e w when necessary.

9.3 Examples of Prolctive Clothing.

-
Safety Helmet Should be adjusted to fit comfortably and fitted with an elastic strap
to go under the chin. The helmet should be checked regulally for signs of cracking
or other damage. In the event of cracks appearing or if a hard blow is sustained,
even though no damage is apparent, the helmet should be replaced.

-
Eye Protection The type of protection required will depend upon me hazard. BS
2092 states the requirements for general purpose eye protectjon and protection
against chemical splashes, dust, gas, impact from high speed Rying particles and
flying molten metal.

-
Face Masks W111 be required when applying material by spraying. For certain
maierfals and grit blasting it is necessary to use a face mask havlng its own air
supply under positive pressure.

-
Overalls Provide a first line of defence against spillage. In addition, they should
reduce the potential hazard due to loose clothing, e.g. ties or loose sleeves. Nylon
overalls should not be worn due to risk of sparking from static electricity.

Boots - If properly chosen will reduce chance of slipping. Protective toe caps will
minimise the hazards due to falling objects. Some contracts will require the use of
safety boots without nails.

-
Noise For certain speclfled jobs, ear defenders may be required.

-
SECTION 10.0 PROTECTION OF EYES.

The Pmtection of Eyes regulations tmposa statutory requirements for both

Employers and Employees:

The Employer must prwtde approved eye protection and maintain an adequate
stock for this purpose.

The Employee must use the prolection provided and ensure that in the event of
loss or damage, the protection is replaced.

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f?elcometec
All spectacles, goggles and face scrwns should wnfim to the appropriate section
of 6s 2092.
If you are already using eye protection that is not marked with the British Standard
'Kitemark' and BS 2092, R should be discarded and approved eye pmtotection
purchased.

The British Slzndafd provides the tollowing dassificatlons:

- -
Impact Grade 1 (Higher resistance)
- Grade 2 - (Lower mistance, but thought to be sufficient for most General
Engineering Hazards)
- Chemical
- Dust
- Gas
- Molten metal and hot solids penetration
Based on the above classifications, there are three types of protectinn available:

Spectacles - These provide only a minimum arnwnt of protection, but do have

cewm advantages, wen for wearers of pmrlptlon spectacles and can be worn
over these for considerable periods.

-
Goggles Depending upon the type of ventilation and lens constrvction. They are
manufactured for protection against hazards classified above, usually protection is
provided against a Combination of hazards.

-
Faoe Screens Provide similar eye prot-n to goggles.

All lrspectors and other Staff who may visit sites should have a palr of spectades to
BS 2092.

Goggles approved according to BS 2092 - ICD, should be worn when you are
involved in Ihe following operations:

- Blast cleaning
- Handling of liquids in open vessels
- Spraying of liquids or metal
- Power wire brushing or grinding
The above list is not complete since it is up to the individual to recognise hazardous
operations or situations and to ensure mat the appropriate protection is used.

Remember that you are protecting y w r eyes. If in doubt. you shauld consult the
Safety Officer for the site where you are working.

Pd&e Coatings Inspection Manual OFlobinson Irwin Technical Support Lid.,

Dm.Hw TW.4147 I w e 0.2 Part 7 England 18%-5,7
PagsQdt7
SECTION 1I.O FIRE. -
111 Prevention is betlef than Cure.

To start and maintaln a flre, the following are essential:

Means of ignltlon, usually heat or a spark.

Fuel - the material must be capable of supporting combustion and In the right
form, e.g. a full can of paint with the Ild secured in the stores is less hazardws
than paint being sprayed.

-
Oxygen Reducing the oxygen content of the alr in We vidn'ily of the Reme wlll
cause the fire to die. d reduction from 20% (normal) to 15% may be sufficient.

The Inspector should, therefore, note that solvent vapours m a t e d with paints,
thinners or cleaners are particularly hazardous and should ?x treated wlth particular
care. It is important to ensure that a means of ignition 4s not provided where these
materials are being used.

Points to Note.

- No smoking in the vicinily

- No naked Rames, e.g. welding torches

- No sparks, e.g. dectfical mnladts, nailed boots on st@. tools dropped on the
steel deck

- Raise the dam

Ensure that the area is evacuated

- Cut off any source of power, e.g. electricity, gas, compressed alr

- Restrict the supply of air by doslng d l doors and windows

- 'Use the available emergency fire exiingubhers, providing that you & not place
p ~ e linf danger

Protective Coatings Inspeelion Manual Wohinson lrwln Technical Sup* Ltd.,

Dm.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Parl 7 England 1994-5,f
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!!f elcometec
SECTlON 12.0 - PAINTS - CODE OF PRACTICE FOR SAFE
HANDLING.

Consult and follow the Manvfactuwh data sheets. These should contain health and
safe& data for the specific materials. In addion, the Supplier may Issue a general
health and safety data sheet.

Where applicable, consult and follow the Personal Protection Advice for the use of
marine paints and cornpxitions. THs booklet is issued by the British Coatings
Federation.

Know the probable hazards and symptoms connected wlth the paints with which you
are working. Be aware of the first aid remedies.

Solvents.
With regard to Health and Safely it is necessary that the following terms are
understood:

- Madmum Exposure UmA (h4.E.L)

- Lower E*plosion Limited (LE.L)
- Flash Point (F.P.)

M.EL
Represents the concentretion of a substance In the atmosphere below which nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed during their normal working hours without
adverse effect to their health.

Some typical valves are detailed below:

PPm mgrm3
Benzene 10 32
Toluene 100 375
Xylene 100 435
White spi* 575
furpentfne 560
Petroleum 2000

No&.
These values are concentration of in the atmosphere and have been d r m from the
UK published figures at the time of writlng. These figures are reviewed almost
annually, therefore your own owntries most recent figures should be consulted prior
to the use of this information.

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C9Flablnscm lmin Technical Suppod Ltd.,
England 1994-5,7
 L.E.L.
Represents the lowest concernon of vapour in the air that can be ignited to
result in explosion.

Thus, M.E.L. and LE.L. are impartant during the application of paint, prtlarlarly
spray painting in confined spaces, since both represent a measure of concentration.

Good ventilation is dearly imporlant and the paint rnanufacturar's safety data sheet
should give guidelines. As example consMer the figures noted below, purely as a
sample;

For each Iitre of p&nt applied then:

2970 cubic metres of air is required to reduce the vapowr concentration MOW
the concentration resulting in the M.E.L.

71 cubic metres of air is required to reduce the vapwr concentration below 10%
of the LE.L This 10% figure is chosen to allow for inconsistent mncentrations in
a given area i.e. small pocket of high concentration In a drain etc.

The cublc metres in these examples, relates to the quantity of air either In the
location during applicallon (morn size) or flowing through the area during the cure of
the material. The methods d calculating these factors should be studied and
practised before attempting to base the safety of Personnel upon your results.

F.P.
The FP of a solvent or solvent mixture is the lowest tempemfun?at which vapour is
given off in sufficient quantities to form an explosive or inflammable mixlure with air.

Clearly F.P. and LE-L. are inter-related. F.P. is a guide for the storage of paint,
while LE.L 6 significant durlng application. It is important, therefore, that sources of
ignition should be eliminated during paint application.

Some examples of ignition sources are:

- Welding, burning, cufflng or grlncfing opemtions
- Smoking
- Nylon overall or plastic mtalners
- Steel tods or nailed boots

Paints under Pmsem.

Particularly when using aides spray equipment at pressures abwe 750 psi, it is
possible to inject paint w solvent inlo a hand or other part ot the body.

The irnmedlate effect Is to leave only a small puncture wound, but if proper
treatment is not canTed wt promptly, the paint and particularly solvent can cause
swellng which may lead to amputation.

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 Action.
Seek immediate medical treatmsnt and report the fad that a quantity of paint or
solvent has been injected under the skin.

-
SECTION 13.0 PERSONAL PROTECTION ADVICE.
The Brltkh Coatlngs Federation have published a booklet with this title which
recommends the personal health and safety equipment that should be worn by
Operatives and Personnel in the immediate vidnity of paint application.

The scheme is only strictly applicable to marine paints and mmpositions.

Paint contafners will be marked with the symbol of the form:

P.P.A. 2/6

Fimt Digit.
Representsthe health hazard that may be due to the solvent.

The range is 0 3 , depending on the quantity of air theoretically required to dilute the
solvent vapour from one litre of paint in order not to exceed the TLV.

The mquimd air quantfty range set for each digit is:

- 0 - 4ss than 100 cubic metresfliire

- 1 - 100-399 cubic metreditre
- 2 - 400-799 cubic metresnitre
- 3 - more than 800 cubic metresllihe
Second Digit.
Represents the healthltoxicity hazard that may be due to the resins, pigments and
other components in the material.

The range is 0 6 , depending on the severity of the hazard:

-10 - conlains no other ingredients than krrnless pigments only

-I1 - contains ingredients essentially without risk
-
-/2 contains known or suspected hazardous pigments or resin
-
-13 contains more hazardous blends of pigment or resln

-14 - contains hazardous ingredients

-15 - In higher concentrations or of a
-
-16 more toxic nature

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Pert 7 England 1904-5,7
Page 13d 17
 For each classification, mere are Iwr wotking environments and two applicatlon
methods listed.

The personal protective equipment recommended range from:

-
Of0 (Brush applicatlon, good ventflation)- gloves and eye p m t d o n
316 - (Spray application, limited miilatlon) - gloves, eye protection, air-fed hood,
skin protection

Note 1. Eye protection and gloves are always recommended.

Note 2. Dust masks are a minimum recornrnendatfonfor spray applicatfon.

If the containers are malked w)th a PPA number, hrther information concerning the
recommended pewonal protection equipment should be obtained f r m the
Manufacturer.

At present, the PPA system ~hrs m1y to marine paints and compositions, the
absence of such markings should not be interpreted as indicating the absence of
hazard due to me material.

-
SECTION 14.0 SCAFFOLDING.

The following notes provlde only general guldance concerning the safety aspects of
scaffolding and access.

As a paintlng Inspector, you are not generally required to take any responsibility for
erection or rnairltenancef scaffolding. The notes, therefore, are guidance for the
safety of yourself and others on scaffolding already erected.

Laddws.
A ladder shall rest on firm, even ground and b erected sa that the ladder is at an
angle of about 75" to the horizontal. i.e. a slope of 4 vertical to 1 horizontal. For a
ladder resting on a wall 2.4 metres (8 feet) from me ground, the foot of fie ladder
should be 60an (2 feet) from the wall.

fhe ladder should rise at least 1.070m (3 R. 6 inches) abwe the stepping off point.

Thus, to gain access at a point 2.4 metres fmm the ground, the ladder should ideally
be 3.5 metres (1 1 feet) long.

The ladder must be firmly secured in position. The best method is tying at the top.
since this wilf prevent sdeways slippage, as well as outward slippage at the bottom.
Alternatively, side guys can be sewred to ancllorages at or near ground level. By
itself, a sandbag or stake at the bottom of the ladder should only be regarded as a
temporary fixing.
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Page 14 d 17
 Ladders which have badly worn or broken rungs or split stiles should not be used.
~ n faults
y or cracks should not be fifled with putty and the ladder should not be
painted so that any faults may be dearly seen.

The rungs of a ladder are designed to support the weight of a man and whatever
load he may be carrying. The rungs shall not, therefore, be used to support
scafldding planks. Similarly, ladders should always be supported an their stiles and
not on the rungs.

Scaffolding.
Scaffolding Mil normally have been erected by a specialiH flrm who will be
responsible for its maintenance. Alternatively, the Contractor will appoint a
competent person.

The Construction (Worktng Places) regulations 1966 fequire that scaffolds shalt be
inspected regularly and a The Gomtructlon (Working Places) Regulations 1966
require that scaffolds shdl be record of the inspection hetd on the site.

Every scaffold should, therefore, be inspected before use, after adverse weather
conditions which may affect its stability and at least once every week. Particular
attention should be paid to fixings and the condition of placing of scaffold boards.

A record of the inspections should be kept in Register F91-Part 1.

If mere is any doubt concerning the safety of scaffdding, the Wiowing publications
should be consulted:

- Safety in Construction Work (HS Executive pamphlet 6D)

- British Standard Code of Practice 97 Parts 1-3 Metal Scaffolding
- British Standard 1139 Metal Scaffolding
- Operators Code of Practice issued by PASMA (alurnlnium scaffolding)

Pfatecltfe Coat[ngs Inspection Manual Wlinsm lmrin Technical Support Ltd..

OCM TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 7 Endand 1994-5,7
Page 15 of 17
 COSHHASSESSMENT

SUETANCE GENERE NAME: &#tph SUBSTANCE COMMON NAME: Sample

FOAM OF SUBSTANCE: -apaumPw&~

TYPEOFHAZARD: 6
a
w
e
&WM
-

OEL TYPE LONG SHORT

ppn--

Use only ea recwnnrcmded by1M M a w h h m u

THR MAY CAUSE SENSmSAnON THROUGH REPEA7ED SKtN CONTACT,I N H A l A W N CNI
RUST CONTACT.

LIMITED TO FOLLOWINGTASKS: SptnyWnnrhlRdlertTrmebWm (slate):

SPILLAGE:
BUND ALL BPILLAGE wmf -BENT INEFlf
MATERIAL

CMSIFIED AS FLAMMABLE:

CONTAINER DISPOSAL.
LAND FlLL DISPOSAL OF CURE0 AND SEMI CURED P A M CONTAMlERS BY LEEUSED
-
WASTE CARRlER MAY BE C l A S S m D AS HAtARDWS WAS= IF STILL IN LMUlD

FORM INSTORAGE: SdWUqu-l FLASH POIHT: XXoC RAO 90%

CAN BE ABSORBED W G H UNBROKEN SKlN

Figure 23 Typical COSHH Assessment Form

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 UBERATES IN PFIEMNCE OF: INCOMPATIBLEWIM:
VAPORISES WHEM CONTMER OPEN
INSOLUBLE IN WAFER

HEALTH EFFECT OF INHALATWMI: FfRFT AA]:

HEAI)ACHE. DIWNESS & MAUSE* REMOVE TO FRESH Ah9 AND KEEP AT REST
HEALTH EFFECT W INGESTHm: FIRST AID:
ABDOMINLU. PAIN -
REFER TO H O S P i T A ~ RDO NOT mWUCE
V O M m

HEALTH EFFECT OF SKIN CCWACT: FIRST AID:

MAY CAUSE DEHM TITIS RJNSE W W COPIOUSMOUNTS OF SOAP AND
WATER

FFECT OF EYE COMACT: FIRST AIO

RlNSE W7lH COPWS AMOUNT8 OF W A E R (AT
LEAST 10 MYNUTES)

EFFECT OF OTHER CONTACT: FIRST AID:

fMN MWGH UNBFIOKEN WEAR GLOVESANDCOVER EXPOSED SKtN

BRUSH APPLICA- 3M 8810 MASK

GLOYES
BARRIER CR-
EYE PROTECTION

ROLLER APPUCATION: JM gB10 MASK

GLOYES
BARRIER C R W
EYE PRaTECTlON

SPRAY APPUCATWN 3M a 1 MASK

GLOYES
BARRIER CR€4IIS
EYE PROTECTION

TROWEL APPUCATlON

F R R E ~ C ~ , F D ~ ~ ~ ~ O R I ] R Y P O ~ ~ E R , ~ I V
NO SMOKrmG WHEN IN USE.

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Pa~~17d17
 f?elcometec
PART 8
GLOSSARY (Upgrade)

Abrasive.
Term used for the Mast deaning media. Ghllled iron grit, blast shot, sand etc., are all
examples of abrasives used in the coatings industry.

Absorption.
The process of soaWng up. Wng absorbed. Some materials and s u h t e s are
more absorbent than others.

Accelerator.
Any substance whlch increases the speed of a chemical reaction. In the paht
industry the term usually indicates materials that hasten the curing of a resin
system.

Accuracy.
The agreement &tween a measurement and the actual value e-g. a coating
thickness gauge with an acarracy specification of s 5% of reading will give values
between 95 and i05vm on a 100pm coafng when calibrated correctly.

Acidic.
Used to describe the chemical nature of a substance which mutmlises a l k a l ~and
which must m t a i n hydrogen. Acidic sdutions have a pH of less than seven. Acidic
materials tum litmus paper red.

Adhesion.
The degree of attachment between a paint mating or varnlsh film and the underlying
material with which it is in contact. The latter may be another film of pa~nt(adheslon
between one coat and another) or any other rnaterlai such as wood. metal, plaster.
etc. (adhesion between a coat of paint and its substrate).

Air Drying.
A substance which drles through oddation by absorption of air and molecule growth.
Generally preceded by sohent evaporation. No curing agents (other than air) are
neoessary.

Airless Spray.
The process of atomlsation of paint by W n g it through a fine orifice at very high
pressure. This dect may be aided by the vaporisation ot the &vents especially if
the paint has been previously heated. The term is not generally applied to those
electrostatic spraying processes which do not use air for atomisation.

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 Alkali.
Used to describe the chemical nature of a substance which neutralises acids.
Caustic mated&. Alkaline solurons have a pH of more than seven. Alkaline
materials turn litmus paper blue.

Alkyd.
A synthetic combination of an aFcohol and an acid. The name derives from the a1 in
alcohol and the cid in add (the name shwfd really be alcid). Alkyd resins am used
in large wlurnes in the coatings industry.

Ambient Tmpertrtuw.
An ambient temperature is a term used to describe the sumunding, or room,
temperature.

Amine Adduct.
An amine curing agent is an example. These are usually combined w f h resins.

Anaerobic.
Lacking free oxygen. This usually refers to the state of the electrolyte adjacent to the
metal structure.

Anchor Patlern. (See also Density of Profile).

The texture and degree of roughness of a blast-cleanedsurface.

Anion.
An ion with a negative charge, f o m d when an atom gains electrons in a reaction.
Nan metals tend to form anions.

Anode.
That part of the surface in an electmlytlc cell which is usually subject Za comhre
attack.

Anti-Fouling
Name applies to a substance (usually a paint) which is used to stop sea life fouling
attaching to ships, rigs, pipes etc. Anti-fouling paints can be toxic release or special
surface tension property coatings.

Aqueous.
Consisting largely of water: dissolved in water.

Asphalt,
A residue from the petroleum d i l l i n g Industry. Can be used for coating pipelines
etc.

Atom.
The smallest indMsible particle of an element than can exist Simply described as
me 'building bricks' of which everything is made.

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 Backfill.
A low-resistance moisture-holding material immediately surrounding a buried anode
which is used to increase the effective area of contact with the soil.

Binder.
The non-volatile film-forming portion of a paint; it binds or cements the pigment
parlides together and adheres the coating to the substrate.

Bii.
The term used to describe bits of skin, foreign matter etc., projecting from the
surface of an applied coating. Could be an applicatkm or product problem.

Bituminous Paints.
Originally, the class of paints consisting essentially of natural bitumens dissolved in
organic solvents; they may also contaln softening agents, pigments and inorganic
fillers. They are usually black or dark in colour. The term 'bituminous' has come to
include bitumen-like products such as petroleum asphalt. The term is not generally
used for paints based on coal tar or coal tar pitch.

Blast Ckaning (See Figure 24).

An abmsive is directed at high velocity at the surface being cleaned. For steel the
abrasive may be steel or iron, of angular or spherical shape, and in a range of
particle size. Mineral abrasives are also used.

Bleeding.
Used to describe the pmess of tiision of a soluble coloured substance into a
coaling. An undesirable discolouralion is usually the outcome. Selechve sealer coats
can prevent this.

Blooming.
A whitening deposit similar to mat on a grape. It causes the loss of gloss and
creates a dull effect on the paint. It is sometimes possible to remove this blooming
simply by wiping the surface with a damp cloth. Generally caused by a reaction to
moisture during curing of a paint film.

Calcareous.
A product which contains lime.

Cathode.
That part of the surface in an electdytlc cell which does not usually suffer corrosive
attack

Cathodic Protection.
The prevention of ~ r r o s i o nby means ot an impressed current, or sacrificial anodes
which produce a flow of cumnt stronger than, and in opposition to, the flow which
resulk in cormston. It can only be used on items buried in damp soil or immersed in
water, j.e. in an electrolyte.

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 Cation.
An ion wlth a posftive charge, formed when an atom Ioses electrons fn a reaction.
Hydrogen a d metals tend to form catlons.

Chalking.
The formation of a friable, powdery layer on the surface of a paint film caused by
disintegration of the binding medium due to the action of weathering. The chalking of
a paint film can be considerably affected by the choice and concentration of the
pigment

Checking.
See 'Cracking'.

Chlorinated Rubber Paint

A pigmented solution of @asticised chlorinated rubber whlch dries mainly by
evaporation of the solvent.

Chrornating.
Treatment of ligM alloys by chemical mlutrons normally containing chromic acid
andlor chrnmates in suitable acid medium. This treatment modifies the surface ta
give improved pmtection agafnst corrosion and to serve as a good base for
subsequent paint coats.

Cissing.
A defect In a wet mating which leaves areas of the dried film wlth either holes
through the whole of the coating or attenuated holes. This defect is common on
substrates contaminatedwith grease, oil and silicone.

Coal TarEpoxide Paint.

A combination of coal tar pltch and epoxide redns with an amim or polyamlde resin
as a curing agent contained in a separate pck. The hrvo components are mixed just
before use.

Cohesion.
The forces which Mnd the particles of paint or varnish film together wlth a coherent
whole.

Colour Fast.
The ability of a produe to maintaln its colwr. Non fading.

Compatibility.
The ability of hnro or more substances to combine satlsfactorlly.

Copolymer.
See 'Polymer'

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Page 4 of22
 Corrosion.
The chemical or electmchernical reaction of a metal with its environment resutting in
its progressive degradation or destruction.

Cracking.
Generally the spring of a dry paint or varnish film usually as a result of ageing. The
following terms are used to denote the nature and extent of this defect:-

Hair-Cracking.
Fine cracks which do not penetrate the top coat; they occur at random.

Checking.
Fine cracks which do not penetrate the top coat and are distributed over the
surface givlng the semblance of a small pattern.

Cracking.
A b r e a k d m In which the cracks penetrate at least one coat and may be expected
to result ultimately in complete failure.

Craring.
Resembles checking but the cracks are deeper and broader.

Crocodiling or sometimes referredt o as Alligatoring.

A drastic type of crazing producing a pattern resembling the hide of a crocodile.

Curing.
The process by which a coating becomes hard and insoluble by heal, chemical
reaction, U.V. wrlng etc.

Curing Agtsnt.
An additive which promotes the curing of a film.

Curtaining.
Another term for sags and rum, although generally u s d when the defect is of a
large or uniform nature.

Defects.
Flaws or faults in a coating or on a substrate. (See Part 10 tor Table of Defects and
examples).

Delamination.
The separation of layers. Could refer to paint coatings, i.e. the total &laminaLon
beween coats due to foreign matter contamination.

Density of Profile (See also Anchor Pattern).

The number of peaks per unit area on an abrastveiy bhst cleaned surface.

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Da.Na TMAQ117 Issue OZ Part 8 England 1894-5,7
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e elcometec
Dew Pdnt
When air containing moisture is cooled below a certain tempemlure, some of the
moisture will condense. It will form as a dew on any surface below thk temperature.
The actual temperature at which this happens depends on the relative hvrnldFty of
the air and is called its dew point.

Differential Aeration,
The unequal access of alr to different parts of a metallic surface, resufflng otten In
the stimulation of corrosion at areas where access of air is restricted.

Diluent
A volatile liquid usually added to paint m l n g s during manufacture. Although not a
true solvent, a diluent can be used in combination with true solvents to lower
viscos~tyand increase the bulk.

Dolly.
A device, usudty made from metal, which is used with a test instrument for
assessing the adhesion of coatings to a substrate. The doly is attached to the
surface by adhesive and a force applied by the instrument to remove it and the
coating fmm the substrate.

Driers.
Substances which, when incorporated in relatively small proportions in paints or
varnishes based on drying o h , bring about an appreciable reduction of their drying
times at ordinary temperatures. These substances are usually compounds of
manganese. cobalt or lead.

Driving E.M.F. (Galvanic Anode System).

The difference between the strvcturelelectrolyte potential and lhe modelelectrolyte
potential. (E.M:F. is Electro-MotiveForce and is measured in volts).

Drying.
The process of the change of a paint from the liquld to the solid state, due to the
evaporation of solvent, chemical reactions of the bindlng medium, or a combination
of these factors.

Dryspray.
Particles of paint which have dried out after leaving the application gun, prior to
attachment to the substrate. Dryspray effect is a visuaf rwghness on the surface
and can lead to adhesion related problems of sufxequent coats.

Earth.
The conducting mass of earth or of any conductor in direct electrical connection
therewith. A connection, whether intentional or unintentional, beWeen a cxxrductor
and the earth.
Verb: To connect any condudor with the general mass of earth.
Note: 'Ground' sometimes used for 'earth'; both include expanses of natural water.

Protective Cmiings n
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8 elcometec
Efflomcence.
on the outside of bncks and
A crystalline soluble whfte salt deposit usuafly found
cement substrates. Efflorescence is formed &an crystals lose part of their water. b
powdery substance Is left on the substrate.

Electrode.
A conductor of the m@a tcil class (including carbon) by means of whlch current
passes to or from an electrotyte,

Electrolyte
An add, base or salt, which, when d i v e d in water, splii up into charged
particles, so that the solution conducts electricity. Also applied loosely to the solution
itself, e.g. rain water made acid by industrial pollution or contamination by salt In
marine atmospheres.

Elec!rostatic Spraying.
Methods of spraying in which an electrostatic field Is created between the work to be
coated and the atomised paint particles. The charged partides of paint are attracted
to the article being painted. The electrostatic field of force is used In some processes
to effect the atomisation of the paint. Powder coabngs may also be applied by
electrostatic mating.

Element.
The basic component of all materials. A pure substance which cannot be broken
down into anybing simpler by chemical means. There are 104 elements currently
known to man All are found in the Periodic Table.

Emulsion.
To give an apparently homogeneous material, one liquid is dispersed in a second
liquid in t k form of minute drops. If the droplets remain permanently dispersed the
emulsion Is said to be stable and certain compounds are added as stabifisers
because of their power to keep tha droplets dispersed.
Emulsion Paint
Generally, paints in which the msdlum Is an 'emulsion' or emulsion-llke dispersion d
a solid organic binder in water. Industrially, the name is mainly restricted to those
paints in which the medium is an 'emulsion' of a synthetic resin. Polyvinyl acetate
emulsion paints form a typical exarnpte.

Endothermic.
A reaction in which heat energy Is taken up fmm the surroundings. A fall in
temperature occurs.

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 Epoxide Resin Paint
A two-component paint consfsting of pigmented solution of an epodde resin, which
(just before use) is mixed with a curing agent, e.g. an mine, polyamide or
isocyanate which Is stored in a separate pack. After mixlng, the paint has a limlted
pot life which may be as short as 5 minutes.

Epoxy Ester Paint.

A pigmented solution of an epoxide resin which has been modified by combination
with a fatty acid. This type of paint does not require a curing agent and is a single
pack material.

Erosion.
EmiFng or being eroded. The wearing away of a surface due to external forces,
e.g. rocks in the sea or a pafnt film exposed to wind blown sand etc.

Etch Primers.
Priming paints which are generally supplied as hNo separate cvmponents which
requlre to he mixed immediately prim to use and remain usable for a llmited period
only- The mixed paint contains carefully balanced proportions of an Inhibiting
pigment, phosphoric acid, and a synthetic resin binder in a mixed alcohol solvent.
They are generally used on galvanised or non-ferroussurfaces.

They give a corrosion inhibiting film which is a vgr good basis for the a p p l i d o n of
subsequent coats of paint. Although these matertals are referred to as primers, the
films which they give are so thin that it is better to consider them as etching
solutions, and folrow them with more orthodox types of primer. These primers can
also be known as wash prfmers. They are very sensitive to water during and
immediately after applcation.

Exothermic.
A reaction in which heat energy Is released to the surroundings. A rise in
temperature occurs.

Extender.
A material in powder form. Used in cmjunctlon with pigments in @nt for Its film
forming properties and to avoid settlement during storage. Usually cheaper than the
true pigrnerrts.

Fernus.
Contains iron.

Filiform Corrosion.
Sporadic, srnatl, thread-like corrosion products whlch tend to form beneath thin and
semi-permeable films. A comion cell is developed within the thread.

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 Flame Cleaning.
The application of an intensely hot flame to steel resulting in the removal of millscale
and the dehydration of any remaining rust, leaving the surface in a condition
suitable, after wire brushing, for the application of paint, which should be applied
while the steel is still warm. Pictorial standards of Flame Cleaned steel are available
within IS0 8501 (BS 7079 : 1988).

Flexibility.
The ability to bend without damage. A general requirement for certain coatings, e.g.
pipeline coatings.

Foreign M m r .
A term used in the coating indvsby to describe contamination, e.g. grease, oil.
silicone, dust, dirt, etc.

Galvanic Action.
A spontaneous electrolytic cell reaction in which the metallic mode corrodes.

Galvanic Anode.
An electrode used to protect a structure by galvanic sacrfficlal adon.

Gahanised Saeel.
A form of corrosion protection in which steel is d i d in m o b n zinc which then acts
as a sacrificial coating, protecting the steel. Used a lot in the construction industry.
Steel ske is restricted to We slze of the galvaniser's bath.

Generic.
Characteristic of; belonging to a partiarlar family, Examples of paints i.e. epoxies,
polyurethanes etc.

Grit Blaeting.
See 'Blast Cleaning'.

Groundbed.
A system of buried or submerged electrodes connected to the positive terminal of an
independent source of dim3 current, in order to lead to earth the current used for
the cathodic protection of a buried or immersed rnetalllc structure.

Herdem.
An agent used to effect the hardening of a synthetic resin system.

High-Build Paint.
A paint (e.g. single or tw-o pack @ n l ) which, because of L thixotroplc or other
qualities, can be applied in a single coat at thidumses in the mnge ofl 120 microns
and upwards).

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 Holidays.
Skipped, missed or damaged areas, left uncoated wfth palnt.

Hydroxyl.
Solutions containing hydro@ ions. Chemlcal radld OH-.

Hygroscopic.
Used to descrlbe a substancs which absoms water. Chemically described as a
subslance which can take up to 70% of its own mass of water without diiobing or
becoming wet.

Impressed Current.
The current supplied by a rectifier or other direct-arrrent soume (specifically
excluding galvanic anodes, e.g. silicon iron anodes)to a protected structure in order
to attain the necessary protection potentid.

Impact Resistance.
The ability of a paint film to resist a sudden blow.

Incompatibility.
The inability to mix or adhere together. Sometimes used in the malings Industry to
describe different genefit types of paint which should not be mixed. The opposite b
compatible.

Induction Time.
For certain two padc paints, the mbred materials must be allowed to stand for a
certain time before the paint k applled. The pefrod of standing after rnixlng is
referred to as the induction time. It is gemrally half to one hour but will depend on
the components. The data sheets for two pack materials must be checked to
determine whether an Induction time is necessary and, if so, the Inspector must
check that the mixed material is allowed to stand prior to application.

Inert
Without Inherent power or action, Chemically inactive (not reactive).

Inert Pigment.
Pigments which rernaln relathrely Inactive or unchanged In paints; they may play an
important part in contmllfng corrosion due b their typlcal laminar (plate-like) shape
which increases the banler effect. Typical examples are leafing aluminium or MIO.

Infusible.
See Thermo-settfng.

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0oc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 0 England 19965.7
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 f'?
elcometec
Inhibitive Pigments.
Pigments which retard or p m n t the corrosion of metals by chemical or
electrochemical means, as opposed to a purely barrier action. 2lnc chromate, zinc
phosphate, metallic or red lead and metallic zinc are examples of pigments with
inhibitive action.

Inorganic.
Any Substance entirely derived from minerals or metals. Not derived from living
materials,

Ion.
An atom, or group of atoms, carrying a charge of positive or negative electricity.

Laitance.
Loose friable product sometimes produced on the surface of new laid concrete.
'Laitam is generally detrimental to coating systems and must be removed by blast
cleaning, acid wash etc.

Lead Paints.
Paint containing more than 5 pet cent of soluble lead or lead compound (expressed
as PM3) of the dried pigment when tested by the method prescribed in 'Statutory
Rules and Orders 1926, No, 1621 of the Lead Paint Protection Against Poisoning
Act 1926'.

Lead Restricted.
A description used by certain Government Departments to signity paints which are
not lead pants within the meaning of the 'Lead Paint Protection Against Poisoning
Act 1926'. New legislation 1s being enacted to restrict the use of lead pant in
buildings, espedally where children have access.

Leafing.
A term used to describe orientation of pigments. Usually flat, in horizontal planes,
e.g. aluminium flakes In heat resistant paints.

Low Alloy Sael.

A steel generally with a carbon content not exceeding 0 2 per cent, to which a srnai
percentage of alloying elements lnduding copper, chromium, nickel, silica, etc., up to
a total of, say 3 per cent have been added, to Improve its mechanical properties,
corrosion resistance or both.

Mastic.
An adhesive composition. Loosely used to describe a plastic filler, stopper or putty.

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Mobinsan Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,
England 1994-5,7
 Metal Spraying.
The application by spray of a coat of metal (usually zinc or aluminium) onto a
prepared surface (usually grit-blasted mild steer). The metal to be sprayed b
rendered molten by passing It in wire or powder form ihmugh a flame or electric arc
pistols which project semi-molten metal onto the surface by a jet of compressed air.

Microclimate.
The mllective physical conditions, such as temperature and humidity, at a small
specified location, e.g. a bridge or even parts of the bridge since the conditions from
point to point may vary slgnifcantly.

Mil.
Aunit of length commonly used in the U.S.A. equal to 6.001 Inch (1 thou). The
metric equivalent is 0.025 mrn or 25 microns.

Mild Steel.
Steel with no deliberate alloy addttion and with a carbon content not exceeding 0 2 5
per cent.

Millscale.
The oxide layer produced when steel is formed during the hot rolling prooess. This
scale is cathodic to steel and must be removed prior to applylng a paint system.

Miscible.
The ability to form or blend together. Chemical term.

Monel.
An alloy of nickel, copper and aluminium which hasexcellent anti cormsive
pmperties. Often used where cormsiw chemicals are present.

Monomer.
The unit mokwle from which a P o w e r is built up.

Mud Cracking.
Used to describe a defect produced in highly pigmented p i n t systems, e.g. zinc
silicate. An appearance of dried mud caused by over application, rapid coring etc.

MVT.
Moisture Vapour Transmisston. The rate at which moisture is transmitted through a
substance.

Neoprene Pairtfs.
Paints based on pigmented sdutfons of the synZhetfc rubber, neoprene
(polychlorvprene), a vulcanising agent being added before use. Neoprene pafnts are
used mainly for industrial maintenance palnting for service under conditions of
severe chemical exposure.

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 C elcometec
Nan Ferrous.
A substame which does not contain iron. Opposite to terns. Mten applied to
metals e.g. brass, aluminium, certain types of stainless steel etc.

Non Volatile.
The solid part of a paint left after the solvent has evaporated.

Oil Length.
The ratio of dl to resln In a varnish medium normally expresw in terms of parts by
weight of oil to one part by weight of resin.

Oleu-Resinous.
Generally refers to varnishes composed of vegetabte drying oils in conjunction with
hardening resins, which may be either natural or synthetic.

Orange Peel.
The term given to the visual appearance of a paint finish because it resembles an
orange peel or skin. Can be attributed to flow chaacterlstics, poor application etc.

Organic.
Any substance consisting of, or d e M from, matter which has lived.

Organosol (c.f. 'Plastisol').

A dispersion of finely divided resin partides In an organic liqufd A i c h may be wholly
or partly volatile. After application the ooafng Is heated and the resin particles with
any non-volatileportions of the carrier are ksed to a continuous film.
Osmosis.
Dfffusion of fluid through a semi-permeable membrane into another fluid, Transfer of
liquid.

Osmdic Blistering.
The formation of blisters under a paint film which mntahs moisture. (SeeOsmosis).

Overspray.
Generally waste. Partides of paint which have not hit the desired target. Common to
air and aides spray application methods, especially H used near awkwardly shaped
items.

Oxide.
Compound of oxygen with another element (usually a metal) or with radical.

Passiuaaion.
The act of making something inert or unreactive. Corrosion term.

Prdectiva Coatfngs Inspection Manual

@ D a N o TW.414 lssua 02
QAdbhson Irwin Technical Suppod Ltd.,
England 1BD4-5,7
f!?elcometec
pH Value.
A logarithmic sale used to indicate the dative m m t i o n s of hydrogen ions and
hydroxyl ions in an elecirdyte, hence a measure of the acuity or alkalhlty of
solutions. pH7 is a neutral solution, higher figures indicate Increasing alkalinity and
lower figures indicate increasing acid strength.

Phenolic Resins.
Phenolic resins are the prcducts of condensation reactions between phenoTs and
afiphatic aldehydes, usually formaldehyde. The term includes both the simple
condensation products (pure or 100 per cent phenolics) and those m o d W with
resin or resln esters. Phenolic resms are reacted with drying oils to produce med~a
for paints. Some phenolic resins are used in solu%oneither alone or in cambination
with e.g. alkyd or epoxy resins as media for industrial stoving paint.

Phemlic Resin Paint.

A paint mtaining as binder a phenolic resin, either alone or modified by
combination with, tor example, drying oils, alkyd resins or epoxide resins. It is usuat
to distinguish beOlveen pure phenolics with no other resin additions and modified
phenolics, in which the added resin is often resin.

Phosphaing.
The formation of a thin phosphate coating, usually as a petreatment for painting ot
coating purposes.

Pickling.
A process where steel and other metals am dipped 4n a solution (usually add) for
cleaning.

Pigment.
The insoluble solid partides dispersed in a paint, which give the dried film its
characteristic properties of colour and opacity and influence durability in vi3rious
environments.

Pigment Volume Concentration.

Described as the amount of resin required to Xvlfy wet out the pigment particles (1.e.
the oil absorption). Sometimes known as P.V.C., but not to be confused wlth
Polyvinylchloride.

Pitting Cornsion.
A particularly dangerous type of m&on because, though the attack may be ~n'tall,
L concentration in Isolated deep pits may cause serious damage, e.g. pipes may be
holed.

Plasticiser.
A paint ingredient used to Impme the flexibility of a materid

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 Plastiwl (cb.'Organosol').
Dispersions of finely divided resin partides (often polyvinyl chloride or copolymer) in
a plasttdser or mixture of plasticlsers. After applicaton, h e coating is heated and the
plasticiser diffused into and softens the resin particles which fuse to a continuous
film without significant loss of volatile matter.

Polarisation.
The produetion of counter-electromotiveforce at metal surfaces due to the passage
of electric current through an electrolytic df.

Polyethyiene (polytherm).
A colourtess themoplastic material composed of polymers of ethylene.

Polymer.
A large molecule built up by the union of a number of smaller molecules. Vinyl resins
are e~amplesof true polymerisation. The name is frequently applied to large
molecules produced by any chemical process.

Homo-polymer.
A true polymer in which molecular units from which it is built are all of the same
-
kind. Pdyvinylchlorlde W C - is an example.

A true polymer in whlch molecular units from which it is built are of two or more
klnds. Polyvinylchlorideaoetate, as employed in vinyl paints, is en example.

Polyurethane Resins.
Polyurethane resins am made by crosslinking saturated polyesters with isocyanates
or polyisocyanates. fhwe resins are usually supplied in two packs to be mixed
Immediately before use but they may also be found in single pack paints.

Polyvinylchloride (PVC).
A dourless thermoplastic material composed of polymers of vtnyl chloride.
Commonly know as P.V.C. Not to be confused with Pigment Volume
Concentration.

Potemmal.
Relates to a metal immersed in a conducting medium. The voltage of the metal,
r e i a t i i to a standard electrode, produced through the tendency of the metal to enter
the medium as ions and to displace hydrogen.

Pot Life. The pwlod after mixing during the mildure of resin and activator or
hardener of a W p a c k paint remains usable and fully eflectii. Some two-pa&
paints, e.g. etch primers remain usable, i.e. they can still be applied, even after they
have become ineffectual. The Manufacturer's data sheet must be comuited and
these should quote pot life at a particular temperature, usually 20°C. Parlicwlariy in
hot climates the pot life will be considerably shortened.

Pmtecti Coatings Ir~spmianManusl Wdlnson lmln Technical Support Ltd.,

Ooc.MTU*dllll~*I. Part8 England 1994-57
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 Thus a material having a pot l i e of 4 hours at 20°C may only have a pot Ilk of 1.5
hours at the temperatures experienced in the Middle East. Full details should be
sought hthe Manufacturer.

PreFabrication Primer.
An organic film-forming matefiat, whlch may acontaln a pigment (often metallic) that is
applied to a steel surface directly after surface preparation genedly by
blast-cleaning, and which does not have to be removed prior to welding.
Although it is intended only to provide temporary protection, it should be compatible
with the permanent protective systems.

Primer.
The first complete coat of paint of a palnifng system applied to an unpafnted surface,
as an integral part of the permanent protective system.

horection Potentirh.
The more negative level to which the potential of a metallic structure, w f h respect to
a specified reference electrode in an electmlytlc environment, has to be depressed
in order to effect cathodic proteclion of the structure,

P.V.C.
See either Pdyvlnylchloride or Pigment Volume Concentmion.

Reference Electrode.
An electrode, the potentfa! of whlch is accurately reproducible and which serves as a
basis of reference in the measurement of other electrode potentials.

Relatiwe Humidity.
The amwnt of water vapour that air can take up depends upon it temperature. The
amount it actually contains is usually expressed as per cent Relative Humidity, i.e.
the percentage of the amount the air could sustain at the particular temperature.

Rust.
Reddish or yellowish-brown coating formed by oxidation of iron.

Sacrificial Anode.
Synonym for 'galvanic a M e S .

Saponification.
This term normally refers to the formation of a soap by the reaction between a fatty
acid ester and an alkali. In protective coatings, saponification refers to the
decompwition of the medium of a paint or varnish I r n by afkali and moisture in a
substrate, e.g. new concrete or rendering based an cement, sand and Ihe. CoaHngs
used in conjunction with cathodfc protection are also liable to saponification. In very
severe cases the film may be completely llquified by saponification. In situations like
those quoted, saponification resistant paints should be used.

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Doc.No:TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 8 England 1994-5,7
Pwl6d22
 Sensing Electrode.
A permanently installed reference electrode used to measure the
stnrcturelelectrolyie potential and to control the protection current.

Shelf Life.
The time that a paint will keep in good mdiiian on the shelves of a shop or stock
room. In the case of two component paints, before mixing.
Sherardiring.
A method of matlng steel or cast iron artides. The artides are heated with zinc dust
for several hours.

Shop Primer.
An anticorrosive tempowry primer applied in the woks (during steel rolling). This
primer protects the steel plates from corrosion during the construction phase of a
project.

Short Oil.
A tow ratio of oil to w i n in a varnish medium.

Short Oil Alkyd.

An alkyd resin containing not more than 40 per cent of oll as modifying agent.

Short Oil Varnish.

An ole&resinous varnish containing not more than 1.25 park by weight of oil to 1
part by weight of resin, in finished vamish.

Shot Blast.
See 'Blast Cleaning'.

Silicone Resins.
A dass of synthetic restn prduced from organic compounds containing silicon. Not
to be confused with the silicate medium used in zinc silicate paints.

Soffit&
Steel beams used for bridges and other slructures are usually manufactured for
strength combined with lightness In the form of an I-beam. The bottom edge of the
bottom flange is called the soffit.

Solids or Total Solids.

The non-volatile matter in a coating composition, i.e. tfie ingredients of a coating
campositfanwhich, after drying, are left behind and constitute the dry film.

Solution.
A liquid in which a substance can be dissolved.

ProteFlive Cmilngs Inspection Manual QRobhson lmin Technkal Support Ud..

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 Solventless Pmnts or V a r n i s h .
A term used to describe organic coatlng materials whfch contain little or no volatile
Winner.

Solvents.
Liquids which are used in the rnarmfactu~of paint to dissolve w disperse the
film-fomlng constituents, but which evaporate during drylng and therefore do not
become a part of the dried film. They are used lo control the consistency and
character of the finish and to regulate application properties (see Thinners).

Spreading Rater.
The area covered per unit amount of palnt applied. Spreading rate should be
expressrxi as square metrdltre at a given dry film thickness.

Stray Current.
Current flowing in the soil or water environment of a structure and arising mainly
from electric power or traction installations. Such stray current can pass from the
environment into the structure and vice versa. Cormsion can result.

Stripe Coat (See Figure 25).

Most specifications, call for the application of a stripe mat. This is an extra coat of
material usually applied by brush, ta build up thickness along edges of beams,
around nuts and bolts and in less accessible areas. The stripe coat Is generally
applied as an additionar undercoat and should be of a contrasting colour.

Stainless Steel.
A steel containing sufficient chrornhrn, or chromium and nldtel, to render It highly
resistant to corrosion. Some stainless steels can be non magnetic and are therefore
considered to be non fermus substrates for the purpose of mating thickness
measurement.

substrate.
A general name given in protech coating practice to the base material Wing
coated, e.g. steel, wood, concrete, etc.

SulphatereducingBacteria.
A group of bacteria found in mast soils and natural waters, but active only in
conditions of near neutrality and freedom from oxygen. They reduce svlphates in
their environment, with the production of sulphides and severe corrosion.

Surface Profile.
The depth from peak to trough of a blast cleaned substrate prior to painting.

Synthetic.
A substance not occurring naturally. ArWicial.

Protsctive Coatinga InspeclicmManual QRobireon l d n Technica1:Support Ltd..

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 Temporary Protectives.
Materials used to protect metal surlaces during fabrication, tramport and storage,
and whkh are sometimes readily removable, if required, by stripping or cold
application of mrnrnon solwnts. The significance of the term 'temporaly' lies in the
ready removability of the protective and not In the duration of Its efficiency.

Tkrrno-Setting.
Organic coating materials, which on heatlng b e m e insoluble and infusible.

Thenno-Plastic.
Organic coating materials, W c h will soften under tfie hfluence of heat and may
become %uid.

Thinners.
Volatile liquids which may be addd to palnts and varnkhes to cheapen and to
facilitate application or aid penetralion by lowering the viscosity.

They must be mpletely misclble with the paint or varnish and not cause
precipitation Of the non-volatile portion either in the container or Fn the film during
drying. Thinners should only be added by me User in accordance with
Manufadurefs instructions (see Sotvents).

Thixotropic Paint
A paint with a special structure of 'body" which undergoes a temporary reduction in
consistency dur~ngapplication. Thls allows the paint to be spread easily but to resist
the formation of runs when heavy w t i n g s are applied. In the decorating field these
paints are called 'non-drip' (see also Viscosity).

two Pack Paint

A paint or lacquer, the materials for which are supplied in two parts, which must be
mixed in fhe correct proportions before use. The rni~turewill then remain in a usable
condiiion fw a limited time only.

The two parts of a two-pack paint are usually supplied in h e correct relative
proportion either in entirety separate containers of appropriate sizes or in a single
container divided into two cornparbnents. (The term dual-pack is often used to
describe the latter type of container).

Undercoal Paint
The coat, or coats, applied to a surface after priming, filing, etc., or after the
preparation of a previously palnted surface, and before the application of a finished
coat An undercoat should possess good hiding power arid a oolour leading up to
that of the finished mat, and should otherwise be that of the finished coat, and
should otherwise be suitable, for use with the other paints in the system.

pmtaive ccatingsn-I m u d CRoblnsm lmin Technical Support Ud.,

Doe.No:TMA-0147 Ime 02 Part 8 England $894-5,7
Page 19d22
 Valorising.
The application of an aluminium coating to steel by heating the materlal In dumlnium
powder at 700 to 900bG (f 300 to 16500F).

Vehicle.
The liquid portion of paint, in which the pigment is dispersed; it is GompDsed of the
binder, the solvent and any thinner present.

Vinyl Resins.
Resins formed by palymedsatim or compounds which contain fie vinyl radical
(CH2CH). Vinyl resins may be applled as solution m organic solvents, as plastisols,
organosols or emulsion (aqueous dispersion) form (see Emulsion Paints).

Vinyl Paints.
Paints wntaining a co-pdymer 8.g. polyvinylchlorideand polyvinyl acetate.

Viscosity.
The internal resistance to flow possessed by a ffquid. It is determined by measuring
the force required to shear the Ilquid, i.e. to move one layer over another in orderly
flow without turbulence at a defined rate. Most palnt snlvents.'and many oils and
varnishes, are termed Newtonian liquids, that is, when they are tested in suitable
viscometers at a fixed temmture. their rate of flow [shear) is ~romrtiondto the
shearing force. The viscosijl of these liquids at a fixed krnpel$tu& is'thus constant.

for most pafnts and other pigmented materials the rate of Row (shear) is not
proportional M the shearing force, but may very with the time and rate of shearing
force.

For these materials only an apparent viscosity, a figure which refers only to the
behaviour of the material under the particular circumstances and precise condions
of measurement. can be determined (see also Thixotropk Paint).

VolatiSe.
The fluid content of a material which evaporates, e.g. the solvent in a paint. Opposite
to non volatile.

Volume Solids.
Non volatile proportionof the paint or coaling (normally expressed as a percentage).

Wash Primer.
See 'Etching Primer'.

Water Borne.
A general name for a paint materlal which uses water as the solvent. These
products have temperature and humidity constraints and contain small amounts of
organic solvents.

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 Weathering Paints.
An alternative name for finishing paints. In many protective painting schemes the
only difference between the undercoat paint and the finishing paint is one of colour.
They are interchangeable and their function is to provide weather resistance to We
paint system as a whole.

Wet Film Thickness.

The paim film thickness immediately after applicatfon. The wet to dry film thickness
relationship IS governed by the volume-solids ratio.

White Spirit
White spirit is the most commonly used thinner for paints and varnishes. It consists
of straight-run or blended petroleum hydrocarbons and has a boilinq temperature in

a the range 150°C to 200°C.

Wrought Iran.
Iron 2 very low carbon content (0.02 to 0.03%) and, in the case of British wrought
irons, with a high slag content and a characteristic laminated structure. The
fundamental difference between wrought iron and steel is that, whereas steel Is cast
into ingots, wrought iron is ternwed from the furnace in a semi-molten plastic
condition and is formed into bars or billets under a steam hammer. Lime, if any,
wrought iron is now used in new structures.

Zinc Phosphate.
A paint pigment used in anti-corrosive paints.

Zinc Rich Paint (or Primer).

A priming paint in which the pigment is predominantly Rnely divided metallic zinc.
The metallic zinc content of the dry film should not be less than 90% by weight.

Zinc Silicate Paint (or Primer).

A paint in which the pigment is predominantly metallic dnc, but the binder consists of
an organb or inorganic silicate. The dry film, in either case, being whofly inorganic.

Protective Coatings Inspection Manual BRdbinson ltwin Tffihnkal Suppal Ltd..

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 PART 9
APPENDICES

1.0 FORMULA I CONVERSIONS/ PAINT ARITHMETIC ETC.

1 -
Baeie Formula Paint Coverage
1.2 Formula for Calculation of Surface Area
1.3 Paint Arithmetic
1.4 Conversion Charts
1.5 SI Conversion Factors
1.6 Non SI Units and QuanMes
1.7 Weight of Steel Plates
1.& Volume Chart
1.9 -
Weight Pounds I Kilos
-
1.10 Linear Feet & Inches l k w e s
1.1 1 Conversion Tables
1.12 Easy Guide to Conversions
1.13 Centiarade to Fahrenheit
1.14 ~ i c r o to
k mil 1 thou

3.0 I3ASIC CORROSION

3.1 Principles of Cormsion
3.2 The Corrosion Battery
3.3 The Strong Acid Cormian Battery
3.4 Galvanic Corrosion
3.5 Galvanic Series
3.6 Crevice Corrosion
3.7 Pitting Corrosion
3.8 Corrosion under Millscale
3.9 Electrochemical Nature of Attack

QRobinsan lmin Technical Support Ltd..

Parts Endand 199d5,7
Page 10145
 -
SECTION 1.0 FORMULA I CONVERSIONS / PAINT ARITHMETIC.

-
1.1 -
Basic F m u l a Paint Covwage.

1 Wet Film Thickness.

x 100 = Wet Fllm TMckness

Volume Sdids

e.g,
n F.T. x 100 = 125 M I ~ W.F.T.
S
40 % VIS

2 Dry Film Thickness.

Wet Mrn Thickness x Vdume = Dry Film Thickness

100

0.g.
150 W.F.T. X 3i%YB = 55.5 Dry Film ThMess
100

3 Volume Solids.

QWBwBh= x 100 = Vdume Sollds

Wet Film Thickness

e.9.
z.QBEL x 100 = 40% Volume Sdlds
50 W.F.T

1.2 Formula for Calculatim of Surface Area.

Pipes.
The surface area of a pipe is calculaled by muftlplying the diameter (D) by 3.142
and then rnuitiplylng the ita ant sum by the overall pipe length.
A=3.f42xDxL

Spheres.
The surface area of a sphere Is calculated by mulliplylng the square of the radius
by 3.142 by 4.
~=4x3.142x~~

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Doc.No: TMA-0147 lasue 02 PartQ England 1884-5,7
Papa 2 of 45
e elcometec
Cylindricel Tank.
The sum= area consists of the cylindrical shell ( 3.142 x D x H ) added to the
two flat ends ( 3.142 R* ) x 2 NO.
A=3.142x D x H + (3.142 x ~ ~ x 2 )

Domed end of Tank.

A=2~3.142~R~h
R = i-ac!4us
H = height of segment

Cub.
A cube has six sides which are a!l identical squares. Total surlace area is six
multiplied by the square of the length (a) of one of the sides.
i.e. A x A x 6

Mangle.
The surface area of a Mangle Is:

Area = bkl
2

Cone.
Area of the curved surface of a axle b:

Area

Ring.
Area = 3.142 - 3.142 P

Area

Ellipse.
d = minor slds
D = major axis

Beem.
Area of beam:
A + (2B-C) x length x 2

Pmtectivm Coatinp Inqeolh Manual OReMnetn lmln Technical Support Ud.,

DDcNa TMb-0147 b u n OP Pall 0 England 1 M , 7
P a p 3d45
 SPHERE

CYLINDRICAL DOMED END

TANK OF TANK

CUBE

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Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part S England 19965,7
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 CONE
a RING

-D-
TRAPEZIUM ELLIPSE

- B-
BEAM

mobinsan Irwin Technical Suppwt LM.,

Part 9 England 1994-5,7
P a p 5 d 45
1.3 Paint Arithmetic.

Wet Film Thickness.

I lire

Volume of paint = Area involved x wet film thickness

A x W = a constant for 1 litre

e.g.
What is the wet film thldrness If one 1Ih-e is applied aver 10 sq. metres (1 sq. m=
10,000 sq. cms.)

Since I m i m = lo4 an ( 0.0001 an )

When dMdlng subtract I d c e s therefore -2 miauS -4 (minus quanmles) become

plus.

Rule.

1 lttre of paint ( or Iiquld ) applied at 1 micron thick warld cower lOM1 sq.m w at
100 mimns thick would cwer 10 sq.m. (pro-rata).

Volume Solids & Weight Solids.

Most paints comprise of solids and liquids, the solids being the vehicle (mmkh
or binder) plus pigment and filler, these are the non wlatiles, the nquld or solvent
part are those materiats which evaporate when the paint has been applied.
i.e. The volume solids is that proportion of the paint that wlll be left on the
substrate after evaporation of the solvent has taken place, Zaking into account
their volumes.

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 The y&t!L%d& is the propottion left merely by the weight d solvent havlng
evaporated. A typical alkyd paint has the follming formulation:-

% by weigM
Binder 55.00/0 Solids retained
M i t e Spirit 35.0% Solvents
Xylene l
Ul%
100.0

The weight solids is themfore 55% slnce whRe spirit (35%) and Xylene. (10%) are
volatiles, however the volume will be different, fi we determine We volume of
each component by dimding the mass by the density or weight per gallon. Volume
(i-e. mass divided by density).

V =Mass
Density

% by Weight Density % by Volume

(9ms)
Binder 55 g m 1.06gmIcc 5 1 . 9 ~ ~ ~

White Spirit 35 gm 0.78 gm / cc 44.9 ccs

Xylene 10 gms 0.86gmIcc 11.6~~

100 grns

:.The volume of the sond part Is 51.9 cc

:.The volume ot the sobents is 5m.S
108.4 cc

We can calculate two properties a) ths volume sdids and b) the density of our paint,
thus:
~ -

@ a) Volume %bide

b) Density = Mass -- IPP

Volume 108.4 = 0.92 gmslcc

Knowlng the volume solfds Ub us how much shrinkage wil cxxur on dryirg, 47.9%
will be retained, 52.1 % will be lost.

If 100 microns is applied (i.e.) wet film thickness, 47.m of 100 micmns will be the
dry film (D.F.J) tMckness = 4jSmkmm

Protectbe C d m g s lnapectim Manual QRebinson lrviin Technical Supporl Ud.,

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F'aga7ofd5
c) Calculation of Quamitits of Pdnt required k r a specified film thickness over a
specified area.

Wet area = 'A' sq. m

Total Required D.F.T = X mims

Volume Solids of Paint = V % ,

= BzLX, litres
10 V

This formula can be interchanged to cakuhte the theoretical D.F.T or any other
unknown, Suppose a Contractor says he has applied 500 litres of Palnt with volume
sdids over 1DO0 sq. rn.

Theoretical D.F.T = w = 300 microns

1000

These figures are pudy theoretical and are b s e d on the following faders:-

- The film thkkness is unlform

- The substrate is wry smooth (like glass) and is completely non abso!Dent
- No paint is lost during application (1.e.)overspray etc.
men we are comparinq the relam costs per unlt a m there is no need to allow
any compensation for I&, merely calculate the coveraga per unit vdume which wlll
achleve the specified dry film thickness using the formula:-

The total cost or ccrst per unl (say per sq. m) can be calculated.

For Example: Compare costs uslng Paints A, & and G to achieve 375 microns
D.F.T over 15,OOQsq. ms.

Paint A Epoxy, d u m e solids 57%. Cost per I b El .35

Paint Epoxy, volume sollds 50%. Cost per litre f 1.22
Paint C Epoxy, volume solids 59. Gost per litre el .I9

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Dcc.No: TMA-0147 ISSUB 02 Part 9 England 19965,7
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 Calculations for Toml a:

Paint A: = 9,868 1 x 1.35 = E13.322

10 x 57

Paint 8:

Paint C:

By using Paint C, one would save approximately £2,000, unless other factors are
considered important enough, Paint C is the obvious choice from pure initid cost.
Howewr a record of bad deliveries, inferior materials, poor quality controt, poor after
sales senrice etc. should also be m t d e r e d if any of these factors exrst.

When the Ejtimat~rhas dadded, they must then make a l l m s for losses which
increases hki wquiremmt of *9,534 litres aowrdlng to the following factors:

Depth of Profile.
On blasted surfaces opttmum amplitude 75 - 100 microns, however 150 - 200
microns would require more paint ta fill the troughs and cover the peaks, since dry
film thickness measurements are taken from the peaks.

This would obviously ms?more and has lo be weighed against the posslble increase
in mechanical bond. In cases where the profile amplitude is less (e.9.) 20-30microns
even when the standard of blasting is high say Sa3 there is a danger that there will
not be enough mechanical bond.

Irregularity of Shape,
Obviously with complicated shapes, it will be much more difficult to obtain uniform
films and prevent loss due to overspray.

Where a minfmum dry film thickness ts specified one should aim at a slightly higher
average to allow for variations in film build.

Overspray.
Even on relatively uncomplicated substrates can amount to 5% even wfth airless
spraying.

General Losses.
Due to over running pot life. piiiering, spillage etc.

Absorbent Surfaces.
Cause penetration of the painL

Protecthrs Coatings InspectiDn Manuak ORobimsar lmbr Technical Support Lid.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part 9 England 1994-5.7
-9of45
 Even with 'on the job' inspection, measurement of wet and dry film thicknesses and
wall trained operators one should add 25-33% to me theoretical quaMty, when
airless spray techniques are used. With roller and bmsh application there will be no
losses with overspray or irregularity, however profile, localised over thickness and
general losses stlll may aocount for 20-25%.
When one compares sohrentless coatfngs wlth the normal or convenfional solvent
bound types, one will invariably find that the former is much more expensive than
the latter, however one must consider for a given film thickness the coverage sate
will be much higher with the solvenless type.

Solventless pure epoxy (actually contains 2.5% solvelll)

V. S = 97.5%@£4.50 per litre

Conventional punt epoxy

V.S = 50%dE2.60 per lttre
Cmrege per 250 microns d.f.t

1) = 4x = R lm per sq. m (A=?)

10 v

1 = XU! = 3.9 sq. m per lit^

R An

2) 1
R
= u
Ax
= 2.0sq. rn per lire

Cost per sq. metre at 250 microns D.F.T.

In this hypothetical case the use of the solve~Messmaterial, although more

expensive in cost per litre, actually w o M out chatper.

Protdive Cdatlnp lnspactlon Manual ORobinaon Irwin Tectmkal Suppotl Ud..

Doc.No:TMA-0147 lswe 02 Pall 9 Endand 19965.7
Page 10 d 45
?!f elcometec
Note.
On specific gravity, density and weight per gallon -
The above terms are sometimes confusing and although used regularly in place of
each other there are strict differences.

Density.
The term is used to denote the weight per ynit volume (i.e.) in gms per cc Water
has a mdmum density of 1.000 gm Icc at 4 C. Above and below this temperature it
becomes Sess.

-
spetiac wi.
Mercury Metal has a density of 13.6 gm per a:is therefore 13.6 times as heavy as
water whlch brings us to the specific gravity definition, which is really a ratio of the
weight of any volume of material over an equal volume of water.

e.g.
Ult of
Wt of 1 cc of Water is 1.0 gm

.: SpecHlc gravity of memry Is 13.6 (not 13.6gm/cc)

WeigM Per Gallan(W,P.G).
Multiply the Density by 10, this gives the weQM in Ibs, per gallon (e-g.) water,
density, 1.0 gm /oc.

:. W.P.G -- 1Olbs

Density x 1000 =1OOOgns/1000ccs(1000ccs=llitre)

Since -
(1 kilo = 1000 gms) = 1.0 loilogmml litre
{I kilo = 2.2 ~bs) = 2.2 bj litre
(1 litre = 1.76 pints) = 2.2 1b 1 1.76 pints
(lgallon = 8pints) =?3xfllbs/gallon = 10Ibs
1.76

It Is indeed fortunate that a nlce round figure like '10' fs pruduced, olttemise
calculations would be much more diffiwlt, imagine water having a density of say
1.14 gm/ccor +i14IbsIgallon.

It Is hoped that the above notes explain some of the terms and calculations used in
application of surface coatrngs.

PmMcWe Coatings Inspedion Manual aobinwn Irwin Technioal Support LM.,

Rcc.M TM&dl47Issue 0.2 Part 0 England 19W5,J
Page 11 d45
Q.1 If a paint was applied with W.F.T. of 1Wm and a D.F.T. of 5 Q m was obtalned what
is the volume sold %?
VS% = QJx x m = S O = 5 0 %
W.F.T. f 1OQ

Q.2 What is the Y.S% if a pelnt with a D.F.T. of 43pm was origlnelly apptled with a 72pm
W.F.T.?

U3.L
W.F.T.

Q.3 What W.F.T. would be applied to leave a D.F.T. of 150 using a paint with 65%
volume sollds.?

W.F.T. = i!x x = 100~15Q= Z

3m
VS% 1 65

(2.4 What area would 15 Ittres of pafnt cover baving a D.F.T. of 4 5 if ~the volume
solids amounted to 62%?

Area = Y!mm
.2 =- - 2 ~ 5 . 4m2
W.F.T 73

W.F.T. = 1PP x lZEL = IIMr45 = 7 3 ~

YS% 1 62

Q.5 What Mlume of paint wcn~ldbe requlred to cover 29 m2 if ffie VS was 73% and a
D.F.T. of 114pm was obtained?

Volume = W.F.T. x Area = ? x 29 (W.F.T. not given, obtain using akmadve

formula).

W.F.T. =m x D.F.T. = jOQx114 = 15Wm

VS 1 73

:. Volume = 156 x 29 = 4524 cm3

(Divide c
m" 11000 4524 = 4 5 litres
to obtain litres) loo0
Note.
It may be that the information p M e d win be In the impel181 quanttnes, R will be
necessary to comrerl it to metric equivalents before progressing further.

Protective Coafings lnspectlon Manual ORobinson Irwin Technkal Support Ud.,

Doc.No: lMA4147 Issue 02 PartD England 19965.7
Page12d45
 The following conversions appty-

Multiply thous to obtain pm (microns)

Divide w to obtain thous (0.001 ")
Multiply inches to obtain rnm (millimetres)
Divide mrn to obtain inches
Multiply m2 to obtain yd2 (square yards)
Divide yd2 to obtain m2 (square metres)
Multiply gallons to obtain liires
Divide litres to obtain gallons

6.6 What is the D.F.T. using 3.4 gallom of paint to cover 34yd If the V.S% is 46.
answer in prn?

3.4 galls x 4.5 = 15.3 Litres

34w2 + 1.2 = 28.3~2

D.F.T. -

Pi& Cbalings hpection Manual ORobiion lnnin Tachnial Support Ltd.,

@ D m M : TMA4117 *u02 We
Page 13 d 45
England 1994-5,7
e elcometec
t .4 Conversion Charts.

Comrer~lmChart
Inches Mlllirnetres
Mllimetres Inches
Feet Metres
Metres Feet
Square Inches Square milllrnetres
Square Feet Square metres
Square Mehes Square feet
Cubic Feet Litres
Litres Cubic feet
Gallons Utres
LItres Gallons
Ounces Gms
Grams Ounces
Pounds Kilograms
K~lograrns Pounds
Pounds per sq.R Kilos per sq. metre
Ulos per sq. meter Pounds per sq. feet
Pounds per cu. feet Kilos perm. metre
D<iIos per cu. metre Pounds per a. feet
Fahrenheit to Celsius -
VF 32) x 0.55)
Celsius to fahrenhetl ec x 1.8 + 321
Bhr per hour WatEs
Watts Kilocaloriesper hour
Kilocalorfesper hour watts
Kilocalories per hour Btu per hour
Kilocalories lhour PC BtulhrPF
Btu per hour Kilocalolles par hour
Btu per hour per O F Kilocalaries per hour per "C
Watts Btu per hour
Btu/Sq. ft. 1 hr Watts per sq.metre
Watts Isq. metre Btu/sq. W hr
Btulinchkq. ttJhrPOF WaWmeterPG
BtuAncWsq.R/hrPF K~locaIorieslme~C
Kilocalorieslsq.rneWhff BtuTurcNsq.WhrPF
13tu/sq.ftlhrl°F K i l o c a l o r i e s l s q . m ~ d"C
KilocaIori&sq.mlhrPC Btulsq.ftlhd"F
Btu/sq.fthrPF Wattslsq.meWC
Wattslsq.meha"C Btulsqfthff F
Tons refrigeration watts
Sq.R.hr. "FIBtu in Sq.rn.WC/watEs

Pmleclive h t l n g s Inspeetion Manual mobinsrm lnvln Technkal Supporl Ud.,

Doc.Na:TMA4147 Issue 02 Part D England 1Q965,7
mF4d45
e elcometec

1.609 3 4 h

568261 cma = 0.5682dm3

0.036 3687 rns = 36.3887 dm3

0.035239 1 rn9 = 35.2391 dm9

1 Y& - 11.764555 rn3

I board f- (timber) -
- 0.0323597dma = 2.35074 dm3
1 c u d (timbsr) -
- 3.62456 m3
2nd. rrwmerd d 1 in4 --
- 41.6231 cm4
area 1 h4 - 0.0086mW m4 F 86.3067 dm'
~ o m e nal
t I~bff - a.wailroi kg&
inerOia 1 slug ff
1 grain ---- 1.355e2 kg m2
0.06479EQg = M.7980 mg
Mass 1 dram (avoir) --
- 1.m85 g = 0.001 77185 kg
1 drachm (apdth) 3.887e3g = D.003 887 93 kg
1 wnce pmy a apdh) - 31.1035 g ~ 0 . 0 3 11035 kg
1 az (avoir) -- 28.3495 kg
I lb =' 0.453 592 37kg
? slug I 14.5939 kg
7 sh cwt (US hundredwight) = 45.3592 kg
7 cwl (UK hundred might) = 50.8023 kg
1 UK ton -
- 1016.05 kg
-
- 1.016 05 tonne
1 shott ton --- 2000 Ib
DOT.185 kg
L 0.007 tonne

(Exact values are prlnted witfi an astellx)

P r t r l d e Coatings InspscOjon Manual OFlobinscm innin Technhl Support Lld..

Dcc,Nn TMA4147 l u e 0.2 Part 9 En$aKl19#-5.7
PEW 15 d 45
1.6 Non SI U n h and Qu- ISame Common SI Units.

Some Common SI U n k

QUAFl-lTW UNffS DEFINITION

Area squam rmtre m2
Vdum cubic rmtra m3
Densiry, lologram per cubic metre kshn
Current density ampere per square mdm /vm2
Erchange current denshy ampere per square m re ~ 4 d
Electric charge density coulomb per cubblc metre c/m3
Electric flux density coulomb per quare metre c/&
P m e r density watl per square metra Wlm
Permnivii farad per metre Flm
Thermal conductivily watt per metre kehrln W/(rn.K)
Faraday constant coubmb per md Uml

Protective k t i n g s ingsnspeclicmManual W*lobinscn lmln Technical Support Ltd.,

Doc.No: TMA0147 Issue 02 Patt 0 England 1984-5,7
Pagsi6d45
e 1.7 WeigM of Steel Plates in kg / sq.m.

ORabiisar Irwin Technical Support Ud..

Part Q England 1994-5,7
P%ge 17d46
t.8 Volume.

Pmtectivs Coatings Inspection Manual M o b i n m Imln Te~hnkalSuppolt LM.,

Doc.Na TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part B Engtand 19965.7
Page l a d 4 5
a 1.9 weight'- Pound / Kilo.

PmtecGve C d n g s lnopection Manual OAobinson Irwin Technical Support M..

~ N DTMAdll7
. l r u o 02 Pat D England 1984-5,7
PaplQd45
t.10 Linear Inches and Feet l Metres.

P r o t m e Coatings lrtspsctlon Manual Mobhsar Irwin Tschnlcal Support Lld.,

Doc.No: TMAd147 Issue 02 Pan 9 Endend 1994-5.7
Page 20 d 45
 A m I Volume:

@ PloteFtive Coathgs Inspadion Meousl

h . N a TMA-0147 I u e 02 Part0
Psge2l d45
ORobinson Irwin Techoical Sqppat Ltd.,
England 1904-5,7
I.12 Easy Guide to Conversions.

From To Calcutate

Temperature Celsuis Fahrenheit W +32

5

Fahrenheit Wslus (F"-321 x 5

9

Film Thimess Wet Dry k%EJxx%

(rnrcmn) 100

Dly Wet l2EudlQ

S.V. %

W.F.T = Wet Fllm Thickness

D.F.T = Dry Film Thickness
S.V.% = Solfds by Volume

P m t d s Coatinga Inspection Manual Irwin

~obbsu ~ Teehnkal S u p p i LM..
Doc.Mo' TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part9 Endand 1994-5,7
Page 22 d 45
Pw& Cathgs InspectionMawal ORobiim Irwin Technical S u p w Ltd..
Part a E n g l d 1094-$7
Pqa29d45
1.114 M i m e to mil or thou

25.4 microns = 1 mil (1 thau)

Protective W i n g s Inspection Manual mobinson Irwin Tachnlcsl Srrppart Ud..

Dae.No:TMA-0147 lssue 02 Pert 0 England 1984-5.7
P w 24 d 45
a -
SECTION 2.0 DAILY INSPECTION REPORTS CHECK UST. -
Identification of Areas.
Check that areas reported-an are deafly and exactly idenWed and recorded.
Draw up a suitable progress chart and cross-reference this with Daily Inspection
Reports.

Ambient Conditions.
Check that hygrometer is fllled with disHlled water and the wlck is dean and correctly
positioned.

Ensure that hygrometer Is rotated at 180 revoMiins per minute and that the wet
bulb reading Is constant after two succwsim wings.

Measure steel temperature in the area where the work Is being undertaken.

Calculate dew pint and relathre humidlty fmm the tables provided.

Record all informationon Daily Inspection Report.

Consult specification and paint data sheets to dstermtne whether the mndiions are
suitable for painting to proceed.

Surfaa Preparation.
Check that cleanliness is in accordance with the standard appropriate for the
contract, as detailed in the specificalion.

Measure and record surface profile readings.

Check that surface is free from dust, dirt, oil and other contamination.

Check for the presence of soluble cornion product salts. Does the specification
require such a test and, if so,is the level of salts below the requirements?

Wet Alm Thickness Measurements.

Hoid comb gauge at right angles to the surface.

Take measurements within 7 minute of coating being applled.

Consult data sheet or calwWe expected dry film thickness to ensure that D.F.T. will
be in accordance with specification.

Froteetlve Coatings I m p d b n Manual QRcbinrron lmin T ~ h n i c aSyppwt

l Ltd.,
Dos.No: TMA-0147' ISSUB 02 Part 9 England 1W 5,7
Page 25 d 45
e elcometec
Dry Film Thickness Measurements.
Zero and calibrate the gauge on steel similar to that being mated.

Surface prdlle, particulafiy, should be close b the value recorded for the surface.

Check that the coating is sufficiently dry for readings to be taken.

Record average and minimum values.

InaccessibleAreas.
Use inspection mirrw and torch.

Pay particular attention to underside and backs of pipewo4 backs of uprights.

Ovsrtoating Times.
Consult paint Manufactum's data sheets to ensure ittat coatings are applied in
accordance wfth the mmmendaiions for both minimum and maximum overcoatlng
times.

Note the effect of temperatuE on overcoa~ng6me.

Lower temperatures may require the minimum overcoating time to be increased.

Higher temperatures wlll require maximum overwating time to be deceased.

Paints.
Record the Manvfachrrefs name, paint, reference number and batch number from
tins on site.

Check that the reference numbers agree wlth the data sheets provided.

Check that the materials will meet the requirements of the spedfication.

Check that the mabtial is the correct type for the method of appllcatlon being
employed.

M&n Coafmgs inspection Manual QRobinsm lmin Technkal Support Ltd.,

Doc,Na: TMAd.147 I m e 02 Part 9 England 10965,J
Page26d45
 e elcometec
-
SECTION 3.0 BASIC CORROSION.

3.1 Principles of Corrosion.

The corrosEon of valuable equipment and plant sbuctures is going on a$out us every
day. Almost everywhere, ample evidence is available that a tremendous job of
prevention and protection needs to be accomplished.

If we am to be effective in controlling cornion, and in making an intelligent

selecHon and recommendation of protective mating systems, we need to understand
cleally the actual processes by which a clean, useful iron or steel structure can be
eventually reduced to a coflection of rusty scrap,

Nate.
This short Section on m o s l o n theory Is slimplified for clarity purposes. It is not
meant to train wlth a mind to making experts in Zhls area, but rather to give a sense
of the depth and scope of the topb.

Corrosion of lron -
The following reactlon shows us that the rwting of lron and steel C a two-fold
process involving:

a chRmicalchange of iron to iron oxide

and
an elecWcal prnces involving armnt flow

This pmcss is called an process, and in fundamental principles, is

ldentlcal to that occurring in such devices as motor car batteries, and flashltght dry
cells.

We can, in fad, oonstruct a by supplyhg the necessary

ingredients from the surrounding environment

oxygen
An electrolyte
A metallic pathway

The Corrosion Electrolyte -

An electmlyte is a sdution in water d salts or Other chemlcal compounds, capaMe of
conducting electrical current The current carryfng capactty of the electrolyte is due
to the presence of tiny, electrlcalty charged particles, called IONS, derived from the
salt or other chemical dissolved in U-I~water (see Figure 26).

Pmsctiva Coetinga lnspsetlon Manual QAobinsm lmin Technical Support Lid.,

m
,.4
1
,4
7
l Pati B England 1894-5,7
Page27d45
 lons -
Ions are formed by the splitting (on mMng wlth water) of s&, acids and caustic
chemicals into electrically charged fragments of the original chemifcal.

Both positlve and negative charges are created. These electrically charged chemical
fragments are present in great numbers (two ounces of table salt will split into 1023
ions, half (+) charge and half (-1 charge) and are Mghty active and energetic.

Their movement through the solulion, under the influence of the corrosion chemical
reaction, constitutes Rowofrough the electrolyte.

The presence of water is essential to the fornulation of the lons in the electrolyte.

lorn carmot form under completely dry conditions. Therefore, water and lons are
consMered together as functional pa* of the corrosion process.

The curtmtcanying efficiency of an ektrdyte Is largely determined by the number

of ions it contains. Thus a solution of tabre safi in water is an excellent conductor;
whereas, pure water, containing very few ions, C a poor cumnt conductor.

Figure 26
Hydrogen ( H+ ) and Hydroxyl( OH* ) Ions in Water

Pmtwlive CoaHngs lnspectlon ManuaF mFlobinscm lmln Technical Suppwt Ltd.,

Doc.No:TMA0147 b u e 02 Part e Endand 1994-5,7
Page 28 d 45
 We can now set up an cW%dyk cell or a corrasion battery to describe the type ol
rustlng suffered by steel in normal atmospheric or marine environments (as
distinguished from cornion due to specitic chemicals).

Thls co&n ba€bryexists wtmemr im is exposed to a mmbhation of oxygen.

water and ions. This combindon is known as the 'big three' of corrosion:

Oxygen -
All the oxygen we will ever need Is avallaMe in the atn~osphere,and all exposed
metal is constantly In contact with L.

Waaer-
The atmosphere, except for desert areas, b usuaHy rnohre laden. Either rndsture
vapour or dew droplets a# in contad w[th th8 Iron surface.

Ions -
Smog, salt spray, madm W s , Industrial soot and fumes, splash and spillage, soil
contamination - all these sources can pmTOvldeminerals, salts, acids or alkaline
materials such will dissolve in available moisture to produce ions.

Flguw 27 shows the tiny 'corrosion battw Hlhlch Wm prOduce m when wmnt
flows.

A greatly magntlied partion of the Iron surface is shorm (Figure 27). l n y adlacent
areas (not visible to the eye) act as anode and cathode. On, and just above, the
sutfam, moisture loaded with ions. serves as an electrolyte. Gaseous oxygen is
dissolved in the electrolyte, and is freely available to the surlace of the metal.

kte.
In this case, the electrolyte prwides the external drcut The IntEmal dmit Is
frwn
prwided by the metal part tiself, since t is highly a m d ~ c t i ~ e point to point.

pmhhu Coatings lnspatkn Manual W o b i Imh Technical Suppat Ltd.,

DDI,No: TMA4147 UU 02 England 1994-5,7
 Current Path ( External ) Oxygen, Moisture & Ions
at Surface

Current Path ( Internal )

Fmure Z?
M a n Battery ( Ready to Dischsrge )

P m t d e Coatings lnspsction Manual Mobinson lmin Technkal Suppofl Ud.,

Dac.No: TM4-Dl47 Issue 02 Part0 England 18965,7
' ge 30 0145
!a
The Cortosion Battery in Operation (Rgure 28).

At the anode, an atom of metallh: iron is convelted to Imn_lon. and Immediately

reacts with water to fm rust.

Current flow Is set up between the anode and cathode.

The small currents generated here are dissipated as heat through the adjacent body
of metal.

At the cathode, receFpt of the arrren? resulk In transformation of oxygen to GW&G

& resulting in a highly alkaline mlutlon of the sudace, as We caustic ion dissolves
in the moisture on the surtace.

At and above the surlace, current is canled by the dssdved ions.

As the imn anode is eaten away. a gmwlng depcsit of rust Forms.

Thls thy battery is replhxted millions of times over on a large iron surtaoe, so that
eventually the eye sees what appears to be a uniform layer of rust building up.

Note that the iron cathode Is not attscked, However. it performs Its function in
providing 8 site at which oxygen could undergo its necessary change to caustic.

This process wilt continue until:

a) all the iton Is comefled to rust,

or
b) something happens to wealcen or break the drcuit.

QRoMnsm Irwin Technkal SuppDlt Ltd.,

England l B W , 7
 Iran

Current Flow Lost As Heat

Figure 28
Anode Attack

Protective Coatings n
I- Manual QRobimson lmin Technical Suppoll Lid..
Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part9 Engfand 1994-5.7
Page 32 d 45
3.4 The Strong Acid Corrosion Battery.

A corrosion battery of great Industdal impwtance and frequent occurrence is that

formed by the action of sttwgly acidic materials on iron or steel. (See Figure 29).

Briefly, a vigows reaction m r s to dissohre the metal into solution at the

and transtoris hvdrooen (H') Into hydrogen gas bubbles (H2) at the cathode.
The reaction involved here Is a vigornus one, and will continue until all of the
available metal is consumed, or untll all available acid Is used up.

The dlssdved metal in this battery will not form rust (at Feast not initsally), but will
remain dissolved in the add electrolyle as an lron salt as long as sufficient moisture
is present and as long as an excess of acid is present. When the available acid is
consumed (for example, acid splash on steel), and the moisture evaporates
somewhat, copious rust will then form and become deposited over the corroded
areas of the metal suttace.

lron

Current Flow Last As Heat

-
Figure 29
Acid Corrosion Battery

Prd- Coathga Inspection Manual ORobinson Innin Technical Support LM.,

Doc.No: TMA-0147 h u e D2 Pall g England 1994-5.7
Page 33 d 45
 Situations ofkn a& where two or more dlffenm! metals are electlically mnnected
under condttions permMng the formatton of a 'corrosion battery'. A situation men
exists where one metal will be corroded preferentially in relatfonto the other fmtd to
which it is physically mnnected. This is termed 'Galvanic Corrosion'.

Galmnlc cwmsion is an extremely i m p o m oomwion process and one that Is

freauwrtfv encountered. The dncioles of aahranic corrosion mav achralhr be utilised
lo &r advantage in the c a ~ ~ ' ~ r ofo surfaces ~ o n by uiing sachcial metal
anodes or inorganic prolective coatlnw. It is p m i b l e to arrange many metals and
altoy!3 In a series, known as the 3
Sea Water (see Table I), which describes their relattve tendency to corrode.

Bearlng In mfnd that the metal located hlgher on the scale wWl conode preferenQRy
and thereby protect the mdal lower on the scale from corrosion attack, Zhe followfng
example may be set up:

R copper and zinc are connected mgtsher, the zhc will dissohre or be axroded
preferentlalb, thus protecting the copper. Since the metal attacked is &fined as the
anode, the zinc will then serve as an anodlc a m . The copper wlll be the cathodic
area of the metal protected. The lunctlon of each will be identical to that found in the
'corraslon battery' set up for the rusting d Iron. The intensity with which two metals
will react In this preferential manner may be measured by the distance between 2he
two metals In the Galvanic Smfe. Jhus, between brass and copper there woufd be
only a weak tendency for the brass to wnnde; whereas, r i m or magnesfum would
dissolve very readily to protect silver. It may be noted that magnesium is at the top
of the scale and will have a tendency to corrode in preference to any other metal
shown on the Gafvanlc Scale. Conversely, platinum, which is extremely Inert, never
corrodes preferentially. While the tendency to conode depends on the ldnds of
metals coupled together, the rate at which the conoding anode is attacked depends
on the relative of anodes and cathodes hooked together.

Pmtaetkrs Caatinp lndpection Manual ORdbhm I& T h n M Suppart LM.,

Oae.No: M-0147Issue 02 Peri Q England 19965.7
Page34d4-5
 e elcometec
Magnesium Ignobfe End
Magnesium dtoys
Zinc
Gdvanised skd
Alurninlum alloys
Cadmium
Mild steel
Wrought imn
Cast iron
Stainless steel (active)
Lead
Tin
-M
Nickel (active)
Yellow brass
Red brass
Copper
Bronze
Nickel (passive)
Stainless steel (passive)
Silver
Graphk
Gold
Passive End Platinum , Noble End

TaMe 1
Galvanic Series ofMetals and Alloys (Industrial)
in Sea Water

Pmtectivsw n g s lllspcml Manual GRoMnea lrrvin T e c h n i i Supp~llLtd..

-No: TMA-0117Issue Oi? Pat s Endand lssC5,7
-35d46
3.6 Galvanic Series.

Thus, if a small magnesium anode is coupled to a large area of steel {as In

protection of a shlp's hull), the anode area (belng small as compared to the cathode
area) will oorrode very readily. This is due to the enlre impact of the galvanic current
being ooncentrated on a small area of a c t k metal. (See Figure 30)

Conversely then, if the cathode area is small compared to the anode area (see
Figure 31), the corrosion of the anode mill be relatively slow, since the demand on
the anode is spread thin and any local spot loses little metal. It must be kept in mind
that the areas of each metal involved are those in electrical contact and not just the
areas of metal in physical contact. The area of metals in electrical contact will be
determined by those areas which are in contact with an external conduchve clrcuit
(electrolyte).

for example, In the use of rivets of one metal to fasten together plates of a different
metal, we flnd an excellent example of the possible effects of galvanic corrosion.

Ifsteel plates (anodes) were boned with copper rkr& (cathodes) only a very slow
corrosion of the steel would occur, since the galvanic corrosive effect is spread out
over a large area of steel.

On the other hand, if copper plates (cathodes) were bolted with steel rivets
(anodes), rapid rusting of the rivets would occur. The small area of rivets would be
attacked by all the galvanic current generated by the large copper plates and would
corrode rapidly. (See Figure 32).

mobinsm l h n Technical Support Ud.,

Part 9 Endand 1994-5,7
Page 38 d 45
 ste!d
Cathode

Magnesium
Anode

Fgure 30
Sewm Galvanic Comrsion

Figure 31
Mild Galvanic Corrosion
P i i d e Caatlng 1nqmd-m Manual aobjnsan Irwin Technical Support Ud..
OmNm TW-0147 Luue 02 Part 9 England 1994-5.7
Page37d45
 Copper (Cathode)

\
\
I
0
#
% H
- - - - - - w e

-
Right Very SLOW steel corrosion

Steel (Anode)

-
Wrong RAPID steel corrosion

Protathre C d n g s Inspection Manual i sonlmln Twhniil Support Ltd.,

mabn
Doc.No: TMA-0147 lswe 02 P M9 England 1994-5,J
P a p 3 8 dd5
 The presence of crevlces or pockets in the design of a steel structure presents a
special corrosion problem and one that is extremely difficult to combat successfully.
Crevices have a tendency to corrode at a far greater rate than the adjacent flat metal
areas. A sirnpllfled version of the 'corrosion battery' to examine crevice corrosion, is
shown h Figure 33; and once again, the essentials of Ihe corrosion processes -
-
oxygen, water, and ions must be present. Crevices certainly hold soluble salts and
liquid solutions of these safts, so more than enough water and ions are present to
form an electrolyte. The remaining ingredient involved is oxygen. As observed in the
iron 'cornion batlery' and in the galvanic ' c o r d o n battery', me change of oxygen
to caustic is associated with the cathode area (the area protected). If the two areas
of metal are involved in a 'corrosion battery', such as in Figure 33, the area exposed
to the most oxygen will become the cathode; thereby forcing the other area (oxygen
starved area) to a d as an anode and be m&d. This is the situation that exists in
crevice mmosion. The metal in the crevice is an oxygen starved area and is,
Werefore, subject to cormsion and acts as an anode.

It Is known fmm wWe fleld expemm mat It is very d i l t to stop mi$ type of
cornion. Application of a coating over the crevlce is usually not satisfactory for hnro
reasons:
1. Trapped salts and rust laden wltb mrrusion producls and water will promote early
blistering beneath the mating, leading to premature film failure.

2. The sharp edges of the Mev)ce are llkely to be inadequately mved wlth the
coating so that edge rusting can start promptly. Fllm rupture along the edges,
followed by progressive adhesion loss, w i H IBSult In unsatisfactory coating
performance.

The mast practical way to diminate crevice corrosion Ls to amid shuctural destgn
details that create crevice conditiwrs (lap welds, lap sectlm riveted together, etc.).
In existirig structures, crevices shwld be filled with appropn'ate mastic or fillers and
proper welding techniques shwld be observed. Weld spaner, pockets, cracks and
other crevice type spots in the area to be coated should be eliminated.

ORoblnson lnuin Technical S W Ltd..

P tB England IW 5 . 7
Page39dd5
 Circuit of Corrosion

Anode (Oxygen Starved Area) -

Figure 33
Crevice Corrosion

P m t d v e C d n g s lnspectlon Manual Woblnsm Imh Technical S u p p t Ltd.,

k . N a TMA-0147 Issue 02 England l W , 7
3.8 Ping Corrosion.

Pjmng comrsion takes heavy toll on macMnery and equipment due to the
concentration of the electtical cycle on a very small anodic area. When protective
films break down or pinholing occurs, local corrosion or pfttlng may follow. An anode
will be formed at the point where the film break occurs, and being in contact with the
external electrolyte, will thus bear the full onslaught of any attack by a surrounding
cathodic area. Generally, the smaller the anodic area that is in contact with the
electrolyte, the more rapid and severe the pltting will be.

3.9 Corrosion u M r Millscale,

Millsc.de scale is a form of Iron oxide created dudng the fabricatiwl of steel.
Although it is a very hard, brittle film adherlng to the steel surface, it is fragile and
subject to c W n g and spdling. Even worse, millscale scale is cathodic with respect
to steel; thus. 1causes accelerated galvanic cornion wherever a break in the scale
exposes the underlying steel.

Qbvlousty, painting w e r millscale scale is a poor practice. Its m p l e t e removal,

usually by abrasive blasting, Is recommended M o r e application of a protective
coating to steel.

The inevitable failure resulting from painting over mlllscale s d e is illustrated In

Figure 34. S i m millscale scale does not uniformly cover the steel surface, if a
coating is applied over it, there wlll be small bare steel areas between the coating
and the sled. A mating will not prevent waddng and spalling of the miltscale scale
unless it is a perfect ~nsulator.Since no coating is a petfecl insulator, some mrmsion
batteries will be set up. Iflocal breaks occut, small bare steel areas will be subject to
the attack of large cathodic areas.

As the pitting and rusblng result, as in Figure 34, the hilckup of rust under the e d p
of the millscale scale will break and eventually crack, loosening a small section af
the millscale scale. Since the coating has been applied directly wer the millscale
scale and has no adhesion to the steel Itself, when the millscale scale breaks away,
it is normally expected to find coating failure.

As continual bufld-up of rust deposits persists, them will be a loosening of the

coating which will be evidenced by pedfng, blistering and rupturtng, failure, and
eventual loss of adhesion.

Pidtscthrs W n g a Inapsetion Manual ORdrwm Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,

h . N a ThM4147 hna 02 Pan 9 Engaml 19sd6,f
Page 41 d 45
 Blistering and Blistering and
Rupture Failure
I

Figure 34
Painting over Millscale

Protective Caatlnga lnspectlon Manual @Rdneon Irwin Technical Supqat Ltd.,

Doc.No:TMAPl47 Issue 0.2 Part Q England 1-57
Pqe42d45
 910 ElecWochemiul N a t w ofAttack.

Electrolytic corrosion arlses from the fact that when a metal is immersed in an
electroTyte, it tends to dissolve. Solution of the metal occurs because the metal
atoms lose valency electrons and thus change into metal ions which pass into the
electrolyte.

me d i i u t i o n of the metal is dectrochemical In nature - that is it is basically a

chemical reaction accompanied by the passage of an electFic current. For this to
occur an el^^ potential difference must eldst bebeen one part of the structure
relative to the other part. A corrosion cell is then set up comprising an anode and
cathode between which electron flow is possible on account of the ability of the
metallic Structure to conduct electricity (see Figure 35): in a d t i i n migration of ions
in the solution in which the structure is immersed must be possible i.e. the solution
must be an electrolyte.

The anodk dlssolutlon, d say, iron, can be represented as:

Fe* + 2e
electrons
ions

-
Thus in the corrosion (or oxidab'on) process the imn loses electrons the anodic
prooess. These electrons are used up in the complimentary cathodic ptooess, for
which there are a number of possibilities:

1. Hydrogen ion reduction is the main cathodic p m s s observed in acid sdufions,

where me metal dissolves with the simultaneous evolution of hydrogen gas:

2H+ + 2e- + HZ
hydrogen ~Ydroge'l
ion
evolution

2 The most irnprhnl and mmMy obserued cathodic pmcem in neutmi or alkaline
aqueous environments is the oxygen reduction placess:

02 + 2 H20 +4a- + 40K

dissolved water hydtw
oxygen ions

@ Protective Coathp !nsp&n Manual

Dor.No:l M W 1 4 T *r* DZ Part Q
Page 43 d 45
Mcbinam lrwln Technical Support Ltd.,
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!!!!f elcometec
Corrosion is amrnpmied by the forrnatim of soild product by Interadon between
the anodlc and cathodic products:

~ e * + 20K -r FeIOHIe
f e r n s hydmxide
precipitate (white)

which is then, in oxygenated conditions, rapklfy oxidised to form hydrated ferric

oxide.

4 Fe(OH)2 + 02 + 2H20 + 4 Fe(OH)3

ferric hydroxide

This compound Is unstable and loses water to form hydrated fertic oxide or rust

Note the requirementof an adequate level of oxygen to allow (2)to prooeed.

Other cathodfc reac$ons Include:

M a l Ion Reduction -
~ e + ~ + e- + ~ e + ~

Metal Dbposilan -
cut2 c 2e- + cu
Note that the electrons required for all of these cathadic processes are supplied by
the anodic process. Thus the anodic and cathodlc processes are mrnprimentary;
ff either is stopped or cannot take place then the overall corrosion p m s s will
cease.

P m t d u e Coatings Inspaion Manual @Robinson l M n Technical Support Ltd.,

Occ.No: W-0147 h u e 02 Pati 9 England 1994-5,7
 Reduction of Metaf ions
ions or oxygen eg. ~ e + +

Milsratian

Simple Corrosion Cell

3:

Cathode
-
+zHY*
1. ydrogen Evolution (Acids)
2e- 2 2~ ~i*

2. Oxygen Reduction
*
0 2 2H20 2 4e- 40Hg

3. Bacterial (Anaerobic)
-
-
4H2 + SO4 2 4'"
+ 4H20

4. Metal Ian Reduction

(Acid Waters)
Anode Fe+++ + e- 2 Fe-

Metal Dissolution

Figure 35
Reactions on the Metal Surface in a Simple Corrosion Cell

@ Pmteahre Coatings Inspectian Manual

h M TMA4117 h w 02 Part Q
Page 45 d 45
M l i n s a r Irwin Technkd Support Ltd.,
England 19865,7
elcometec

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
INSPECTION MANUAL (PART 10)

COATINGS AND SURFACE DEFECTS

(INCLUDING SOME CASE HISTORIES)
 ,- This Manual is endorsed by the lnstltute of Corrosion.

Author.
This Manual has been Miten and edited by Mr. Brendan Rtzslmons, M.F.Com,
M.I.M.F., M+I.Mgt. Rae Author us a qualified NACE Senior Corrosion Technologist,
Coatings Inspector and Protective Coatings Specialist.

Acknowledgements.
The Author would like to thank the following persons for their help and assistance in
compiling the information contained in this Part of the Protecthe Coatings inspection
Manual:

T. Parry Sclentlffc and Technical Services

W. Allen W 8 J Leigh and Co
R. Hullcoop Ray HullcoopAssodates
and
Ian R.J. Cordingley Corday Assodates Ltd. for his help in ediling this Manual.

elcorndm I,a registeredtrademark of Hcometer insrmmenrs ~ t d

@Robinsonlrwln Technical Supporl Ltd., England 1996-7

All rights reserved. NO ~ r of t this document may be reproduced, transmittad,

transcribed, stored (in a retTieval system or otherwise) or transfaled into any
language in any form or by any means (electmnic. mechanical. magnetic, optical,
manual or otherwise) without the prior wrinen permission of Robinson !win
Technical Support Ltd.

Every effort has been made to ensure that the contents of this Manual are accurate.
However, no responsibility can be accepted for any e m 6 or omissions by the
Publisher: Elcorneter instruments Ltd., by the Author: Mr. Brendan F i i m o n s or by
the Institute of Comsion.

Protezth C m t i n pn-I Manual BRabinson Irwin Technical Suppoll Ud.,

Doc. NO:TMA-0161 lmue 02 Part 10 England 1096-7
 e elcometec
PART 10
CONTENTS

SECTION NUMBER AND I T L E

1.0 INTRODUCTION

20 -
TABLE OF DEFECTS DISCUSSED SHOWING 'TYPE' 'DESCRIPnON' EL
'CAUSES'
Figures 1 to 36 inclusive

3.0 CASE HISTORIES -

-
3.1 Case History No. 1 Corrosion Under Insulation

-
3.2 Caee History No. 2 Cratked Roof W i n g

-
9.3 Case History No. 3 Bubbles in Coating Film

-
3.4 Case History No. 4 Double Trouble with Dissimilar Materials

- -
3.5 Case History No.5 Out d Sight Out of Mind, Hidden Problem

@ P r b I d e Coating Inspection Manual

Doc No: TUFOl.1 I s u 02 Part 10
bRoblnson lmin Technical Supporl Ud..
England 1998-7
Pageld38
SECTION 1.0 - INTRODUCTION.
This Part of the Protective Coatings Inspection Manual deals with coatings and
surface defects, failures that are commonly fwnd withln industrial and marine type
painting. The text details the type of failure along with the description and causes
with a selection of photographs for several of the defects listed. The final Section of
this Part outlines several case studies which may help enlighten the reader on the
problems associated with paint and coating failures.

The aim of this Part is to give the Qualhy Control Inspector an understanding of
madlng and surface defects which will be useful for assessment surveys, future
recoating work, writing reports and specification review etc. It is not intended ta be
used as a 'Do it yourself manual' for failure analysis. Addiurnal reading is
recommended, e.g. Has's Paint Film Defects, where a full description of all the
possibilities associated with paint. coating and surface defects may be listed.

Many coating defect anawes are conducted in oonjunctfon with a qualified Chemist
or Coaeing Spedalist who has access to laboratory equipment, Thls may not always
be viable due to lxation, type of work, work schedule etc. and as such, the Quality
Control Inspector should make himselfherself familiar wfth the common defects
described within this Part of the Manual.

Fn the main. palnt and mating defects are either 'immediate' i.e. occur during or
soon after applicabn, or when fully cured and rxmsMered to be aged coalngs. On
thfs basis a 'process of elimination' may be the first course of action. Far example, if
a two pack paint remains soft a full day after application, a checklist of the following
items may eliminate a number of possibHities before the material Suppller is called in
to look at the problem.

1 Have the correcl materials been used?

2 Are the products within shelf life?
3 Was the midng carried out as pw Manufacturers data sheets?
4 Were any thinners or solvents mixed with tb products, R so what klnd?
5 What where the environmental conditions during and after appllcatron?
6 Were the overmating times / temperatures of (if any) previous coat observed?
7 What was the wet / dry Rlm thickness as compared to those specified?

lnvastlgation of the above may indicate Ute m a s m for the soft coaffng a d would
be essential before further investigation by the Supplier of the product The same
process of elimination can be conducted for cured and a g d coatings, taking into
account the environment to which the substrate is exposed i.e. hot pipework,
immersed substrate etc. The Quality Control Inspector must be careful with the
description of a 'defect' since what may be considered to be a defect by one Client
may be perfectly acceptable to another. Examples of this can be found with chalking,
blooming and wrinkling, to name only three.

Protective hatinge Inspection Manual QRobimon lmln Teehnkal Support Ltd..

Doc. No: TMA-0161 Issue M Part 70 England 1996-7
Page 2 ol38
 SECTION 2.0 -TABLE OF DEFECTS.

* Prrit&e Coatings Inspection Manual

D e N a M - 0 1 6 1 l r u 02 Pad 10
P q e 3 of 38
ORaMnwn lmrin T e d m M Suppat Lld.,
England 1ssg-7
! ! f elcometec

e i.e. metres

P r d e d b Coatings lnapsctlm Manual BRoblnson lmin Tffihnical Support Ltd..

h. NO:TMA-0161 Issue 02 Part I 0 England 1996-7
Page 4 of 38
 f?elcometec

0 Proteztwe Coethgs I n s p d o n Manual

Dm. N a ThM-01.1 luue 0.2 Part 10
Page 5 d 38
ORobjnson Irwin Tachnkal Suppwt LM.,
England 1998-7
! ! ! t elcornetec

deeper shade than

Protecthe Caatlngs Inspection Manual ORobinson Irun'n Techmica! Support Ltd.,

Doc. No: TMA-Dl61 lssua 02 Part 10 England I W - 7
Page 8 of 38
 e elcometec

@ Prolaclive Cbatings Lmpectlwr Manual

Doc. NO:TMA-0161 hru 02 par^
Pm7ol38
lo
QRobinson Imin Technical Suppotl Ud..
Endand 1986-7
 mature failure
coating and reacts wkh t
ferrous substme. Eerty

be nm atf from a rusty surfac

above a soundly coate
surface. Assuming e dele

penetration of 'peaks' hrough

a paint and cause rust
spotting. May also resub from
metallic contarninaYmn of a
coated surface by, say,
grinding dust etc.
SPponltkah The coeling appears to be soft A soap formation reaction
'See Figura 32 and sticky. Can be sporadic between esters, a b l i end
Isolated spots or an overall water. Often found h alkyd and
effect. oil coathgs. Notably found on
concrete coated structures and
coating used in mnjunctbn
with cathodic protectmn.
WlmM Old stock, heaviiy pigrnsnted
A tern used to describe the
senred pignantlsolii in a paint, wrong formulation or
liquid prior to appMkm. contamination of pmduct.
Foundduring paint mixtng.
Sofwml mlng Eruption 01 the surface d t h e Incornpatlbls p i n t systems
paint fllrn. Wrinkling and used. Topcoals with a stmng
blisterfng whkh leads to a solvent blend can attack
weak surface and ultimete previous and weaker solvent
breakdown. blended coatings.

Pmteaivo W n g a lnepection Manual ORobimn Irwin Technical Support Ltd.,

Doc. No: TMd-0161 Issue (12 Pert 10 England 1996-7
maof38
M . h m COLm@3lg.ibn U " " a l i 3 R d b l n a ~Irwin
1 TaehM S
umLM.,
Doe. No: TMA-0161 Issue 02 Part 10 England 1086-7
Page Q ot 30
 -1
MimObdng d a Topeort on a 23dt Und#lylng Paint

figure 2
Fonign Prtlwlm Conternination in ths Palnt Film Prodwen a 'Bitty' Rnbh

P ~ ORobiraon
~ lmln TechnM Suppart Ltd.,l
Doe.NaTMMn61 W 0 2 Parl70 Edand 1gBg7
Faplod38
e elcometec

Figure 3
Blisming Fwnwdon a Coating which wan u6ed in Conjunctionwith h l h d i i
-on

Figun 4
Blistering d a Coal Tar Epoxy which wen S u m to Imm6#ion Prior to Full
Cum

ORobinwn Irwin T & h d E q p d Ud.,

Doc. No: TMA-Dt61 lssw 02 Psrt 10 -1W7
Pwllda9
 Rgule 5
-
Brwh I Drsg :-Unsver~Brush Applied Coating Incorrect Choice of Malerial

J -
aw@ 6
-y Applisd Coatings Creating BubWer in the Coating

P*~lnpoeliglMarvral DRob(naar l d n Technial Ud.,

Doc.klMWlBIb~mW Part 10 En- 1698-7
mf2d38
 FQure 7
-king ( W h i i Pomh) on n Pdnt Film due to Binds 0.grdratar

Figure 8
Up Shot of Chscking. M m a s d to Topmat
 Figum B
-
on Ssvsrs Cl&g was ths Outtome

rf'
awithin a Paint Fill
?!!f elcometec
 e elcornetec

Ftgure 15
Feding (right) h o c i a t e d with Low Quali Pigmentation

Figure I 6
Flaking of Topcolt d w b Moisturn Contmillltkn

Protective Ca&p l n s p w h Mmal QRob~nsonlmtn Tt~hnkPlSuppon Lrd,

Doc. No: TMA-0161 Issue 02 . Pslt 10 En- 1-7
Pape17d38
 flgure 17
Flooding Delect on a Gloss Finish Paint

Figure 18
Haxagod Cdls whjch m Formsd in a typical Flotation Odbet

~ ~ ~ k
Doc No:lM44lBt LDMOZ
a p d b n
Part30
~ ORoblnwn Ifwin T a h h l Support Ud,
En- 1806-7
C
PagO15d38
 Fungi Oruwth-A to P a i d Cawum
RdeCollthp-Wnl ORP#noon I&I TedwkU Slppon Ud,
P a l 10 *s#-7
Pago tBd88
 -
~~~~
Da.kTMAOI61 k m 0 2 W 10
OF&W~mk*rhrT&~nlesl~Ub.
England l W 7
20 d 38
8 elcometec

Figure 25
Pinhole8 in a Topcoat of Zinc Silkate I Epoxy Duplex System

Figure 26
Lack of WnWnmm m d lots of Molmre Fksull

m*colllhak*pct&l-
Doc. No: TMMllBl h u e 02 Part 10 En@nd ?-7
C
-22d38
 Figm28
-
Close Up Shot of Figure 27 Nom Cracklng within Run of Plhrt

ORoblnerrn lmin Tech- Support !A,

Doc. No: TMA-0161 k w 02 P a t 10 En- 1-7
PRQE23 d 98
 FFwhich
on Thermal S p y Akm~n~un .=w m E x p o d to
Rwt
afw Appllwtion
 -
Law Film Thickrime and Uneven Coating Rust is Wm buteom
.
-7.
. ,. ... .
.,. * ...:!
.~. .. . ;-. ,:;, ,"vi, ;*>>;,:,<, ,;.,:5 ; . *:.;
. , , ." . .,<?jr..
f.r,,.. :--,.:,;, . , ~
,,, - ?.~
:.
.. .: ;
l...-..l,-,..ti-:
, ,
..?..
, ,..-.,. , . . 1 1; d,.';:.'.
. .'..J . > ? : . ..k,.
~ '.. * ., *. . ,
..,,L: ., - , 5: ;

.,; . ._ . ..- . .. ,
. - s ~

,-: '
,
,
.
;.'.,.;i.
..
t.,
.- .":%
,
.\;
.
 Figure 35
w v e Thi- and Slow Drying RDducsd thin Wrlnlding Effect
 -
SECTION 3.0 CASE HISTORIES.
3.f -
C.le H i m No.1. Cowmion Uncbr Insulation .

Fdlovvdng a d n g s and mrrosiort survey on a petrochemical site, damage to the

thermal hm~latlonm a pmcess wssd was repolted. The damage to the thermal
hsuleflon WEB caused by foot traffic (e;ccess),scaffold Impact damage etc. TMs
demage led IDwater i n g m under the aluminium outer cover (cladding) of the
thermal~~ ami anto the rnlnerat wool ~nsu~alion.
The survey wort MghligMed the concerns to the resident Engineer who instigaied
r
taCrJ m w d of the thermrd insuklion for a thorough irmstigatlon. The mineral wod
farnd to be cwnpletely smhmmted wlth waW, ewn in locatlans where no
damage had oca~mdm the rJumkrium dadding. On removal of the wet mineral
wod, mnoskn and surface pMng was evident wlth no traces of surface
cmhgs. fhe exlent d the wet insulaflon kdlcatd that the mined wool had
soaked-up the weter like a sponge, forming an elmmlym, and thus a m m b n cell,
(leBr confirmed in s R n u M tesk). The plWlng was so bad, near pwttratlon was
found on the 6mm plate submate.

Vendw lnspectlon d d e d that ihe & had been coated with only one
mat of epoxy paint at 50 micmns dry Rlm thickness at the date of manufacture.
~ ~ C a a h p I ~ M m u a l D W m M n Technical Suppart Ltd.
Doc. No: M % Lssue
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-28d38
?!f elcometec
Remedial W&

The vessel was blest cleaned and the deep pimng filled with weW metal. The whole
area was then reblasted to an Sa3 standard prlor to application of two aoak of
epoxy phenolic with a dry film tMckness of 250 mlcrons. All preparation and mating
operations were conducted under controlled conditions.

New thermal insulation was applied wHh additional eII3phasis on ovedap areas,
water protection points, mastic jolnh and, of course, a 'DO NOT WALK ON THIS
VESSEL' sign was attached.

@ PidsFthre Coatings- I
Doc NO:T W 6 l h u e 12
Manual
Part 10
Page 28 d 38
1 Clem all a m free fmm dl, grease, dirt. mtbture e k
2 Apply one ad of elumkrhrm epmcy paint by bnwhlrdler.
TMs coalkg used to seal the as- and stop my Meding ngmugh the
m=Q--

The coahp were appaed durhg the summer months ensurlng that the coetings
muld be app#ed and cured wllhout contamlnatlon by rain a.
lnspectlonof the cured coetlrgs w d e d a good m,hard Mwith good dour
and a pleesent v-
 The followfng year (10 months later) the Owner of the building noticed small cracks
had appeared on the coaing. No particular paitern or location was found for the
cracks although they did appear to be confined to the topcoat.

Investigation was conducted by the palnt Manufacturer, who tupplled a quantity of

palnt to the Builder to undertake repairs. An assurance was ghren at this Ume that no
more cracks would appear.

Within one month of the remedial painting additional crack appeared. Chce again
the palnt Manufactumrsupplied additional paint which was applied R the cradrs. No
further Inspection was conducted until the following year when the cracking was
found to be more extensive than before, with some of the crackfng extending 4mm in
width. The Owner of the bulld~ngdecided to bring In independent painting
consuftants who conducted a full survey of the coated area and took samples for
labomtory analysis. The laboratory report concluded that wmpatibllity and adhesfon
between mats was satisfactory but the properties of the epxy topcoat compared
with the asphalt coating were different with regard ta flexibility, elongation etc. This
difference in properties was put to the test on a location which was sublect to
variable changes in temperatures and mowment 1.e. summer I winter conditions
exposed roof, warmer substrate (due to insulated mf)and slight movement due to
some wood seclions of the structure.

The report also highlighted the fact that a large section of the epoxy coa!ing on the
roof was chalkjng. This was due to degradation of the binder in the epoxy resin
subject to ultraviolet sunlight.

Remedial Work:

Although some month passed More an agreement was reached, the palm
Supplier ewntually agreed with the independent report that ihe paint specification
was wrong and costs for rectification would l~carried by the paint Manufacturer. A
specialist roofing Contractor was employed who removed what they could of the
paint system prior to relining with a flexible roofing compound and fibreglass matting.
Inspections up to five years have shown no subsequent defects.

Plot& Coatings lnspsction Manual ORoWnson lmln Twh* Svppart ~ t d . ,

Doc No: Nunn l w u 02 Part 10 Endand 1886-7
Page 91 d 98
8 elcometec

-
Visw ot Ihe hating S y a m Black Asphalt, Muminiurn and
Epoxy Topcoat, Craoks are Visible within the Topcoat.

Ptwdve Incpdon Mmal ORabinmn Irwin Techrtical Support Ud.,

Doo.No:TMA-O16l kwR2 Put 10 w and1 W 7
-32d38
 A Claw Up S M of the Coating a f b s ths Bubblan Bum
Subject: BubbMlisteFs in Swimming Pwl Coating - 5 months old.
~ a lacal authority conxete swlmnlng
M o d i t i o n and upgra(Ljng was c o n d u to
pcml In line with new leglslatbn on Health and Safety- The contract included new
pumps, showers, safety dk, steps &. and on that basis the c o n s u Engineers
~
tender dowment m e s t e d quotations from rnaln Canhada~to conduct all the
work with specialist su-rs.

The wmacl was placed with a major CMI Engineering Contractor who commenced
the work with a number of specialkt w m m
The palnt[ng spedRcatian was very vague and spiciiied that the &ng cmthg be
cleaned, touched up in I c d W areas of paint breakdorm and given Unw overall
coats of chlorlnabd rubber, at a day film thickness recommended by the painting
manufadurn. The M n g system was also a chlorinated rubber and durlng
inspecllonwas found to be In excellent mdilion w4th no areas of paint bmakdown.

As the sp&W paint syslem consisted of a onepa* thermoplastic matlng ihcMI

Cwltractor decided to let his own labour appty the chlorinated rubber pahf mther
than get a spectalist painting Cwrtractw wlth the necessary MIISto apply coatings.
lhmatrngs were duly applied and the swimming pod put Into sewice.
Pdsctive Coetlngs- I Manual ORatrinem lwln Tochntd S y p n Ltd.,
~~
Oo;MTHCDIII U.02 P M 10 Englpnd 1-7
Fap33d38
 WrtMn five months the swimmlng pod E n g h r notlced small sections of what he
described as 'rubbet within Zhe filter systm. Thls process continued on a daily basis
and within a matter of twO weeks the swimrnlng pool had b be dosed and emptied
to assess the problem. Durlng the emptying of the swimming pool small secffons of
me 'rubbet' were visible floating on the top of the water.

80th the consuMng Engineers and the main CMI Contractor were requested to
inspect the dry swimming pool. It was evident f m the initial inspection that there
was a paint problem, therefore the paint rnanufamm was requested to inspect the
painted pod. Blisters and bubbles wera visible across the coating and a laboratory
test confirmed the detachments found in the filter system were flakes of dried
chlorinated rubber palnt. Only afterdiscussions with all parties did the extent of the
coating fallure become dear.

1 The paint ManYFactunr was unaware of the project and as such could not offer
advice on preparation 1 application, film thickness elc. not to mention Health and
Safety.

2 An i n c o r n grade of materid w85 selected. Sprayfng grade materlal was used

instead of brushing grade.

3 Urrskllled labour applied the matlng, whlch after imstigation, was found to have
been applied by brush and then rolled over to give a smooth Wish.

4 Only ha8 the film thfckness of the chlorinated rubber was applied than w ~ l d
have been recommended by the paint Manufacturer.

5 No recads of environmental conditions, owmating D m ek. were available.

Labomtory Mnduded that the mating conLained ' m h t and air vdds'
created by poor appllcatlon technique and fast overcoating.

mmemd work:

A spedallst pelnting Contractor was employed by the consulting Engineers to

remove all the new and original coatings and re-apply a concrete surfacer plus a
four m t chlorinated ~ b b system.
r The CMI Contractor was charged for all
remedial oosts. Incidentally, the swimming pod was also closed for three weeks to
the public.

P m t b Codhp InspecWon Manual bRoMrmon I d n fachnksf Support M.,

Doc. No: TMA4161 Issue 02 Pa14 10 England IgsG-7
Pw34d9B
f
!! elcometec

C ~ Sectional
M Vkw of the Colding -
Nak tha Entrapped Air Voide

Pmtective Coatings lnepectkn Manual OWmon lmln TochnlcPl Suppan hd.,

Part 10 England 1WE7
-35d38
c!! elcometec
U Crs H- -
No. 4 Double TmuMe with Uhhilar M ~ r

wood i Concma Coamd udng O m eolrting Material Type

The &om picbm could be termed a dual defed. A water based elastomeric coating
wasappliedmboth~wood(topsecllondtheplcture)end~theconcreteslab
Wch wats supporting the wood. As you can see the mult was severe craddng.
Thb ctaddng was the mult d severe co8Ung over-thrdatess, trapped mdshtm and
powly chmsen paM m m s . No p r h m wem appHed to either the concrele or the
wad, thls app#caflon may have helped to p e n m the surface and so prevent Ute
fdlowlngeffects.

Durlng Ihe life of the item, the rnoishrre wiWn the wnc& was drawn into
the graln bounttaries of the wood, whlch subsequently caused the wmd to well,
cradt ttte pdrd film and on reshrlnking, flake the paht df. 10096 Aaklng was
obiservedonthewood~wlthhteninchesofbwood!~jdn.withIhe
Iwmhlng am&3 having mere cracked coating, and of cwrse, total coating failure
mkdtable.

The coating to the armmb m i a b d Inted for some years although no

meintenance could be conducted and full removal and moating was the only
sokltion.

P t o t ~ ~ I ~ ~ a l ORobins~lImin Tlchnksi Slppat Lid,

Da.No:TMA-O161km02 Pab4 10 England 1988-7
P€ge5(1d38
 concm:
Check mdsture content, this should generally be bdow 85% Chedc surface
preparaiiontcondiion. Specialist advlce should be sought Check paint systems.
Again specialist advlce should be sought. A test patch should be considered.

Wood;
Wood Is a p o m s and natural subslance and as such rnorement is Inevitable.
Correct seasoning of the wood. preparafion and correct palnt systems am essential.

Prolectivs Coatlngs Impdon Manud O R o b i m lmin Irochnlcal S q p a - ~LM..

Om. M TMA-0161 *sue 02 Part 10 England 1868-7
PageWd38
5.5 - -
Came Hietory No. 5 Out of sight Oul of Mind, Hidden Probbms. •

Millscale with Adherent Paint Film

Loo8~1

The above piclure was shot by a resident Englneer who took dellvery of a vessel
dudng a m-on project on a petrochemical site. Albhough the paht looked good
on arrhral to slte. *in b d v e months flakes of coating were found around M e d
c o n d o n s etc. where essential site maintenance had been conducted.
lnvestlgatian remaled that all of the coating had been applied aver tightly am&
mlllscale and no sub prepamtition h d taken place. The detachment wes not due
to poor adheslon of the paht krl because of the millscale disbanding from the
substmL. This wss more prominent in areas in proximity of steam lines, along slde
the wssel, since millscale expan& and cmtmcfs at a different rate lu steel,
parhlarly hot or cold areas wlll promote disbondhg. The Manufacturer of the
wssd tiad the prepamlkm and coating mrk to a Contractor (who is
no lorq8r in buskss) who had merely applii the peint system to Re miltscale with
Ihe assumption that the millscale was lnEact and thus would remein so for tlw life of
ihe vesd, the paint could not fall ofR

The Contractor was unaware of the process of corrosion, and that millscale is
cathDdlc to the steel subslrate, nor that it is unstaMe and crack3 and spalb
espedally In amas of constant thermal cycthg (i.e. steam lines).

Total mmcnd of the palnt and millscale was required along with the application of a
suitaMe paint system. Full independent lnspectlon was utillsed on thls accaslon.
P w -I Manual Q W m I d n T.chnical Suppart Ud..
Doc. No: tMkM%ll8mm 02 Pm10 EJand 1888-7
Fbge38d38