Chapter 3

DESIGN PROCESS AND ITS STRUCTURES

3.1. Introduction
Developing a manufacturable product is not an easy job. This chapter presents some methods that help
achieve quality products. Rather than making a detailed study, only an overview of designing process is
attempted here.
3.2. Features of design process
The following features can be observed in a design process.
Iteration
Decision-making
Conversion of resources
Satisfaction of need
Design is completed in many phases. In each phase, repeated attempts are required to accomplish the aim.
A satisfactory conclusion can be reached on, only after a number of trials.
Decision-making is essential for a designer to select one out of several. A designer often comes across
several equally acceptable alternatives to meet some end. In such conflicting situations, designer has to
make the best decision.
In any design process, there is conversion of resources such as time, money, talent, materials and other
natural resources.
All designs are aimed at satisfying some human need. Needs, whether important or unimportant is the
starting point of design.
3.3. How a design is born?
In a broad sense there are two methods by which a design comes into existence.
Design by evolution (Traditional Design)
Design by innovation (Modern Design)
Design by evolution
This implies the traditional method of design in which the objects and articles that we see around has
taken its present form by gradual change of time. If one looks at history it can be seen that most of the
tools, equipments, implements, took a long time to acquire their present form. Things changed gradually
with the passage of time. Each change was made to rectify some defects or difficulties faced by the users.
Bicycles, calculators, computers, steam locomotives etc. all went through a process of evolution in which
designers tried one concept after another. Even today this process is being used to some extent. However,
this evolutionary process is very slow. i.e., it took a very long period of time to occur even a slight
modification. The main reason for this slow evolutionary process of design was the absence of proper
information and design data records.
In modern design situations the evolutionary methods are not adequate because of the following reasons.
1. The traditional designing did not consider the interdependence of products. They were concerned about
only one component /product. But in the modern world, the existence of one product is dependent on
another in some way or other.
2. In the past, production was on small scale. Thus the penalty of a wrong design was tolerable. But, in
the present time, production is on large-scale basis. As a result, any penalty of a wrong design will cost
great loss.
3. Requirements of the customers of today’s world changes so frequently. Traditional design lags behind
the advanced product & process technologies available today.
5. Traditional design methods cannot cope with competitive requirements of the modern world.
Due to the above reasons modern design problem cannot be handled by traditional methods.
Design by Innovation
Since the traditional design method failed to cope with modern design requirements, nowadays almost all
designs are made by innovation. i.e., developments of a product by following scientific and purposeful
effort.
The innovative design is entirely different from the past practice of evolutionary design. Here the
designer’s task is greatly magnified. He has to design and create something, which did not exist yet. Here
he tries to solve the design problem in a systematic and orderly manner. This approach is similar to
analytical problem solving.
However, an innovative designer faces the following difficulties.
1. He has to collect and evaluate information on a product, which is non-existing yet.
2. Necessity of analyzing complicated interaction of components.
3. He has to make predictions regarding its performance.
4. He has to ensure the technical and economical feasibility of the product.
Notwithstanding the above difficulties, there are eminent experts like Morris Asimow, J.E. Shigly, Dieter
etc have attempted to systematize the design process. This systematized steps in design process is called
Morphology of Design. The best way in which any problem can be solved is to break up the problem and
to try for a solution in an analytical method. This approach of problem solving is also adopted in the
Morphology of design.
3.4. Problem-solving Methodology
Knowingly or unknowingly we follow six basic actions when we try to find solution of any problem.
1. Establish or convince ourselves that there ‘is’ a problem. Or we understand that a solution is needed.
2. Plan how to solve this problem
3. By analyzing the problem we decide what is actually required from the problem-solver. Or we decide
the requirements.
4. Generate alternative solutions.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Present the acceptable solution.
3.5. Morphology of Design.
Morphology means ‘a study of form or structure’. Morphology of design refers to the time based
sequencing of design operations. It is a methodology of design by which ideas about things are converted
into physical objects. The logical order of different activities or phases in a design project is called the
morphology of design.
3.6. Design Process- Simplified Approach
A simplified approach to designing as outlined by Morris Asimow is given below. According to him the
entire design process in its basic forms consists of five basic elements as given below.

Design operations imply the various processes done during designing. These
include
Searching for possible alternatives systems to satisfy a need.
Formulating a model for analysis purpose.
Materials selection, etc.
But in order to carryout the above processes (i.e., design operations) a lot of information is required. The
required informations may be broadly classified into two.
1. General Information
E.g. Scientific Laws
Information on market trends etc.
2. Specific information.
E.g. Information on manufacturer’s catalogue
Materials science handbook etc.
Once the designer has obtained the necessary information he can start design operations. The design
operations give outcomes. The outcome may be in the form of
Computer print outs, or drawings.
Next stage is the evaluation of this outcome. The purpose of evaluation is to decide whether this outcome
is able to meet the need. Here a comparison between the capabilities of the outcome and the need is
carried out. If the outcome is sufficient to meet the need, the designer goes on to next step, otherwise the
design operation is repeated.
3.7 Detailed Morphology of Design
A design project goes through a number of time phases. Morphology of design refers to the collection of
these time phases. The morphology of design as put forward by Morris Asimow can be elaborated as
given below. It consists of seven phases.
Phase 1. Feasibility Study.
This stage is also called conceptual design. A design project always begins with a feasibility study. The
purpose and activities during feasibility study are
To ascertain there really exists a need [ie the existence of need must be supported by necessary evidences,
rather than the outcome of one’s fancy]
Search for a number of possible solutions
Evaluate the solutions
i.e. is it physically realisable?
Is it economically worthwhile?
Is it within our financial capacity?
Phase 2 Preliminary (Embodiment) Design.
This is the stage art which the concept generated in the feasibility study is carefully developed. The
important activities done at this stage are:
Model building & testing
Study the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions.
Check for performance, quality strength, aesthetics etc.
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Phase III: Detail Design

Its purpose is to furnish the complete engineering description of the tested product. The arrangement,
from, dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of all individual parts are determined. Also, the
materials to be used and the manufacturing process to be adopted etc. are decided. Finally, complete
prototype is tested.
Phase IV: Planning for manufacture
This phase includes all the production planning and control activities necessary for the manufacture of the
product. The main tasks at this phase are
Preparation of process sheet, i.e. the document containing a sequential list of manufacturing processes.
Specify the condition of row materials.
Specify tools & machine requirements.
Estimation of production cost.
Specify the requirement in the plant.
Planning QC systems.
Planning for production control.
Planning for information flow system etc.
Phase V: Planning for Distribution
The economic success of a design depends on the skill exercised in marketing. Hence, this phase aims at
planning an effective distribution system. Different activities of this phase are
Designing the packing of the product.
Planning effective and economic warehousing systems.
Planning advertisement techniques
Designing the product for effective distribution in the prevailing conditions.
Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use
The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design all necessary user- oriented features. The various
steps are
Design for maintenance
Design for reliability
Design for convenience in use
Design for aesthetic features
Design for prolonged life
Design for product improvement on the basis of service data.
Phase VII: Planning for Retirement.
This is the phase that takes into account when the product has reached the end of useful life. A product
may retire when
It does not function properly
Another competitive design emerges
Changes of taste or fashion
The various steps in this phase are
Design for several levels of use
Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence.
Examine service-terminated products to obtain useful information.
3.8. Methods of Innovative Design
As we know, innovative design is an organized, systematized and logical approach for solving a design
problem. There are two design methods for innovative design.
Design by creative design route
Engineering Design
Design by creative routs [Creative Design]
This is a design method that demands maximum ‘creativity’ from the part of the designer. Hence this
method is also called creative design. Here the designer finds solutions to problems by allowing his
creativity aspects grow in a particular manner.
Creativity [S94, W95, W98, S03]
Majority of designs belong to variant design, where the designer simply modifies an existing system. But
the success of engineering design depends on the modes of thinking and acting distinctively different
from others. A creative designer is distinguished by his ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas
and concepts into meaningful and useful forms. Design is commonly thought of as a creative process
involving the use of imagination and lateral thinking to create new and different products.
Qualities of a creative designer [S96, S00, S03]
The creative designer is generally a person of average intelligence, a visualiser, a hard worker and a
constructive non-conformist with average knowledge about the problem at hand.
Generally, a creative designer has the following qualities.
Visualization ability.
Creative designers have good ability to visualize, to generate and manipulate visual images in their heads.
Knowledge
All designers start their job with what they know. During designing, they make minor modifications of
what they already know –or, creative designers create new ideas out of bits of old designs they had seen
in the past. Hence, they must have knowledge of past designs.
Ability to manipulate knowledge
The ability to use the same knowledge in a different way is also an important quality of a designer.
Risk taking
A person who does not take the risk of making mistakes cannot become a good designer. For example,
Edison tried hundreds of different light bulb designs before he found the carbon filament.
Non-conformist
There are two types of non-conformists:-constructive and obstructive. Constructive non-conformists are
those who take a firm stand, because they think they are right. Obstructive non-conformists are those who
take a stand just to have an opposing view. The constructive non-conformists might generate a good idea.
But the obstructive non-conformists will only slow down the design process. Creative designers are
constructive non-conformists, and they want to do things in their own way.
Technique
Creative designers have more than one approach to problem solving. They are prepared to try alternative
techniques, till they reach a satisfactory solution.
Motivation
They always motivate others in the design team. In such a favourable environment creativity is further
enhanced.
Willingness to practice
Creativity comes with practice. Creative designers are ready to practice for a long enough period.
Roadblocks to Creativity
Fear of making a mistake
Unwillingness to think and act in a way other than the accepted norm.
Desire to conform to standard solutions.
Unwillingness to try new approaches
Fear of criticism
Lack of knowledge
Overconfidence due to past experience
Unwillingness to reject old solutions
Fear of authority
Difficulty in visualization
Inability to distinguish between cause and effect
Inability to collect complete information
Unwillingness to be different

Methods to enhance Creativity

Use of analogy
Asking question from different view points
Memories of past designs
Competitive products
Deliberate day-dreaming
Reading science fictions, etc.
Intuition [S’01]
Intuition means sudden ideas or flashes of inspiration and involves complex associations of ideas,
elaborated in subconscious mind. Intuitive ideas lead to a large number of good and even excellent
solutions.
Creative Design Route [W95, 94, 98, 9’00]
Creative design route is the procedure through which a creative design is born. The success of this design
lies with the creativity of the designer. Creative design route can be practiced by following the sequences
shown in figure.
During preparation period, the designer analyses the need and collect all the necessary information
required at various stages.

Concentration is the period when the designer digests all the aspects of the problem situation and tries
various possible combinations.
The next step is the incubation period. The designer relaxes away from the problem for some time.
Illumination is the sudden insight and throwing up with a solution.
The final step is the verification. Now, testing and inspection of the design is done and the details are
completed.
For a designer using creative methods for design, habitual or familiar methods must be avoided.
(ii) ENGINEERING DESIGN (W 96)
Another procedure for obtaining innovative design is Engg. Design. Apart from creativity-
approach, this is a logical and intellectual attempt to solve design problems. It largely depends on
discoveries and laws of science.
The different steps in Engg. design process is given below: -
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Recognition of need
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_ Definition of the problem
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_ Gathering of Information
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_ Conceptualization
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Communication of the design
Since all design projects are meant for satisfying some need, any design work starts with Recognition of
the need. The need for a design is initiated by either a market requirement, the development of a new
technology or the desire to improve an existing product.
Once the need has identified, the next step is to define the design problem. This is the most critical step in
the design process. The definition of the problem expresses as specifically as possible, what the design is
intended to accomplish. It should include objectives and goals, definitions of any special technical terms,
the constraints on the design and the criteria that will be used to evaluate the designs.
The success of a design project depends on the clarity in the definition of the problem. Need Analysis is
the technique used to define the problem(Chapter 6).
The next step is collecting information. In many phases of deign process a large quantity of information
may be required. The required information can be obtained from textbooks, journals, or other agencies
(See Art. 6.4)
The conceptualization step involves, finding several design ideas to meet the given need. Inventiveness
and creating is very important in this step.
The different ideas conceived are weighted and judged in the evaluation step. The advantages and
disadvantages of each idea against its performance, cost aesthetics etc is valued.
After evaluation, the best design is emerged. This final design with every detail is furnished in last step-ie
communicating the design.

Common features between Creative Design & Engg. Design (W.94)

The preparation phase in creative design and need analysis in Engg. Design is more or less common. Both
steps deal with analyzing the need.
In both design methods brainstorming and Synetics can be applied.
Reviewing is applicable in both design methods.
For both deigns, the success depends on the clarity with which the need statement is prepared.
Testing and inspection is applicable for both designs.
Difference between Creative Designs & Engg, Designs (W 94)
Intelligence is not a must for creative design-but the same is desirable in Engg. Design.
Creative design is based on use of analogy and synthesis of alternatives – but engineering design is based
on proven laws and past experience.
Creative design involves phases like incubation, illumination – but no such philosophy is followed in
engineering designs.
Creative person is highly intuitive and independent in thinking and usually resists working in group – but
engineering designers like teamwork.
Customs, habits and traditions are enemies of creativity – but the same are required in engineering design.
3.9. Divergence, Transformation & Convergence (S’97 5M)
The entire design process can be said to have composed of three distinct phases Viz. Divergence,
Transformation and Convergence phases.
The problem definition, need analysis and conceptualization etc. aims at generating as many ideas as
possible to solve a given design problem. Thus, these activities belong to the Divergence phase.
That activity wherein the concept is converted into physical object is termed as transformation phase. The
convergence is a narrowing process, where the best optimal solution is tried for, by eliminating unwanted
ideas.
3.10. Design Process Using Advanced Technology (W”00)
Although Engineering is a major sector of the economy in a developing country. It has not been benefited
greatly from advances in computer technology. Engineers still use computers only in peripheral tasks,
such as drafting and analyzing, but not in making fundamental design decisions. Current computer tools
such as ‘computer-aided drafting’ are restricted to the end of the design process and play no fundamental
role in aiding design. It aids only in the final drafting of the specifications. Computer-aided Design,
(CAD) means a class of tools for crating drawing, or the physical description of the object. CAD systems
have been sophisticated and 2D and 3D models are available.
The CAD allows the designer to conceptualize objects more easily. The design process in CAD system
consists of the following stages.
Geometric modeling
Analysis and optimization
Evaluation
Documentation and drafting.

QUESTIONS

How can you explain the term design? Explain the process of mechanical design. Discuss the role of
creativity in the designs process. (S94. 8M)
The mechanical design process normally has six stages and amongst them the three stage are -----
------ ------- (S99, S94, 1 M)
What is morphology of design? Explain the various steps with the help of block diagram (W.95)
The three stages of design are………… (W 96)
State the different phases that are involved in morphology of design (S.96)
Briefly discuss the concept of creativity as applicable for solving design problems (W 98. 6M)
What makes the design process tortuous? Explain (W 99, 6M)
The creative design process can be considered to be ……… (S93)
Discuss creativity and creative design. Use examples to explain. (W 95)
What do you understand by intuition (S 01)
Draw a flow-chart showing different stages of engineering design. Explain why some stages are
repeated several times. (S.93.5M)
What feedback loops provide information for the redesign of products and the productive systems.
(W’93)
The process of design by evolution adopted by craftsman is a …………..
Ans. Slow process of design development (W’94)
With suitable examples, compare ‘Design by evolution’ and ‘Design by innovation’. (S 96)
Enumerate the steps in Engg. Design process and explain (W’96)
Justify the statement with reasons ‘Modern design problems cannot be handled by traditional methods’.
(S’97, W’98)
Good design requires both------ --------.
Ans. Analysis and Synthesis. (S’93)
Define creative design routes. What are the stages of these routes, Explain these in brief. (S’00)
Explain the process involved in creativity. What are the various qualities of creative designer? Give the
brief description of these. (S’00).
What do you mean by creative design routes. Write down the different statements about creativity and
creative designers. (S’01)
Compare the design synthesis and design analysis. Explain the basics procedure of design synthesis
giving suitable examples. (S ’02).
What are the common features and differences between creative design activities and Engg? Design
activities. Explain briefly with the help of examples. (W’94)
What are the three different stages in the design process? Explain with example. (W’99)
What are the most important steps involved in the design process? Explain? (W’00)
What are the methods currently being adopted for design process using advanced technology?
(W’00)
Name various phases in design morphology. Explain these in brief. (S’01)
Explain Engg. Design (S’01)
What major steps are involved in design process? Briefly explain each one (W’01).
What do you understand by the design process? List out the various phases involved and explain them
briefly. (S’02)
Give the checklist for an engg. Design problem. (W’98)
___ is one of the most powerful aids to creativity in design.
(Use of analogy) (W ’94).
What do you understand by the term “creativity”? What are its requirements? (’03).
Discuss the stages in engineering design process with the help of example. (S 05)
Explain ‘Design processes. Illustrate the steps followed with the help of a figure. Also explain the flow of
work during the design process. (W 05, 8M)
What do you understand by ‘morphology of design’? Discuss the phases of feasibility study, preliminary
design and detailed design. (W ’05. 8M)

_PAGE _

General Information

Specific Information

Design Operations

Outcome

Evaluation

No

Yes

GO TO NEXT STEP

Evaluation of concepts

Feasibility study

Preliminary Design

Detail design

Planning for manufacture

Planning for distribution

Planning for use

Planning for retirement

Preparation

Concentration

Incubation

Illumination

Verification