Académique Documents
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2..5. 1 ·o't
1 6 MAY 2000
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Contents
Preface Hi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Historical Development of Firefighting Foams 2
13 How Foams Extinguish Fires 3
1.4 Production of Finished Foam 3
1.4.1 General 3
1.4.2 Percentage Concentration 3
1.43 Aspiration 4
1.5 Foam Expansion Ratios 5
1.5.1 General 5
1.5.2 Equipment Used For Generating Different Expansion Ratio Foams 5
1.53 Foam Concentrates 5
1.5.4 Typical Uses and Properties of Low, Medium and High Expansion Finished Foams 6
References 79
Further Reading 80
Glossary of Term - Firefighting Foams 81
Technical
Chapter 1 - Introduction
,
centrate, but it will also lead to finished foam with to produce a foam of very low expansion (often thetic detergent (SYNDET) foam concentrates are
less than optimum firefighting performance, with an expansion ratio of less than 4: I). 800 litres 100 litres the only type that can be used to produce low,
mainly due to the foam being too stiff to flow ade- medium and high expansion foams; protein foam
8 concentrates can only be used to produce low
quately. Alternatively, using 3% foam concentrate To more accurately describe the different types of
where the system is set for I % will result in a solu- finished foam produced. the terms 'primary' or expansion foam and the remaining commonly used
tion with too little concentrate to make foam with 'secondary' aspirated are preferred: This foam would also be referred to as having an foam concentrates (i.e. AFFF, AFFF-AR, FP, FFFP
adequate firefighting performance. expansion of 8. and FFFP-AR. see Chapter 2) are mostly intended
• Primary aspirated foam - finished foam for use at low expansion. although they can also be
It is also vely important to have compatibility of that is produced by purpose designed foam- Typical firefighting foam expansion ratio ranges used to produce medium expansion foam.
foam-making equipment and induction equipment, making equipment. are:
and just as importantly, foam induction equipment For flammable liquid fuel fires, effective sec-
must be checked regularly to ensure that it is operat- • Secondary aspirated foam - finished ondary aspirated foam can only be produced using
ing correctly and giving an accurate rate of induction.
1.4.3 Aspiration
foam that is produced by all other means,
usually standard water devices. • Low expansion less than or equal
to 20: I
a film-forming foam concentrate.
t
4 Fire Service Manual Firejighling Foam - Technical 5 [
F-refghting oam- h pter
Technical
1.5.4 Typical Uses and Properties of Low, Medium expansion finished foam can only be
Medium and High Expansion projected over small distances. However, with
Finished Foams expansions of between 20 and 200, large quantities
of foam are produced from relatively small
The various expansion ratios are typically used for quantities of foam solution. This, combined with
the following applications: its ability to flow relatively easily, makes medium
expansion foam ideal for covering large areas
Chapter 2 - Foam Concentrates
• Primary Aspirated Finished Foams quickly.
Standard Title
BS EN 1568 - Fire Extinguishing Media - Foam Concentrates (British/European Standard)
Part I - Specification for medium expansion foam concentrates for surface
application to water-immiscible liquids
Part 2 - Specification for high expansion foam concentrates for surface
application to water-immiscible liquids
Part 3 - Specification for low expansion foam concentrates for surface
application to water-immiscible liquids
Part 4 - Specification for low expansion foam concentrates for surface
application to water-miscible liquids
..
expansion ratios and much longer drainage times. Regular fire testing can indicate the continuing more than one manufacturer in order to obtain sev- including the induction or injection equipment,
Consequently, the foams produced are not realistic suitability of foam concentrates for that task. eral test reports for comparison. pumps, typical hose lengths, procedures etc.
because they are more stable and better worked Some standards only require the fire tests to be should all be periodically checked individually,
(see Chapter 4, Section 2) than foams produced carried out once, at the approval stage. Independent test houses offer an alternative means and as a whole system, to ensure that all are oper-
through fireground foam-making equipment. Conformance with the standards is then only of having foam concentrates tested. However, ating cOlTectly and ultimately providing finished
checked via physical property tests - probably by before allowing them to carry out work, always foam of the required quality.
The test equipment only produces primary aspirat- the manufacturer. ensure that they have previously analysed foam
ed foam for use during the standard fire tests concentrates and that they can carry out the full 3.4.2 Collection of Foam Concentrate
referred to in this Chapter of the Manual; there are 3.4 Periodic Testing of Foam range of tests to the required standard. Samples
currently no standards available for directly deter- Concentrate
mining the suitability of foam concentrates for In order for the amount of deterioration that has Foam samples sent for analysis must be represen-
fire service secondary aspirated use. 3.4.1 General taken place to be quantified, it is necessary to tative of the contents of the container from which
have: they have been taken. Samples can be taken as fol-
33.8 Under What Conditions are the Storing foam concentrates as recommended by the lows:
Fire Tests Performed? manufacturers and as described in Chapter 2, • The manufacturer's data sheet (from the
Section 2.2, will help to maintain them in a usable time of purchase) for the particular foam • One sample
Fuel, foam solution, air and fuel temperatures condition. However, no matter how well they are concentrate to be tested. From the bottom of the container only, or
should all be tightly controlled in order for the fire stored, deterioration will take place. Consequently, from anywhere in the container after thor-
tests to be repeatable and to enable the results to be it is important that samples of stored foam concen- • The results of the routine quality control oughly mixing the contents.
satisfactorily compared with previous tests. Large trates are tested periodically (e.g. annually) to tests originally carried out by the manufac-
variations in temperature can lead to very different ensure that they have not significantly deteriorated turer during production on the particular • Two samples
extinction and burnback results. Cooler tempera- and that they remain able to effectively extinguish batch or batches of foam concentrate to be One from the top of the container and one
tures are likely to lead to quicker extinction times fires. tested. This information will normally from the bottom.
and longer burn back performances. include the results of physical property tests
There are a number of ways of having periodic and, in some instances, the results of fire • Three samples
Wind speed also needs to be carefully controlled, testing calTied out. these include: tests. All manufacturers gather quality con- One from the top, one from the middle and
little or no wind will help to produce better, more trol test data during production and they wi 11 one from the bottom of the container.
reproducible tests and results - indoor tests are • Carry out testing at brigade level. normally make it freely available on request
preferred. • Return a sample to the supplier. at the time of purchase. However, in order Samples should be collected in clean, seal-able
• Send a sample to an independent laboratory. to make the best use of this information, containers. Each sample should be at least 1 litre
33.9 What Burnback Test is Used? it is extremely important that batch num- and should completely fill the container. Once the
The range of tests that should be carried out to bers are recorded on storage containers samples have been collected, the collection con-
In order to test the security of the foam blanket, a evaluate the condition of foam concentrates and accurate records of usage are kept. tainers should be sealed and labelled with the date
burnback test is required. Burnback tests, where
the burnback flames are near to, or actually
requires some specialised equipment and technical
expertise. It would not be cost effective or practi- • If the foam concentrate complies with a particular
and details of where the sample was taken from. At
least two samples should be taken from each sam-
impinge on, the foam blanket are much more test- cal for individual brigades to carry out the few standard, then the limits specified within the stan- pling location. One sample should be sent to the
ing. Burnback tests which also involve a burning tests that would be required each year. dard can also be used to determine whether the testing organisation and the other should be kept
fuel in a metal container can help to assess the foam concentrate still complies with the standard. for further testing should this be required.
sealing capabilities of foam blankets against very Most foam concentrate manufacturers will carry
hot materials. out this type of testing for a fee. However, some As long as the same test methods and equipment Do not write on the sample container the type and
organisations consider it undesirable to rely on are used, the results of periodic testing of stored concentration of foam concentrate that is in the
3.3.10 When are the Fire Tests manufacturers tests when the manufacturer has a foam concentrates can be compared with the limits container, the testing organisation should be able
Carried Out? clear commercial interest in the outcome. Whilst set out in the manufacturers data sheets and with to determine this from the results of their tests. If
there is no suggestion that any supplier has the actual peJformance of the foam concentrate this information differs from the actual contents
Are the fire tests only carried out when the foam falsified results, it is always possible that an when originally produced. Any discrepancies can then it is an indication that further investigations or
concentrate is initially tested for compliance with individual could act upon misplaced zeal in the then be identified and investigated further. tests may need to be carried out to identify the
the requirements of a standard or are they carried future. cause of the discrepancy.
out on a regular basis (i.e. each manufactured It should be remembered that foam concentrates
batch/quality control)? Are/were the fire tests car- Some manufacturers will test any foam concen- are only part of the equipment and resources nec- Care should be taken when collecting from the
ried out by an independent test house or were they trate, not just those they produce. Consequently, if essary to produce effective firefighting foams. bottom of a container due to the possible accumu-
carried out by the manufacturer? funds allow, it may be advisable to send samples to
• Consequently, the whole foam-making system, lation of sediment from rust and degradation
...
products. This sediment should be prevented from Consequently, care should be taken when obtain- (see this Chapter, Section 3.1). This size of fire
entering the sample container as it may lead to test ing samples from the bottom of a container to test is also recommended for quality control use
results that are not representative of the whole con- ensure that a representative sample is obtained (see during foam concentrate production in the British,
tents of the container. above). The maximum sediment content of a foam European and International standards for firefight-
concentrate is normally stated in the manufacturers ing foam concentrates (see this Chapter, Section
If only one sample is to be tested, then it is data sheet. 3.1). However, the main difference is that the MoD
preferred that this should be drawn from the con- tests involves the use of avgas or avtur as fuel and
tainer after the contents have been thoroughly When stored correctly. foam concentrates should the British, European and International standards
mixed together. only contain very small amounts of sediment. use heptane (see this Chapter, Section 3.3 for
High levels of sediment can indicate that the foam information on test fuels). In order to make the
3.4.3 Typical Physical Property Tests concentrate has been contaminated in some way best use of fire test information it is necessary to
(e.g. mixed with other foam concentrates), has have previous fire test data available so that true
Although a wide range of tests may be carried out, been broken down by micro-organisms and/or has comparisons can be made. For instance, if batch
typically, the following physical property tests will degraded due to incorrect storage. See this fire test data was available for the foam concen-
be included when manufacturers and test houses Chapter, Section 3.2.4 for more information on trate when originally purchased then, as long as the
determine the condition of stored foam concentrates: sediment. same fuel, test methods and equipment are used
when testing the stored foam concentrate, the fire
(a) Specific Gravity (Relative Density) (d) Spreading Coefficient test results can be compared for obvious differ-
ences in performance. If original fire test data is
The limits of specific gravity for foam concen- Film-forming foams which no longer provide a not available, but the foam concentrate conformed
trates are normally stated in the manufacturers data positive spreading coefficient when measured to a particular foam standard when produced. then
sheets. Specific gravity measurements that are have either been contaminated or have significant- that standard fire test could be carried out to deter-
higher than the manufacturers limits indicate that ly degraded. See this Chapter. Section 3.2.5 for mine whether the stored foam concentrate till
the foam concentrate has become more concentrat- more information on spreading coefficient. complies with that standard.
ed, probably due to evaporation. Measurements
that are below the manufacturers limits indicate 3.4.4 Periodic Fire Tests
that the foam concentrate may have been diluted
by water in storage, dilutions of greater than 10% Any fire tests of stored foam concentrate samples
may require that all of the foam concentrate in the that are carried out by manufacturers or indepen-
container be replaced. Changes in the specific dent test houses are likely to involve significant
gravity of foam concentrates may also indicate cost. However, it should be remembered that the
dilution or contamination by other substances. See main reason for using foam concentrates is to
this Chapter, Section 3.2.2 for more information extinguish fires and so this type of testing is the
on specific gravity. best way of determining whether the foam concen-
trate remains suitable for its purpose.
(b) pH (Acidity/Alkalinity)
Although the physical property tests discussed
The limits of pH for foam concentrates are nor- above will indicate possible changes in the consis-
mally stated in the manufacturers data sheets. pH tency of the foam concentrates, it is the firefight-
values outside of these limits can indicate that the ing performance that is of most interest. If the
foam concentrate has been contaminated in some physical property tests indicate a problem, then a
way (e.g. mixed with other foam concentrates), fire test should be considered in order to investi-
has been broken down by micro-organisms gate the effects of this on the firefighting perfor-
and/or has degraded due to incorrect storage. See mance of the foam concentrate.
this Chapter, Section 3.2.3 for more information
on pH. The fire tests performed by manufacturers and test
houses on a routine basis are generally based on, or
(c) Sediment (Sludge) around, methods and equipment specified in foam
concentrate standards. Typical of this is the 0.25m 2
Sediment will tend to sink to the bottom of con- area tray fire test specified within the UK Ministry
tainers when stored over a long period of time. of Defence (MoD) foam concentrate standards
•
24 Fire Service Manual Firefighting Foam - Technical 25
F refighting Foam Chapter
Techn·ca
...
mation of stable foam bubbles should take approx- Protein and f1uoroprotein foams tend to be stiffer 60°C. Consequently, these thin films are unlikely foams used secondary aspirated. Also, the burn-
imately 1I30th of a second. However, foam solu- and hence they give higher shear strength mea- to help in extinguishing fires in many flammable back performances of the primary aspirated foams
tion does not begin to form bubbles until it hits the surements than SYNDET, AFFF, AFFF-AR, FFFP fuels that have had long preburns. were vastly superior to those of the secondary
side walls or obstructions approximately half way and FFFP-AR finished foams. However, the shear aspirated foams.
along the length of the branch. Consequently, it is strength of finished foam also depends on the It must be stressed that film formation does not
claimed, the foam solution should be in the branch amount of working provided by the branch used to take place on all hydrocarbon fuels. In such cases, The thinness of the film, and the uncertainty of its
for a total of 11 15th of a second to form stable fin- produce the foam (see above). Secondary aspirat- these foams must rely on the normal extinguishing formation, makes film-forming foams unsuitable
ished foam. For main line use at flows of approxi- ed equipment will produce foam of low shear mechanisms of foam blankets. That is to exclude for vapour suppression unless a thick foam blanket
mately 225 Ipm, a low expansion foam-making strength while primary aspirated equipment will air from the fire, reduce evaporation and generally is also present. For vapour suppression, primary
branch in excess of I metre in length would be produce foam of significantly higher shear cool the fire. This may require more foam to be aspirating equipment will provide a better protec-
required to give the required pass through time. strength. In addition, in primary aspirated equip- applied, for a longer period of time than would tive foam blanket than secondary or non-aspirating
ment, the more working that takes place, the high- normally be expected when using a film-forming equipment.
Some foam solutions produce bubbles more readi- er the shear strength of the finished foam foam.
ly than others. For instance, SYNDET, AFFF and Some foam manufacturers say adequate vapour
FFFP foam solutions require less working and 4.4 Film Formation It is important to note that although alcohol resis- suppression can be achieved using secondary aspi-
hence foam of adequate quality can be produced tant foams produce aqueous films on some liquid rating equipment with film-forming alcohol-resis-
using shorter branches than are required by P or FP The term film formation is often used and applies hydrocarbon liquids, they do not produce them on tant foam concentrates. However, they claim that
foam solutions. Ultimately, if foam working is to AFFF, AFFF-AR, FFFP and FFFP-AR foam water-miscible liquids. these should be used at 2 to 3 times their recom-
excessive, the foam becomes very stiff and loses concentrates. Under certain conditions, the foam mended concentration for application to hydrocar-
its flow qualities; for film-forming foams, this may solutions and finished foams produced from these As mentioned above, the ability of a foam to form bon liquids (e.g. used at 9% concentration instead
impair there ability to produce an aqueous film on foam concentrates have the ability to produce an a film on a hydrocarbon liquid can be determined of their recommended 3%). However, most
the surface of hydrocarbon liquids. If not enough aqueous film which spreads over the surface of by measurements of the surface tensions of the brigades are unlikely to have equipment capable of
working is achieved, the foam will be very quick some liquid hydrocarbon fuels. On these particular foam solution and the hydrocarbon liquid. These proportioning at rates higher than 6%.
draining, have poor stability and be made up of fuels, the film is said to help cool the surface of the measurements are usually canied out in a labora-
foam bubbles of irregular size. burning liquid to reduce the hydrocarbon evapora- tory. However, in firefighting situations, the condi- It should be noted that the standard film-forming
tion rate, seal in the vapour at the surface of the tions are likely to be very different. This makes the foam concentrates (i.e. AFFF and FFFP) form
Working slows down the foam stream within the fuel and hence deplete the supply of fuel to the conclusions of laboratory measurements generally foam blankets that drain rapidly in order to quick-
branch due to the energy required to produce foam. flames. Consequently, they may assist in the inapplicable to most practical applications of film- ly form films on the fuel surface. Consequently,
Consequently, the more a foam is worked within a knockdown and extinction of fires in these partic- forming foams (see Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5). these foam blankets will need to be replenished at
branch, the less the distance it can be projected. ular fuels. very frequent intervals if adequate vapour suppres-
Film formation is a very controversial area of fire- sion is to be maintained. Primary aspirated alcohol
4.3 Foam FlowlFluidity The fluorocarbon surface active agents and foam- fighting foams. Some firefighters insist that fires resistant film-forming foams require less frequent
ing agents that combine to produce film-forming can be seen to be controlled and extinguished well replenishment due to their much longer drainage
Finished foams that rapidly flow across the surface foams produce a foam solution that has a very low ahead of any foam blanket formed; others say that times.
of fuels and around obstructions can lead to quick surface tension. This allows a thin film to be they have seen no evidence of the effects of film
flame knockdown and control of a fire. This can be formed on, and to spread across, some liquid formation. 4.5 Fuel Tolerance
particularly important in aircraft or vehicle crash hydrocarbon fuels. The main factor which influ-
fire situations where there is a significant risk to ences the effective formation of this film on a Aqueous films offer little or no burn back protec- Fuel tolerance describes how resistant a foam is to
life. hydrocarbon is the slllface tension of that hydro- tion and, in any case, it can be impossible for fire- mixing with a fuel during application. In general,
carbon. Film-forming foams tend to be much more fighters to see where the transparent surface film foams should be applied as gently as possible to
Critical shear strength is a measure of the degree effective on liquid hydrocarbons that have a much remains intact and where it has been broken. the surface of a fuel to reduce the amount of mix-
of 'stiffness' of finished foam and gives an indica- higher surface tension than the foam solution. ing that takes place. Plunging a foam stream
tion of its ability to flow. Shear strength is mea- High surface tension fuels include kerosene, diesel The manufacturers of film-forming foam concen- directly into a fuel will cause fuel to be mixed in
sured by a paddle type torsion wire viscometer. oils and jet fuels. trates often state that they may be used primary with the foam. If a fire is present, then it is
These are specialist items of equipment and are not aspirated, secondary aspirated or non-aspirated for inevitable that this foam and fuel mixture will burn
suitable for routine fire service use. Shear strength The aqueous films produced are extremely thin, application against hydrocarbon liquid fuel fires. causing partial destruction of the foam blanket.
figures can only be reliably compared if the same typically less than a quarter of a millimetre thick, However, some foams are more resistant to mixing
type of measuring equipment and measurement and are unlikely to form on the sUli'aces of any hot Petrol fire tests canied out using UK fire service with fuel than others.
methods are used. However, these measurements fuels. Some research carried out in America has equipment and tactics (Reference 3) found that pri-
do not provide a reliable indication of the fire- indicated that film formation does not occur on mary aspirated film-forming foams extinguished P foams have poor fuel tolerance and hence suffer
fighting capability of foams. aviation gasoline when at temperatures above the fires in half of the time taken by the same from severe fuel contamination when vigorously
b
bLanket is assessed. Either a small area of foam is tamination otherwise the foams wouLd burn away surface and for quick cooling. It can also assist in same incident. The manufacturer should be asked
removed and the fuel underneath is re-ignited or, a immediately on contact with the flames on the sur- giving them quick control and knockdown capa- whether there are any particular incompatibles to
flame is continuously played on to a small area of face of the product. bilities. P and FP finished foams are often better their product. Firefighters should remember to
the foam blanket. The measurement made is used 'dry' to provide acceptable knockdown and consult the industriallMOD/CAA brigades etc., in
known as the burn back time. This is the time taken Subsulface injection can only be used in tanks extinction performance and good burn back resis- their areas, as well as neighbouring local authority
from re-igniting the fuel, or applying flame to the containing certain hydrocarbon fuels; it cannot be tance. If used too 'wet', by applying them via poor brigades where appropriate, to find out what dry
foam blanket, until the re-involvement in flame of used for tanks containing water-miscible fueLs foam-making equipment for instance, these foams powder types they are using. Foam concentrate
an area of the surface of the fuel. because, even with alcohol resistant foams, these are likely to give very poor firefighting perfor- manufacturers should then be contacted for advice
fuels will destroy the foam bLanket on contact and mance. Applying them too 'dry' will result in very on compatibility.
Often, it is the 25% burnback time that is quoted a foam blanket will not form. In addition, this will thick foam being produced which does not flow
for the burnback resistance of foams. This is the mean that the polymeric skin cannot form on the very easily and again results in very poor firefight- 4.14 Typical Characteristics
time it takes for a 25% area of the fuel surface to surface of the fuel (see Chapter 2, Section 2.1.4). ing performance. of Finished Foam
become re-invoLved in flames. The longer the 25%
burnback time, the better the burnback resistance FP, FFFP, FFFP-AR, AFFF and AFFF-AR foams As part of the routine checking of the operation of 4.14.1 General
of the foam blanket. are generally considered suitable for base injec- a foam-making system, expansion ratios and
tion. drainage times of the finished foam can be mea- The following Sections highlight the typical
Some foams, such as P, FP and the alcohol resis- sured and compared with previous measurements. characteristics of low expansion finished foams
tant film-forming foams have significantly greater 4.12 Quality of inished Foam produced from each of the main types of foam
burnback resistance, and hence give longer burn- Figure 4.1 shows the basic principles of measuring concentrate described in Chapter 2. These charac-
back times, than AFFF, FFFP and SYNDET. The production of good quality finished foam low expansion foam expansion ratios and drainage teristics relate mainly to their use on hydrocarbon
depends on: times. The current British Standards for foam con- liquid fuel fires although other comments are made
Generally, the more foam applied to a fire after centrates (see Chapter 3) should be refelTed to for concerning, for instance, their compatibility with
extinction has occurred, the better the burnback • the use of a suitable type and quality of exact details of equipment and test methods to be water-miscible fuels. The terms used here have
resistance will be. However, if a foam blanket is foam concentrate for the task in hand; used. Drainage times ancl expansion ratios can been explained earlier in this or the previous
left over a period of time and allowed to drain • foam concentrate in good condition due to only be reliably compared if the same type of foam Chapters, see also the Glossary of Terms.
without being replenished, the burn back resistance correct storage; concentrate, measuring equipment, foam-making
of the blanket will be significantly impaired. • foam concentrate used at the COlTect equipment and measurement methods are used. Table 4.1 overleaf enables a quick comparison to be
concentration; made of the typical firefighting related characteris-
4.10 Water-mi cible Fuel • good design and choice of equipment; 4.13 Compatibility of Finished tics of low expansion finished foams made from
Compatibility • good maintenance of equipment; Foams each of the main foam types. The contents of this
• correct pump pressure and foam solution table are intended to provide information on typical
Alcohol resistant foam concentrates have been flow for the equipment in use. 4.13.1 With Other Finished Foams performance during general fire service use, in par-
developed to deal with fires involving water-mis- ticular, when used against hydrocarbon spill fires.
cible liquids such as alcohols and some petrol Drainage times and expansion ratios (and some- Generally speaking, all types of finished foam can
blends containing high levels of aLcohols and other times shear strength) can be measured and com- be used together on a single fire, although the The table should be read in conjunction with the
similar fuel performance improvers. These, and pared to provide an immediate indication of the order of application may affect their performance. contents of the remainder of this Section which
the finished foams that they produce, are described 'quality' of a finished foam. Often, firefighters will For example, film-forming foam would be better provide more details of the characteristics for each
in Chapter 2, Section 2.1.4. look at and feel the finished foam produced by applied first for a quick knockdown and extinction foam type. In addition, some comments regarding
their equipment and give an immediate assessment of a hydrocarbon fuel fire followed by an applica- the suitability of different foam concentrate types
4.11 Suitability For Subsurface of its quality. 'Wet' foams, i.e. those with short tion of FP foam to provide good burnback resis- for use in tackling storage tank fires are given in
(Base) Injection drainage times, are often refelTed to as being of tance. Applying these foams in reverse order Volume 2 of the Manual.
poor quality while those that are 'dry', i.e. those would result in the partial breakdown of the FP
Some finished foams can be introduced, via spe- with long drainage times, are referred to as being foam blanket, and hence reduced burnback resis- It should be remembered that there are many com-
cial equipment, into the bases of large storage of good quality. tance, due to the film-forming foam blanket quick- panies manufacturing each of the different foam
tanks. The foam then floats to the surface of the ly draining with the resulting falling liquid concentrate types. The quality of foam concen-
contents of the tank. This has the advantage that However, there is no overall definition of a 'good' droplets bursting the FP foam bubbles. trates produced will vary from manufacturer to
the finished foam is not carried away by the quality foam. This really depends on which foam manufacturer and often different quality versions
updraught created by large fires and is not deterio- is being assessed and its intended use. 4.13.2 With Dry Powder of the same foam type will be available from the
rated by flames on the way to the surface of the same manufacturer. Consequently, the following
fueLs. However, foams that are used for subsurface On some fuels, AFFFs and FFFPs rely on being Some finished foams will react unfavourably with Sections indicate the typical characteristics of fin-
injection need to have a high toLerance to fuel con- 'wet' to assist in the formation of a fiLm on the certain fire extinguishing powders if used at the ished foams prod uced from each of the foam types.
L ....- . ......01
Table 4.1: Typical Characteristics of Low Expansion Finished Foam • very slow flowing and stiff, protein foams (c) FFFP
do not quickly reseal breaks in the foam
CHARACTERISTIC FOAM TYPE
blanket or seal around obstructions, These FFFPs were designed to exhibit a combination of
P FP FFFP FFFP-AR SYNDET AFFF AFFF-AR are some of the major reasons for the slow AFFF and FP characteristics. The intention was to
Requires to be well 'worked'? Yes Yes No No No No No fire knockdown and extinction performance produce a foam concentrate that had the knock-
of protein foams; down and extinction performance of AFFF
Foam Flow/Fluidity J JJJJ JJJJ JJJJ JJJJ combined with the good burnback resistance char-
• very poor fuel tolerance when applied
Film-forming on some hydrocarbon liquids? No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes forcefully to the surface of a fuel. This is acteristics of tluoroprotein. However, fire tests
JJ]J the main reason for very slow fire knock- (Reference 5) have indicated that although low
Hydrocarbon Fuel Tolerance J QJJJ JJJ JJJJ J JJJ
-- --- ---- ----- down and extinction pelformances; expansion FFFP gives similar firefighting and
Flame Knockdown J JJJ JJJJ JJJJJ JJJJJ JJJJJ JJJJ • unsuitable for use with water-miscible fuels; burn back performance to AFFF, the burnback
Edge Sealing JJJ :rm JJ JJJJ J JJ JJJJ • unsuitable for subsurface (base) injection. performance is greatly inferior to that achieved by
tluoroprotein and is generally not much better than
Extinction J JJJ JJJJJ JJQJ JJ JJJJJ JJJJ
(b) FP AFFF.
Foam Blanket Stability/Drainage Time :0 JJ:O JJ :OJJ J:OJJ
-- --- ---- -----
Burnback Resistance JJJJ ]JJ]] JJ JJJJ JJ JJ JJJJ Low expansion finished foams produced from FP Low expansion FFFP finished foams tend to have
-- --- ---- ----- foam concentrates tend to have the following use- the following useful characteristics:
Vapour Suppression J]] JJJJJ JJ JJJJ JJ JJ JJJJ ful characteristics:
Foam Application LX LX LX LX LX LX LX • usable foam can be produced with minimal
MX MX MX MX MX MX • flow quicker than P foams over fuel working, manufacturers suggest that they can
SA SA HX SA SA surfaces, reseal breaks in the foam blanket be used primary and secondary aspirated;
Water-miscible Fuel Compatible? No No No Yes No No Yes and seal around obstructions. These • flow quicker than P and FP foams over
properties assist in producing fire liquid fuel sUlfaces, quickly reseal breaks
Suitable for Hydrocarbon Subsurface Injection? No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes knockdown and extinction performances in the foam blanket and flow around
that are quicker than that achieved by P; obstructions. This often results in very
Notes to Table 4.1: grades alld the level of repeatability of the tests.
• good fuel tolerance so they can be quick fire knockdown and extinction.
This table summarises the typical characteristics that can Howevel~ where there is a difference ill pelformallce
be expected from good quali(v loll' expansion finished of two or more grades, the difference is significant. applied reasonably forcefully if absolutely On some liquid hydrocarbon fuels, these
firefighting foams when used to fight some flammable necessary; characteristics may be enhanced by the
JJJJJ =Very Good; )]]] = Good;
hydrocarbon liquidjilel spillfires. The characteristics of • produce acceptable fire knockdown and film-forming capabilities of FFFP;
J =Acceptable; !JJ = Poor;
finishedfoam will vary depending onj(lctors such asfuel. ] extinction performance although generally • suitable for subsurface (base) injection;
=Very poor LX = Loll' Expansion;
application technique, equipment and the quality of the
MX =Medium Expansion; HX = High Expansion; slower than film-forming foams; • moderate resistance to fuel contamination
foam concentrate used. The firefighting pelformance con-
SA = Secondary Aspirated • good sealing properties against hot metal although not as fuel tolerant when used on
tents of this table are based on the results of work carried
out on petrol spill fires (Reference 5). A difference in The firefir;hting pelj'ormance contents of this table are based surfaces; non-water-miscible fuels as alcohol resis-
peljormance of one grade is not significant due to the on the remits of work carried out by the Home Office FRDG • form stable foam blankets with slow foam tant film-forming foams or FP foams;
tight cut off points in the results used to generate the on petrol spill sites. drainage times;
• very good burnback resistance; and the following disadvantages:
• very good vapour suppression;
Good quality foam concentrates may have better • provide acceptable sealing against hot • suitable for subsurface (base) injection; • poor at sealing against hot objects;
characteristics, those of bad quality foam concen- metal surfaces; • poor foam blanket stability and very quick
trates may be considerably worse. Obviously, • form stable foam blankets with slow foam and the following disadvantages: foam drainage times;
other factors such as fuel, application technique drainage times; • poor burn back resistance;
and the type of equipment used will also greatly • good burn back resistance; • do not flow as well as film-forming foams. • poor vapour suppression;
affect these characteristics. • good vapour suppression; This often results in slower knockdown and • unsuitable for use with water-miscible
extinction performances when compared to fuels.
4.14.2 Individual Foam Characteristics and the following disadvantages: those of film-forming foams;
• require to be well worked to make (d) Synthetic (SYNDET)
(a) P • can be used to produce low expansion acceptable finished foam, they must be
foam only; used primary aspirated; SYNDET finished foams are versatile in that they
Low expansion finished foams produced from P • require to be well worked to make accept- • unsuitable for use with water-miscible fuels can be used for firefighting at low, medium and
foam concentrates tend to have the following use- able finished foam, they must be used although alcohol resistant FP is available high expansion. In the UK, they are mainly used at
ful characteristics: primary aspirated; for certain specialised applications. medium and high expansion foams.
b
The following comments mainly relate to their use the foam blanket and flow around obstruc- film-forming capabilities of AFFF, film- Firefighting foams can also be of benefit by pre-
at low expansion in order to enable a comparison tions. This often results in very quick fire forming does not occur on water-miscible venting the release of flammable or toxic vapour
to made with all of the other foam types discussed. knockdown and extinction. On some liquid fuels; into the environment.
However. many of these comments are also rele- hydrocarbon fuels, these characteristics • good resistance to contamination from
vant for their use at medium and high expansion. may be enhanced by the film-forming hydrocarbon fuels so can be applied force- The use of foams for firefighting is infrequent and
capabilities of AFFF: fully to these if absolutely necessary. Only at changing locations. Consequently, the impact on
Low expansion SYNDET finished foams tend to • suitable for subsurface (base) injection; gentle application techniques should be the environment in these areas does not accumu-
have the following useful characteristics: • moderate resistance to fuel contamination used when applying these foams to water- late although it can be severe at the time of the
although not as fuel tolerant on non-water miscible fuels. incident. In contrast, areas used for training are
• produce acceptable foam with minimal miscible fuels as alcohol resistant foams or • suitable for subsurface (base) injection. likely to be frequently exposed to contamination
working, must be used primary aspirated; FP foams; They must not be used for base injection by foams and the run-off from these sites should be
• quick-flowing which can assist in produc- into water-miscible fuels; controlled by containment and disposal to appro-
ing quick fire knockdown. Medium and and the following disadvantages: • When used on non-water miscible fuels, priate treatment works.
high expansion SYNDET foams do not control and extinction times are similar to
flow as readily, however, the large volume • poor at sealing against hot objects; those of conventional AFFF and FFFP Generally, the environmental effects of foams are
of foam produced can achieve quick • poor foam blanket stability and very quick foams with burnback performance similar considered in terms of their toxicity and their
knockdown and extinctions; foam drainage times; to that of FP. Extinction and burn back biodegradability. It should be remembered that it is
• very stable foam blankets with very slow • poor burn back resistance; performance is considerably better when the total volume of the foam concentrate that is
foam drainage times. Medium and high • poor vapour suppression; used primary aspirated (i.e. using a foam- released into the environment that is of concern, it
expansion SYNDET foams can be severely • unsuitable for use with polar fuels. making branch) than when used secondary does not matter by how much it has been diluted.
affected by wind. aspirated (i.e. using a water branch);
(t) Alcohol Resistant Foam Concentrates • very stable foam blankets with slow foam 4.15.2 Toxicity
they have the following disadvantages: (AFFF-AR and FFFP-AR) drainage times;
• good at sealing against hot metal objects; The aquatic toxicity of a substance (i.e. how poi-
• very poor resistance to fuel contamination, Low expansion finished foams produced from • good burn back resistance; sonous it is to water life) is usually measured in
often resulting in poor extinction and AFFF-AR and FFFP-AR alcohol resistant foam • good vapour suppression. terms of its LCso. This is the lethal concentration of
burnback performance. Medium and high concentrates tend to have the following useful the substance in water at which 50% of test speci-
expansion applications of SYNDET are characteristics: and the following disadvantages: mens die within a fixed time period under test con-
relatively gentle and so fuel contamination ditions. Generally speaking, the higher the LCso
is less of a problem; • suitable for use on fires involving water- • care is required in selecting the correct rate value, the less impact the substance will have on
• very poor sealing around hot objects often miscible liquids such as alcohols and those of induction due to the need to use at 3% aquatic life.
resulting in poor extinction performances; petrol blends that contain high levels of concentration for hydrocarbon fuels and at
• poor burnback resistance; alcohols and other similar fuel performance 6% for water-miscible fuels. However, Sometimes, LCIO and even LCo measurements are
• poor vapour suppression capabilities lmprovers; some alcohol resistant foams are available made or required. These are much more demand-
at low expansion; vapour suppression • suitable for use on hydrocarbon liquid fuel that may be used at the same induction rate ing with LCo indicating the concentration at which
characteristics much improved at medium fires; (normally 3%) for both hydrocarbon and there has been no observable affect to the test spec-
and high expansion; • usable foam can be produced with minimal water-miscible fuels. imens.
• unsuitable for use with polar fuels; working, manufacturers suggest that they
• unsuitable for subsurface (base) injection. can be used primary and secondary aspirat- 4.15 Environmental Impact of Unfortunately, the range and type of test speci-
ed on non-water miscible fuels. On water- Firefighting Foams mens that are tested varies widely as does their
(e) AFFF miscible fuels, the foam solutions must not susceptibility to the effects of the substance.
be applied non-aspirated and also their use 4.15.1 General
Low expansion AFFF finished foams tend to have on these fuels when secondary aspirated For most foam concentrates, only the foam manu-
the following useful characteristics: cannot be recommended; Firefighting foams are the most effective means of facturers' toxicity information is available; very
• flow quicker than P and FP foams over extinguishing most liquid fuel fires. In doing so. few independent tests have been carried out.
• usable foam can be produced with minimal liquid fuel surfaces, quickly reseal breaks they greatly reduce fire spread, the air pollution Toxicity testing can be very expensive to perform.
working, manufacturers suggest that they in the foam blanket and flow around potential of a fire and the amount of water that Consequently, some foam manufacturers do not
can be used primary and secondary aspirat- obstructions. This often results in very needs to be used to tackle the fire. This in turn provide comprehensive values, others provide val-
ed; quick fire knockdown and extinction. reduces the amount of contaminated water pro- ues for a small or wide range of test specimens
• flow quicker than P and FP foams over liq- On some liquid hydrocarbon fuels. these duced during firefighting operations and the including algae, water flea (often Daphnia Magna)
uid fuel surfaces, quickly reseal breaks in characteristics may be enhanced by the environmental impact of this run-off. and fish (often either rainbow trout or fathead
...
Firefighting Foam Chapter
Tech ·ca
minnow). However, it is extremely difficult to centage, the higher the biodegradability of a foam,
compare the toxic effects of foam concentrates the quicker the foam is broken down.
unless the same specimens, test conditions and
toxicity measurement criteria are used. The Water Research Council (see above) found
that in most environmental hazard assessments,
A review of firefighting foam concentrates carried high biodegradability is considered desirable. Chapter 5 - Equipment
out by the Water Research Council on behalf of the However, it has been found that the main environ-
National Rivers Authority during 1994 (Reference mental impact of the use of foam is the rapid
6) concluded that all of the toxicity data they col- depletion of oxygen from water due to high
lected from various sources, particularly manufac- biodegradability. This has the effect of asphyxiat-
turers, indicated that none of the foam concentrates ing aquatic organisms. They concluded that slow- 5.1 General 5.2 Foam-Making Eq ip t
were of high acute toxicity to test specimens. They er (low) biodegradability of foam concentrates
found that most foam concentrates were tested on may in fact be more desirable when making future This Chapter describes some of the foam equip- 5.2.1 General
water flea or fish although indications were that environmental hazard assessments. ment that is currently in use within the UK fire ser-
testing on algae would have produced results for a vice. The aim is not to describe every item of The primary aspirating foam-making equipment
more sensitive species. They also found that manufacturers only provide equipment available but to give examples and indi- used by brigades can be divided into the following
limited biodegradability test data which was of lit- cations of their performance. main categories:
From the data they collected, some SYNDET foam tle use in differentiating between the biodegrad-
concentrates appeared to be the most toxic and all
of the protein based foam concentrates were of low
ability of different foam concentrates. From the
data available, there were indications that foam
The two main types of foam equipment described
here are:
•• LX hand-held foam-making branches;
LX hand-held hosereel foam unit;
acute toxicity. However, some AFFF and AFFF-
AR foam concentrates were also found to be in this
type was not a good indicator of biodegradation
potential. Five different foam types were of low • Foam-making equipment (e.g. foam-
•• LX foam generators;
LX foam monitors;
low acute toxicity band. biodegradability, these were SYNDET, P, FP,
AFFF and AFFF-AR. However, some AFFF and
making branches, foam-making
generators etc.);
•• MX hand-held foam-making branches;
LX and MX hand-held water branch
4.15.3 Biodegradability SYNDET foam concentrates were of high 'snap-on' attachments;
'tn
together prior to arriving at the foam-making equipment, it is the nominal flow requirement only
equipment. that is used to classify them. The use of this classi-
fication also aligns with application rates (see
A less often used method of producing a premix Chapter 7) which recommend the minimum
foam solution is by mixing the correct proportions amounts of foam solution, in litres per minute, that
of water and foam concentrate in a container prior should be applied to each square metre of fire area
to pumping. Some brigades have used this method (Ipm/m 2 ).
in the water tanks of water tenders.
For MX and HX foam-making equipment, both
Secondary aspirated foam is often produced using the nominal flow requirement and the volume
standard main line and hosereel water branches. foam production are used to classify their output.
However, some purpose designed secondary aspi- Generally, the volume foam production figures
rating LX foam-making branches and monitors specified by manufacturers will be those achieved
have been produced. when using SYNDET foam concentrates.
However, film-forming foams may also be used to
Some large output primary and secondary aspirat- produce MX foam and these are likely to give dif-
ing monitors are described in Volume 2 of the ferent foam volume outputs. Figure 5.3 Principal features of a Low Expansionfoam branch pipe.
Manual. These are primarily meant for applying
foam to storage tanks. The foam solution supply 5.2.2 LX Hand-held Foam-making
rates for these monitors can be in excess of 40,000 Branches In the diagram are two orifice plates. The upstream expansion ratio and very short drainage times. If
litres per minute. orifice is the larger of the two and its function is to the outlet is too large, the expansion is higher but
(a) How They Work create turbulence in the space between the two ori- the throw is reduced.
In general, the means of distinguishing between fice plates so that when the jet issues from the
the capacities of different foam-making equipment Figure 5.3 illustrates the principal features of a downstream orifice, it rapidly breaks up into a Some branches may also contain flow straighten-
is either by the nominal flow requirement of the typical hand-held LX foam-making branch. dense spray. The spray fills the nalTOW inlet sec- ing sections at the nozzle to reduce turbulence at
equipment (litres per minute, lpm) and/or the vol- Designs vary and will incorporate some or all of tion of the foam-making tube and entrains large the outlet of the branch. These assist in forming a
ume of the foam produced (cubic metres per these features. The strainer is frequently omitted, quantities of air through the air inlet holes. The coherent 'rope' of finished foam with little fall out
minute, m 3/min). Usually, for LX foam-making as often is the on/off control. downstream orifice is smaller and is calibrated to of foam along its trajectory. However, these tend to
give the designed foam solution flow rate at the considerably reduce the throw of the branch. For
recommended operating pressure (e.g. 225 Ipm at foam-making branches without flow straightening
7 bar branch pressure). sections, considerable amounts of foam can fall
out of the stream along their trajectory resulting in
Most foam-making branches have a nalTOW sec- a greatly reduced foam volume actually arriving in
tion at the inlet end in which the air entrainment the area of impact.
takes place, and then a wider section in which the
foam forms. The wider section of the foam-making (b) LX Foam-making Branch Performance
tube sometimes contains 'improvers' (e.g. semi-
circular baffles, gauze cones) which are designed It is generally recognised that the longer the foam-
to work the foam solution in order to produce making tube, the better the working and mixing of
longer draining finished foam. The drawback of foam solution with air. This results in a more
using improvers is that the extra working of the stable finished foam with drainage times that
foam that they cause uses energy from the foam are longer than those produced by shorter foam-
stream resulting in a reduction in the distance that making branches.
the finished foam can be thrown.
Large scale petrol fire trials have been calTied out
At the outlet, the branch is reduced in diameter to (Reference 7) where the firefighting performance
increase the exit velocity, thus helping the finished of a short LX foam-making branch (approximate
foam to be thrown an effective distance. The length 0.5m) and a longer LX foam-making
design here is crucial; too narrow an outlet branch (approximate length 0.8m) were compared.
produces back pressure which results in less air When these fires were fought with film-forming
Figure 5.1 FB5x Mkll 225 litreslminfoam solution Figure 5.2 F450 450 litreslmin offoam solution
at 5.5 BAR. (Photo: Mid and West Wales Fire Service) at 7 BAR. (Photo: Mid and West Wales Fire Service) entrainment and finished foam of very low foam concentrates, both types of branches
Notes to Table 5.J: Measurements taken form References 5 and 7. Syphon tube
produced foams that gave similar knockdown and adjustable jaws at the outlet giving the option of a
extinction times but the foam produced by the cohesive jet or a fan like spray. They also have an Foam-making Flexible bag
longer foam branches had much longer drainage on/off trigger mechanism controlling the release of branch pipe
times and gave significantly better burnback pro- the foam.
tection.
One adjustable jaw type 225 Ipm foam-making
During these same fire tests, it was found that the branch is claimed by the manufacturer to give
firefighting performance of FP foam was extreme- throws ranging from 7 metres with the jaws closed
ly poor when used through the short foam-making (i.e. spray mode) to 13 metres with the jaws open
branch but perfectly adequate when used through (i.e. jet mode) when operated at 7 bar.
the longer foam-making branch. Details of some of
the measurements made of the foam produced by 5.23 LX Hand-held Hosereel Foam
these branches are given in Table 5.1. Unit
LX foam-making branches operating at their rec- This consists of a p011able hand-held unit, similar
ommended pressure (usually either 5.5 or 7 bar to an extinguisher (see Figure 5.4), which can When operated at 3.5 bar with a flow rate of 46 line inductor (see below), and the air is drawn in
branch pressure) with a flow of 225 Ipm are contain up to 11 litres of foam concentrate. An Ipm, the manufacturer claims that the unit will pro- through orifices adjacent to the water inlet. The
claimed by the manufacturers to give throw dis- appliance hosereel is connected to an adaptor at duce foam with an expansion of approximately 8. equipment can only work against limited back
tances varying from 12 metres (coherent rope) to the top of the unit and water is supplied at between pressure, so the length and size of the hose
21 metres (no internal baffles etc.). Hand-held LX 2 and 10.5 bar. 5.2.4 LX Foam Generators between the generator and branch, and the size of
foam-making branchpipes are also available with the branch, need to be carefully selected.
nominal flow requirements of approximately 450 A small proportion of the water is diverted to fill a As an alternative to a foam-making branch, a LX
Ipm and 900 Ipm at 7 bar branch pressure. These completely deflated flexible bag within the con- foam generator may be used. This, when inserted Such generators are used to a limited extent in the
are claimed to throw finished foam a few metres tainer. Inflation of the bag displaces the foam con- in to a line of hose, induces appropriate amounts of Fire Service. A typical example has a recommend-
further than the 225 Ipm branches. centrate via a siphon tube, the concentrate entering foam concentrate and air into the water stream to ed water inlet pressure of 10.5 bar and a nominal
the main water stream and passing to an integral generate finished foam, which is then delivered water requirement is 255 Ipm. It can be used with
Some foam-making branches are specially LX foam-making branch to give a jet of primary through the hose to a water-type branch for appli- up to 60 m of 70 mm hose and a water branch with
designed for use with film-forming foam concen- aspirated foam. The unit is controlled via an on/off cation as aspirated foam. The foam concentrate is a 38 mm nozzle. Larger sizes of generator are
trates in crash fire situations. These branches have valve on the adaptor. induced using the same principle as that of an in- made but are generally used in fixed installations.
b
1..- - - - - - - - 6 1 0 mm---------.l·1 Figure 5.7 Photograph show-
ing the layout of a typical
trailer-mounted foam monitor.
(Photo: Angus Fire Armour Ltd.)
Foam concentrate
inlet
5.2.5 LX Foam Monitors hangars. Similar monitors are fitted to airport foam
tenders, often with adjustable jaws which allow
Primary aspirating LX foam monitors are larger the option of a flat fan-shaped spray.
versions of foam-making branches which cannot
be hand-held. They may be free-standing and There are numerous LX foam monitors in use
portable, mounted on trailers or mounted on appli- coming in a wide range of nominal flow and inlet
ances. They usually have multiple water connec- pressure requirements. One example has a nominal
tions, and may be self-inducing or used in con- flow requirement of approximately 1800 Ipm at an
junction with one of the induction methods inlet pressure of 7 bar and is claimed by the man-
described in Section 5.3 below. They can also be ufacturer to have a maximum horizontal range of
found in fixed installations at oil-tanker jetties and 50 metres and a maximum height of throw of 18
refineries or as oscillating monitors in aircraft metres. Another example operates at approximate-
Iy 4300 lpm at 10 bar inlet pressure with a claimed the tanks and the large distance between the mon-
throw of 60 metres and height of 24 metres. itor (possibly positioned on or below a bund wall)
and the tanks make the projection of foam into the
The throw distances and heights provided by man- tanks extremely difficult.
ufacturers are often recorded at different monitor
elevations and probably in still air conditions so 5.2.6 MX Hand-held Foam-making
care must be taken when making comparisons Branches
between different makes and types. The quoted
distances are likely to be reduced when the moni- Medium expansion foam-making branches are
tors are used under operational conditions. If at all generally designed to be used with SYNDET foam
possible, before purchase or operational use, this concentrates although other types, such as FP,
type of equipment should be operated at potential AFFF, AFFF-AR, FFFP and FFFP-AR, may also
risk sites to ensure that acceptable throws and be used. MX foam-making branches will produce
heights are achieved. This is especially true of foam at expansions usually ranging from 25: I to
risks involving storage tanks where the heights of 150: 1. As a result of these higher expansion ratios,
the projection distances of MX foam are much less Typical models of MX foam pourers have nominal
than for LX foam, If at all possible, before pur- flow requirements of from 600 lpm to 1800 lpm
chase or operational use, this type of equipment when operated at 2.5 bar inlet pressure. The foam
should be operated to ensure that acceptable outputs of these are claimed to be approximately
throws are achieved 24m 3/min and 72 m 3/min respectively at these
operating conditions. This is at an expansion ratio
With MX foam-making branches, an in-line of approximately 40: I.
inductor is generally used to introduce the foam
concentrate as a premix, The branch then diffuses 5.2.9 HX Foam Generators
and aerates the stream of foam solution, and pro-
jects it through a gauze mesh to produce bubbles High expansion foam generators are designed to
of a uniform size. be used with SYNDET foam concentrate only and
usually produce finished foams of expansion ratios
MX hand-held branches in use typically have of 200: I to 1200: 1.
nominal flow requirements ranging from 225 Ipm Nozzle
to 450 lpm with inlet pressures ranging between Air is blown through the generator by a fan, foam Head
I .5 bar and 8 bar. The expansion ratio of the foam solution is sprayed into the air stream, and this is
produced is usually claimed by the manufacturers directed onto the surface of a fine net screen. The
to be in the region of 65: I with throws ranging air blowing through the net wetted with foam solu-
from 3 to 12 metres. Typical foam output is tion produces finished foam with a mass of bub-
claimed to be approximately 13 m 3/min for 225 bles of uniform size which, like the MX foam
lpm branches and approximately 26 m 3/min for pourers, is "poured" rather than being "projected".
450 Ipm branches.
Figure 5.9 Principle of opera/ion of a medium expansion foam branch pipe.
Figure 5.10 shows, in diagrammatic form, the The larger HX foam generators are rather bulky
essential principles of HX foam generators. Some items of equipment to carry on a first-line appli- Control for shutting Rear View
generators require a separate in-line inductor but ance, so they are usually brought by special vehi- Foam off water supply to (with fan duct removed)
ducting discharge nozzles
others are self-inducing and some are capable of cles when required. However, some lightweight
being operated either way. generators have been developed that can fit into a
standard appliance locker. By-pass control to be
Some water turbine driven generators incorporate in fUlly open position
to discharge all water
a 'by-pass' system. With the by-pass closed, all of One typical large water turbine driven HX foam after passing through
the foam solution passing through the generator is generator weighs 55 kg and is claimed by the man- turbine
used both for driving the turbine and for foam ufacturer to produce at 7 bar inlet pressure, with a
production. This produces a lower expansion HX nominal flow of 210 lpm and the by-pass closed,
finished foam containing a higher percentage of 135 m 3/min of finished foam with an expansion
water. To overcome high back pressure, e.g. when ratio of between 500 and 700: 1. At the same inlet
forcing finished foam through long lengths of pressure, but with a nominal flow of 225 lpm and Water discharge Plan View
ducting or up to a height, the by-pass is opened, the by-pass open, the foam output is claimed to be (female coupling)
and some foam solution is thereby diverted to pass 155 m 3/min of finished foam with an expansion
through the turbine to waste, giving less for foam ratio of between 800 and 1200: 1.
Figure 5.12 Large HX
foam generator stowed
Figure 5.10 Essential on foam tender (right).
principles of a High
Large plastic bins
Expansion Foam
(centre) are for
Generator.
decanting foam.
(Phoro: Northern !re/and F/re
Br/Rade)
Air
Foam Flexible
Solution Ducting
Figure 5.17
Diagrammatic layoUl
Foam concentrate of a round-the-pump
proportioner system
Water where there is a built-
Water
Foam Solution tank infoam tank.
Foam concentrate inlet
(high concentration)
Foam Solution
(working concentration)
Variable
proportioner
/
+ Tank to
/'"
Drainl
+ pump
/valve
flushing!
pickup tube
valve
\
Suction
inlet
_......
1 x 900 Iitres/min inductor
fitted with 27 litres/min
metering valve
900 litrelmin and two
450 litrelminfoam
branchpipes receiving
a pressurised foam
Pressurised
foam
concentrate line
carrying 54
concentrate supply litres/min
from a foam tanker
or foam main.
Foam solution to
branchpipes
can be seen and topping up is made easier. When pumping foam concentrate to in-line induc-
However, this should be done with care because tors in particular, care should be taken to ensure
'swarf' produced when cutting off the tops can be that the system has been correctly designed for this
picked up and can cause blockages of the induc- situation. This is mainly because these inductors
1 x 1800 Iitres/min foam monitor
tion system. are calibrated for their normal operating mode
where they create their own small partial vacuum
To overcome all of the above difficulties, many in order to suck up foam concentrate (see this
brigades have developed pressurised foam concen- Chapter, Section 5.3.2). However, when foam
trate supply systems in which the foam concentrate concentrate is pumped under pressure directly to
is pumped from bulk storage containers directly to them, this will act in addition to the partial vacuum
the delivery equipment. This is often achieved by and will result in foam concentrate being intro-
utilising the pumping units on foam tenders to con- duced into the system at a much higher concentra-
vey the foam concentrate to the induction device, tion than required.
which may take the form of an in-line inductor or Pressurised
a constant flow valve. Three other methods of feeding foam concentrate foam
under pressure into hose lines without the use of concentrate line
Brigades have their different versions of this sys- in-line inductors are also briefly discussed below, carrying 108
tem, but they will all usually include some type these are: litres/min
of: 4 x 900 litres/min inline inductors
l?eJcue Sen'ice)
20mm
outlet with
hermaphrodite
Shut off valves coupling
Male instantaneous
20mm outlet with inlet
hermaphrodite coupling
One example of a metering device consists of a (d) Inline Foam Injection (Pelton Wheel)
flexible ring resting on a tapered seating. At low
pressure the ring is fully expanded, giving the As mentioned earlier, high pressure losses, in
maximum orifice opening. As the pressure rises, excess of 30%, can be expected when using in-line
the ring is compressed and forced gradually down venturi inductors. It is not unusual for this loss
the tapered seating, progressively decreasing the together with hose, monitor and nozzle losses to
size of the orifice. The combination of increased add up to a total pressure loss that makes the per-
pressure and decreased orifice size maintains a formance of some pieces of foam-making equip-
constant flow (Figure 5.24). ment ineffective, particularly in terms of throw.
(b) Distribution Manifold be used, a second manifold can be added to the
first one, either directly or via additional lengths of In another example (see Figure 5.25). a neoprene One alternative system is to make use of a pelton
Various designs have been devised by brigades, hose. The shut-off valves on the manifolds are diaphragm (shaped like a plug) is located above a wheel driven positive displacement pump which
some incorporating a metering device. Figure 5.23 opened or closed according to the number of in- profiled orifice. When subjected to pressure varia- will introduce foam, from a storage tank or foam
shows a typical distribution manifold which con- tine inductors to be supplied. tions between I and 14 bar, this diaphragm flexes dam, into the delivery hoses through a regulating
sists of a standard male instantaneous coupling onto the orifice, thereby increasing or decreasing valve. This valve can be adjusted to suit the injec-
leading to a manifold having two controlled outlets (c) Metering Devices the available orifice area and maintaining a con- tion rate required and once set will inject at the
with 20 mm hermaphrodite couplings, one on each stant rate of flow. required percentage regardless of pressure fluctua-
side, and a full-bore on/off valve. The manifold In order to ensure the optimum output of foam- tions in the delivery hose. The units can be sup-
finally has a standard female instantaneous cou- making equipment, the correct amount of foam These valves may be inserted at the inlet to each plied with either fixed or adjustable induction rates
pling at the other end. concentrate should be fed to the inductors at all in-line inductor or at some other point in the foam to suit the circumstances.
times. To ensure this, a metering device, or con- concentrate delivery line. Several brigades have
This type of manifold is capable of feeding one or stant flow valve as it is also known, is inserted into had foam-making equipment modified so that the (e) Pre-induction Units
two in-line inductors through 20 mm hose, each the line. There are many of these types of devices valve is incorporated within them. It is, of course,
line passing up to 70 litres of foam concentrate per available. essential that a metering device of the correct flow This system employs two induction units. A pre-
minute. If more than two in-line inductors need to rating for the equipment is used. induction unit is installed near a hydrant and draws
4.5
O
6
1
--=;;;..;....----:~=--=:_::_:_::-=------:~
-2----------------13
3 4 S 6 7 8
PRES liRE (BAR)
9 10 11 12
concentrate from a reservoir to produce a concen- trate motor, that are linked via a common shaft.
trate rich solution, generally in the region of one The water motor is connected into the main water
part water to two parts foam concentrate. This is feed line to the foam-making equipment. As water
fed to a specially designed self-inducing foam- passes through this motor, it turns and drives the MULTI-CONSTFLO
making branch. It is at the branch where the foam concentrate motor which injects foam con-
required concentration is achieved. centrate into the water stream discharging from the
outlet of the water pump. The capacities of the
By using two stages of induction and making use motors are carefully chosen so that the correct per-
5.3.6 Hosereel Foam Induction and The basic principles of operation of these systems
of the pressure and flow from a separate hydrant, a centage of foam concentrate is injected into the
Injection Systems are given below. This is followed by suggestions for
much lower pressure loss is experienced across the water line. Due to the linkage between the motors,
an operational requirement for a system to induce
inductor in the branch. However, the pre-induction the percentage concentration remains correct over
(a) General additives into the high pressure hosereels of a first-
unit must be accurately matched to the foam-mak- a wide range of flows through the water motor.
line appliance. This operational requirement is then
ing branch.
There are four categories of system most often briefly compared with the typical performance of
Typical portable versions cover various flow
When using 75mm diameter hose and large moni- ranges between 200 and 2000 litres per minute at a available for use by brigades for the induction of some existing hosereel induction systems.
tors, the distance from a pre-induction unit to the maximum pressure of 15 bar. The induction rate is foam concentrates into high pressure hosereels
monitor can be in excess of 750m. usually either fixed at 3% or is adjustable from 3% (Reference 8). They are: (b) Premix
to 6%.
(t) Direct Coupled Water Pump
Disadvantages of this type of system are that they
•• Premix systems
Round-the-pump systems
Premix systems involve foam concentrate being
mixed, to the correct concentration, with, for
These usually consist of two positive displacement
rotary pumps, a water motor and a foam concen-
are expensive and that they can produce pressure
drops of 25 to 30% of the inlet pressure.
•• Injection into pump inlet
In-line inductor
instance the whole contents of an appliance water
tank. A true premix system is ready-mixed in
(c) Round-the-pump
resulted in a branch pressure of less than 3 bar.
• The system should not adversely affect
branch performance due to, for instance,
that they have longer throws than conventional fire
service equipment and that they produce better
(t) Suggestions for an Operational high pressure losses. worked foam with expansion ratios adjustable
A typical round-the-pump system is described ear- Requirement for a Hosereel Induction between 7: I and 30: I. When used with class A
lier in this Chapter in Section 5.3. Other similar
systems are available for use in hosereel systems,
System
• The system should be capable of continu-
ous operation especially while the foam
foam concentrates, it is claimed that the resulting
foam will stick to vertical surfaces and remain
some of which use flowmeters, valves and micro- The following are suggestions for inclusion in an concentrate supply is replenished. there for long periods of time. This is said to cool
processor control. These match the foam concen- operational requirement for a system to induce all and insulate the material and to prevent the spread
trate flow rate to the water flow rate to maintain
the required foam concentration.
types of foam concentrates into the high pressure
hoseree)s of a first-line appliance:
• It should be possible to retrofit the system
to appliances.
of fire from radiated heat. CAFS may also be used
with other types of foam concentrates.
Techn·ca
If the flammable liquid is a high flash point fuel,
the burn back rate of flames through the spray, jet
or stream of fuel leaking from the container may
be less than the rate at which the fuel is discharged
The main method of combating running fires is by
prevention. Firefighters must be aware of any
potential for a pool fire to breach or over spill its
containment. Firefighting efforts should be adjust-
7
from the leak. In this situation, the discharging fuel ed to reduce such a risk, for example, minimising
will not be on fire. Consequently, the fire can be the use of cooling water which could drain into the Chapter 7 - Application Rates
extinguished with a foam blanket or water spray in contained pool and cause overflowing, monitoring
a similar fashion to a pool fire, the only additional the integrity of containing bund walls and evacuat-
precaution being to ensure that the level of fuel ing in advance any area which could possibly
does not rise sufficiently to over spill the contain- become inundated.
ment. Sand bagging, diversion channels and 7.1 General The recommended mlDlmum application rate is
pumping out are all useful techniques to help pre- 63.6 Other Terms based on the critical application rate (see above)
vent breakdown of containment. The application rate of a foam onto a fire is nor- with an additional 'safety margin' to help to take
Various other terms are used for different types of mally expressed as the amount of foam solution, in into account factors such as:
If, on the other hand, the burn back rate of flames fire and explosion incident such as BLEVE (see litres per minute, to be applied to every square
through the spray, jet or stream of fuel leaking Glossary of Terms - Firefighting Foams, at the metre of the total area to be covered with foam. • variations in the quality of foam
from the container exceeds the rate at which the rear of this Volume), vapour cloud explosion, gas The following five terms are often used to describe concentrate;
fuel is coming out of the container, then the dis- flare, etc. These have not been covered separately various foam application rates and it is important • variations in the quality of finished foam
charging fuel will also be on fire. It may be neces- since the use of firefighting foam is not directly to know the difference between them. they are: produced;
sary to use dry powder to extinguish fires in flow- involved. • some of the detrimental effects of forceful
ing jets of liquid or gas in conjunction with foam • Critical Application Rate appl ication.
application to the spreading fuel. Water sprays are • Recommended Minimum Application Rate
effective in reducing the heat output from burning • Optimum Application Rate The Home Office recommended minimum appli-
jets although they will break down any foam blan- • Overkill Rate cation rates for use by the UK fire service for fires
ket already formed. • Continued Application Rate involving water-immiscible class B liquids are
given in Section 7.3.2 below. Advice is given con-
63.5 Running Fires The following Sections describe the meanings of ceming the application rates for fires involving
these various terms. The most important of these water-miscible class B liquids in Section 7.3.4
This term refers to the case when a burning liquid for operational use is Recommended Minimum below.
is moving down a slope on a broad front. The situ- Application Rate.
ation is rare but extremely hazardous because of 73.2 Fires Involving Water-immiscible
the rapidity with which objects and people in the 7.2 ritical Application Ra e Class B Liquids
path of the flow can be enveloped. It is not possi-
ble to advise any course of action other than rapid The critical application rate is the application rate Tables 7.1 and 7.2 give the minimum application
evacuation from the oncoming flow. If monitors below which a fire cannot be ex.tinguished. When rates of foam solution recommended by the Home
and hoses are immediately available they could applied at below this critical rate, the finished Office for use by the UK fire service when using
provide sufficiently rapid knockdown. foam will be broken down, by both the fuel and the manual firefighting equipment to apply low and
heat of the fire, to such an ex.tent that a complete medium expansion foam to fires involving water-
On some fuels, film-forming foams are considered foam blanket will not be able to form over the sur- immiscible class B liquids. Also, recommended
particularly effective at fast knockdown, although face of the fuel. durations of foam application are included in the
other foams can have similarly rapid effects. tables.
Another technique is to lay a band of foam at the 7.3 Recommended inimum
lower end of the path of flow so that any pool that Application Rate It should be noted that the figures given in Tables
builds up will do so beneath a foam blanket. For 7.1 and 7.2 relate to minimum foam solution
this type of application f1uoroprotein or film-form- 73.1 General application rates and times and assumes that all of
ing alcohol resistant foams might be considered the finished foam produced from the foam solution
most suitable because of their stability, although The Recommended Minimum Application Rate is actually reaches the surface of the liquid on fire.
other foams would also satisfactorily perform the the minimum rate at which foam solution is rec- These rates should not be considered as being
task. ommended to be applied to a fire. The rate definitive; allowances must be made to compen-
assumes that all of the foam made from the foam sate for losses due to circumstances such as fall out
solution actuall y reaches the surt'ace of the burni ng of finished foam from the foam stream, adverse
fuel.
• the type of fuel; The optimum application rate is not the rate at
• the depth of fuel; which the quickest extinction is achieved. To
• the type of foam: achieve the quickest extinction time, rates in
• the manufacturer of the foam: excess of the optimum application rate are
Table 7.2: Home Office Recommended Minimum Application Rates of Foam Solution For the
• the method of foam application. required. However. the small reductions in extinc-
Production of Medium Expansion Foam For Use on Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel (Class B) Fires
tion times achieved by these increased application
Foam Type Minimum Application Rate of Foam Solution Minimum Application Time Some of the most widely used water-miscible liq- rates are at the cost of large increases in the use of
(lpm/m 2) (Minutes) uids include: resources such as water, foam concentrate etc. For
Spill/Bund Spill Bund some applications, such as those involving air
Alcohols (e.g. Methanol, Ethanol, crashes, quick extinction times are of the utmost
SYNDET 6.5 15 60 priority and can be considered a worthwhile use of
Isopropanol)
Fluoroprotein 5.0 15 60 Ketones (e.g. Acetone, Methyl Ethyl these resources.
AFFF 4.0 15 60 Ketone)
------------------ Vinyl Acetate 7.5 Overkill Rate
FFFP 4.0 15 60 Acrylonitrile
---------------
AFFF-AR 4.0 15 60 There is a limit to how quickly a fire can be extin-
Due to the large number of water-miscible fuels in guished when using firefighting foam. Once the
FFFP-AR 4.0 15 60
use, and the varying firefighting performance of application rate has reached a certain level, higher
1. CFBAC, JCFR Report 19, Trials of 10. FROG Publication 3/91. Additivesfor
Medium and High Expansion Foams on Hosereel Systems: Trials of Foam on
Petrol Fires. P L Parsons. 1982. Wooden Crib Fires, BP Johnson, 1991.
1. CFBAC, JCFR Report 40, Survey of 9 FRDG Publication 4/94, A Comparison Of (Note: Not all of these terms have been used in this Manual of Firemanship
Firefighting Foams, Associated Equipment Various Low Expansion Foams When Used but they have been included here for completeness)
and Tactics [Ewbank Preece Reports] 1990. Against The Proposed ISO And CEN
ISBN 0 82652 556 X Standard Medium Scale (45M2 ) Accelerated ageing Storage of foam concentrate at high temperatures to indicate
Part I : Firefighting Foams Hydrocarbon Fuel Test Fire, BP Johnson, long term storage properties of the foam concentrate at ambient
Part 2 : Tactics and Equipment 1994 temperatures.
Part 3 : Large Tank Fires
Acidity See pH.
2. Fire Service Manual - Volume 2 - Fire
Service Operations - Petrochemicals.
Alcohol resistant These may be suitable for use on hydrocarbon fuels, and
foam concentrates additionally are resistant to breakdown when applied to the
3. Fire Service Manual - Volume 2 - Fire
surface of water-miscible liquid fuels. Some alcohol resistant
Service Operations - Firefighting Foam.
foam concentrates may precipitate a polymeric membrane on
the surface of water-miscible liquid fuels.
4 CFBAC, JCFR Report 46, Additives
for Hosereel Systems Summary Report,
Alkalinity See pH.
B P Johnson, 1992.
7 Aspirated foam Foam that is made when foam solution is passed through purpose
SRDB Publication 22/88, Additives for
designed foam-making equipment, such as a foam-making
Hosereel Systems: Preliminary Trials of
branch. These mix in air (aspirate) and then agitate the mixture
Foam on Small Scale Isopropanol Fires,
sufficiently to produce finished foam. (see also primary aspirated
B P Johnson, 1988.
foam and secondary aspirated foam).
8 FRDG Publication 5/91, Additives for
Base injection The introduction of fuel-tolerant primary aspirated finished foam
Hosereel Systems: Trials of Foam On Tyre
(Subsurface injection) beneath the surface of certain flammable and combustible
Fires, B P Johnson, 1991.
hydrocarbons, to effect fire extinguishment. Usually used for
the protection of fixed roof hydrocarbon fuel storage tanks.
Burnback resistance The ability of a foam blanket to resist direct flame and Density The mass per unit volume of a material:
heat impingement. . mass
DenSity = I
vo ume
Candling Refers to the thin intermittent flames that can move over the
surface of a foam blanket even after the main liquid fuel fire has Dike area See Bund area.
been exti nguished.
Discharge rate The discharge rate of a high expansion foam generator measured
Chemical foam A finished foam produced by mixing two or more chemicals. (high expansion foam) in cubic metres/min (m 3/min) of foam at a stated expansion ratio.
The bubbles are typically caused by carbon dioxide released by
the reaction. Drainage time The time taken for a percentage of the liquid content of a
finished foam sample of a stated depth to drain out of the foam.
Classes of Fire In the UK the standard classification of fire types is defined For low expansion foam, times taken for 25% of the foam
in BS EN 2: 1992 as follows: solution to drain out are usually given; for medium and high
'Class A: fires involving solid materials, usually of an expansion foams 50% drainage times are usually given.
organic nature, in which combustion normally takes place
with the formation of glowing embers. Expansion ratio The ratio of the total volume of finished foam to the volume of
foam solution used to produce it:
Class B: fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids.
Class C: fires involving gases. Expansion ratio = volume of finished foam
volume of foam solution used to produce it
Class 0: fires involving metals.'
Film-forming A finished foam, foam solution or foam concentrate that forms a
Electrical fires are not included in this system of classi fication. spreading, thin, aqueous film on the surface of some hydrocarbon
liquids.
Cloud point The lowest temperature at which a liquid remains clear.
Usually only applicable to high expansion foam concentrates. FFFP foam concentrates Film-forming fluoroprotein. These are tluoroprotein foam
concentrates which have the ability to form an aqueous film on
Combustible liquid Any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 37.8°C (I OO"F). the surface of some hydrocarbon fuels.
Foam monitor A larger version of a foam-making branch which cannot be Medium expansion Finished foam of expansion ratio greater than 20: I. but less than
hand-held. foam (MX) or equal to 200: I.
Foam solution A well mixed solution of foam concentrate in water at the Minimum use The lowest temperature at which the foam concentrate can be
appropriate concentration. temperature used at the correct concentration through conventional equipment
such as inline inductors and other proportioning devices.
Foam, wet Foam with a short drainage time. i.e. the liquid content of the
foam takes a sholt period of time to drain out of the foam; the Monitor A large throughput branch (water or foam-making) which is
foam breaks down quickly. normally mounted on a vehicle, trailer or on a fixed or portable
pedestal.
Newtonian liquids The viscosity of Newtonian liquids remains the same no matter Premix solution A mixture in correct proportions of a foam concentrate and water.
how quickly or slowly they are flowing (see also non-Newtonian Use of this term generally implies that the foam is stored in a
pseudo-plastic liquids). Most non-alcohol resistant foam premix form, as in a portable foam fire extinguisher or as foam
concentrates (such as AFFF, FFFP, FP, P and SYNDET) are solution in a fire appliance water tank.
Newtonian liquids.
Primary aspirated Finished foam produced from foam solutions that are passed
Non-aspirated The application, by any appropriate means, of a firefighting foam through purpose designed foam-making equipment.
(Unaspirated) liquid that does not mix the liquid with air to produce foam (See secondary aspirated foam).
(i .e. aspiration does not occur). The term' non-aspirated foam' is
often used incorrectly to describe the product of a foam solution Proportioner A device where foam concentrate and water are mixed to form a
that has been passed through equipment that has not been foam solution.
specifically designed to produce foam, such as a water branch.
However, the use of this type of equipment will often result in Protein (P) foam Protein foam concentrate contains organic concentrates derived
some aspiration of a foam solution. This is because air is usually concentrate from natural vegetable or animal sources. Hydrolysed products of
entrained into a jet or spray of foam solution as it leaves the protein provide exceptionally stable and heat resistant properties
branch, as it travels through the air due to the turbulence to foams although they lack fuel tolerance and have slow knock-
produced by the stream and/or when it strikes an object. This down performance.
causes further turbulence and air mixing. There is sufficient air
entrained by these processes to produce a foam of very low Relative density see Specific gravity
expansion (often with an expansion ratio of less than 5: I).
Consequently, the term secondary aspirated foam is prefelTed in Secondary aspirated Finished foams that are produced from foam solutions that are
these cases (see also primary aspirated and secondary aspirated foam applied other than by purpose designed foam-making equipment,
foam). usually standard water devices. (See primary aspirated foam).
Non-Newtonian As the rate of flow of non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic liquids Security The ability of a foam to seal around hot objects and prevent
pseudo-plastic increases, their viscosity decreases and so they flow more easily. reignition.
liquids Consequently, getting them to flow initially can be difficult, but
once flowing, their viscosity reduces to a more acceptable level. Shear strength The measurement of the stiffness of a finished foam sample
Many alcohol resistant foam concentrates (such as AFFF-AR and when measured with a foam viscometer. Units of measurement
FFFP-AR) are considered to be non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic are Newtons per square metre (n/m 2 ).
liquids.
Slop-over When some burning liquids, such as heavy fuel oils or crude oils,
Oleophobic Oil repellent. become extremely hot, any applied water may begin to boil on
contact with the fuel, the resulting rapid expansion as it converts
Over-the-top foam The application of foam by projecting it over the sides of a to steam may cause burning fuel to overflow its containment and
application storage tank and directly on to the surface of the contained fuel. the fire to spread (see also boil-over and froth-over).
pH (Acidity/Alkalinity) Measurement of the acidity to alkalinity of a liquid on a scale of SOlution transit time The time taken for foam solution to pass from the point where
1 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral (like that of pure water), a pH of 1 is foam concentrate is introduced in to the water stream to when
very acidic, a pH of 14 is very alkaline. finished foam is produced.
Polar solvent This term is generally used to describe any liquid which destroys Specific gravity The specific gravity of a material is a measure of the density of
standard foams, although it actually refers to liquids whose mole- the material in relation to the density of water. The specific
cules possess a permanent dielectric discharge e.g. Alcohols, gravity is calculated as:-
ketones. Most polar solvents are water-miscible.
Specific Gravity = Density of material
Pour point The lowest temperature at which a foam concentrate is fluid enough Density of water
to pour. This is generally a few degrees above its freezing point.
Synthetic detergent These are based upon mixtures of hydrocarbon surface active
(SYNDET) foam agents and may contain fluorinated surface active agents with
concentrate additional stabilisers. They are multipurpose foams in that they
can be used at low, medium and high expansion.
Viscosity This is a measure of how well a liquid will flow. Liquids are
generally classed as either being non-Newtonian or Newtonian.
A low viscosity is often desirable because it improves the flow
characteristics of a foam concentrate through pick-up tubes,
pipework and induction equipment.
Viscosity will also vary with foam concentrate type and with
concentration. AFFF foam concentrates at 3% and 6%
oncentrations tend to be the least viscous, closely followed by
P, FP and FFFP foam concentrates at 6%. AFFF at 1% and
SYNDET foams, P, FP and FFFP foam concentrates at 3%
concentration are appreciably more viscous than these. The
alcohol resistant foams are often the most viscous although
recent developments have dramatically reduced the viscosity
of some products.