COMMUNICATION FROM THE

CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

06/2017 International Organizational Behaivor

Omar N. Fahmy Kenawi

Master International Management
IUBH International University of Applied Sciences
 COMMUNICATION FROM THE CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK

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COMMUNICATION FROM THE CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

COMMUNICATION FROM THE

CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
I N T E R N AT I O N A L O RG A N I Z AT I O N A L B E H A I VO R

INTRODUCTION
Communication involves conveying information from one place another. The communication
process may be between human beings or animals. Communication involves giving
instructions or relaying the feelings to others. The process of communication could be verbal
(orally), codes, or by use of signals. Communication helps convey meanings and intentions
from one group or entity to another where both sides of the divide mutually concur,
understands the signs, and perceives the intended information. All forms of communication
have common features. Individuals communicate with a motive or reason. The message
comprises of coding that the other party is likely to understand usually in the form of speech,
text, gestures, or symbols familiar to the intended recipient. The message must travel through
media. The recipient should be able to decode the signals and interpret the information to
make meaning out of the message.

Culture is compounded outcomes of experience, knowledge, attitude, beliefs, hierarchies,

values, religion, roles, spatial relations, material objects, the notion of time, or wealth that
individuals across generations develop and pass onto the next (Wierzbicka, 2003).. A group
of people sharing knowledge can be culture. Communication as a way of sharing information
among individuals is an aspect of culture. The human calculated behavior is an aspect of
culture. The cultivated behavior involves the overall intellections development and
experiences in life through the social construct. Culture is a people’s way of life through shares
beliefs, behaviors, symbols, and values that individuals learn through communication and
imitation from a generation and pass onto the next. Communication is an essential aspect of
culture where people learn various beliefs, motives, knowledge, skills, and attitude. The
aspects of culture could be implicit or explicit through embodiments in artifacts, traditional

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ideas, and other mechanisms that influence a group of people (Kim, 2001).. Culture is a
product of individuals learning to identify with the community into which they are born. Culture
reigns supreme among the various groups. Culture is the hallmark of the differences among
the community that subscribe to it (Iguisi, 2009).

LAYERS OF CULTURE AND CULTURE INDEX

The layers of culture depend on the position and the mental programming of the individuals.
The national level of a culture refers to the association of the people of a given country. The
regional layer has both ethnic, religious, and linguistic differences in a nation. The gender
level differences entail the identity of an individual concerning the state of being male or
female. The generation level of culture is the lineage in a culture showing the difference
between parents and children, parents and grandparents. The social class level is based on
occupation, social roles, and education. Finally, the corporate level is the organizational
culture.

The cultural differences are essential in understanding the cross culture communication. The
cultural differences arise from a composite-measure technique that dictates the cultural index.
The power distance index is the measure of the degree of inequality that exists in a particular
society. The uncertainty avoidance index measures the response to the threat, arising from
the ambiguous or uncertain conditions. The individualism index measures the extent of an
individualistic society. The loosely knit social ties are responsible for the individualism. Here,
the individuals care for themselves and that of the nuclear family only. The collectivism arises
from the strong family and social ties. The individual's affiliates to a particular group and
always care for one another with absolute loyalty. The masculinity index describes the
connections between success and interpersonal relationships. The index is a measure of the
extent to which individuals prefer success other than the quality of life (Hofstede & Bond,
1988).

The beliefs, ideas, values, and meanings that people adopt are a product of learning and
extend to shape the human nature. Individuals exhibit the character and behavior that they
learn from others. Therefore, culture, as a way of life, has no definite description of its scope.
Culture can be as diverse as people perceive their environments. The diversity of culture
across the world confirms that there are not standard features of culture as long as a group
of people. There is no set standard regarding culture as one aspect of a culture may be

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different from another. The cultural diversity also confirms that the characteristics of human
being are not conventional but takes the form of the society in which one dwells. Whatever
one culture embraces may be a taboo in another. Imperatively, people think and act differently.
Science cannot justify that a set of people from a culture are more superior to the other. Each
person is uniquely different from the other depending on the culture that the individual
practices.

The elements of a particular mode of communication determine the quality of communication.

Any problem within the process may reduce the effectiveness of communication. The sender
must determine the appropriate code that the receiver can understand and send through the
desired medium. For instance, communication in a school system or business organization
may be in the form of billboards, memos, bulletins, report, newsletters, and letters. The verbal
communicating takes the form of telephone, tape-recorded, sound slide shows, public
address unit systems, and face-to-face communications. People have different means of
decoding information depending on the needs, values, and beliefs. Therefore, the sender
must ensure that the message and mode of communication conform to the beliefs of the
individual. The communication can be either one-way or two-way depending on the need for
a response expected by of the parties.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
The type of communication depends on the kind of information to be relayed and the intended
audience or the recipient. The three types include verbal, which involves talking and listening,
written communication which requires reading, and non-verbal types.

Mode of communication

The tree mode of communication includes interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational. The
interpersonal mode is a two-way means of communication that include active discussion of
meaning among involved parties. The interpersonal communication is spontaneous, with the
exchange of information, which is therefore meaningful. The individuals involved monitor and
observe each other to ensure that they see and make meaning and intention of the information
communicated. The individuals have the opportunity to make clarifications and necessary
adjustments while conversing. However, interpretive communication is one way that does not
provide room for active negotiations of the author or the sender of the message. The recipient
gets the message in a coded way and reads, listens, or view to understanding the meaning
intended by the author, speaker, or producer. The interpretation differs among recipient

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depending on the translation and comprehension. The outcome depends on the ability to
listen, view, or listen in a cultural mindset. Finally, the presentational in a one-way
communication intended for a particular audience; either viewers, listeners, or readers. The
mode does not allow for the exchange of information. The viewers, readers or listeners have
not direct means to discuss actively with the presenter. The presenter should be conversant
with the language, culture, and the knowledge of the recipient (Angelelli, 2004).

Cross culture and communication

Cross culture involves the evaluation of cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism is critical towards
understanding the culture and how it influence communication. The cultural diversity is the
center of ethnocentrism, as one culture relates to another. People tend to relate regarding
superiority and success. In the cultural construct ethnocentrism is the way of cultural
evaluation following the preconceptions of a person’s culture. Ethnocentrism relays how
cultures compare to each other; it is the way of judging another culture based on the values
and beliefs of the observer. Using one culture to assess the standards of the other is a way of
showing that the other culture is a primitive version of the other. One set of people may believe
that they operate a more superior culture compared to the other (Abugre & Debrah, 2013).

Cross culture communication focus on the difference among people based on the mode and
types of communication. Different cultures manifest in different was and levels from a
superficial level to the inner levels. Symbols are the most superficial aspect of culture. These
include words, pictures, gestures, or objects that convey a particular meaning to the people
of the same culture. As people grow in culture, they learn new symbols and abandon the old
ones. Other groups often copy the culture of others (Carbaugh, 2017).

Cross-cultural communication is an essential area of study that helps understand the

communication aspect the various cultures across the globe. Different cultures have discourse
systems in their cross-cultural communications. The components of the system do entail not
only the talk but also the status, values, and other social attributes of people. Therefore, cross-
cultural communication is a conglomeration of values and language exhibited by individuals,
businesses, or organization in their routine operations. Culture depends on the ability of the
participants understand or to make a meaning of their environment and the whole world.
Different cultures have particular perception and interpreting the world around which is distinct
from others. Such include the concept of language, beliefs, values, norms, affiliations,
experience, and other social factors that shape an individual. While communicating, people

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borrow words or expression from within their or other cultures to express the values or
propositions. Therefore, cross-cultural communication requires mutual understanding among
cultures (Tian, 2014; Bjerregaard, Lauring, & Klitmøller, 2009).

BUSINESS

The business environment comprises of a global marketplace. Therefore, the effective way to
communicate across the diverse cultural business environment is essential in operating in the
global space. The cross-culture environment creates the need for effective management of
the multicultural expectations. The issues in the cross-cultural setting range from minor
settings to complex situations that require excellent managerial approach in creating a
relationship with people or organizations having different cultural affiliations. The business
may not be proactive in adapting to the various expectations thus affecting the foundation of
the business. Different cultures embrace hierarchy, formality, and timing. Failure to subscribe
to the provisions of such business culture leads to a negative outcome in negotiations and
making essential decisions. The management often requires a longer time to blend in a
culture. Impatient managers always make rush decisions which may affect the business, Most
cultures across the globe operate under team influence which may affect the operations of
the business that operate on an individual basis. The egocentric approach does not perform
well on Cross-cultural business (Chaney & Martin, 2013).

Success in the cross culture business environment requires that the management adopts
desired cross-cultural communication skills in fostering partnership. The manager should be
proactive in the operations by focusing on establishing a trusted partnership with others.
Cultural rapport is essential in adapting to the new business environment beyond an individual
culture. While venturing in cross culture, an individual business must ensure that they foster
a win-win situation for all the parties involved. The managers should also develop strategies
for business cycles and relationships through appropriate levels of operation in formality,
timing, and business hierarchy. The diversity in cross culture provides a gap for managers to
establish a framework of operation within forbidden and agreeable provisions of other culture
to which the business is venturing.

Clerk (2014) also highlights the various means to success in a cross-cultural workplace with
the ever-increasing globalization trends in business. The author embraces the fact the cultural
diversity is prone to misunderstanding among different businesses and individuals. The

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reason is that unlike before where businesses relied on clients, suppliers and employees form
a particular culture, the current trend pushes businesses beyond ethnic limits. The managers
require a proactive approach to cross-cultural expansion. The management should be aware
of the communication adopted by another firm from which they which they seek partnership.
The facts such as historical data major industries, economic issues, geography, and urban
centers provide the essential basis of operation. The cultural rapport is essential in
understanding and establishing a lasting relationship. The proactive approach is key in
marrying the various culture hence the tendencies can never be for granted (Cotton, 2017).

Culture index in Cross Culture

Cross-cultures attract interest from some disciplines such as education, psychology,

marketing, and accounting. The reason is that culture is an integral part of people’s life and
as such affects the manner in which individuals conduct their operations. The globalization in
social, political, and economic fields fuels the need for proper understanding of cultures in for
effective communication and international trade. The Hofstede’s model of culture remains
critical in cultural ranking and understanding diversity among individuals, organizations, and
regions. The culture models help a great deal in business management processes such as in
negotiation behavior, ethical perception, conflict management, reward allocation,
entrepreneurial innovativeness and potential, the expectation of service quality, acceptance
of goods and services, standardization among other aspects of business.

Hofstede’s model of cross culture comprises of five major dimensional expressions, namely,
individualism-collectivism, power distance, masculinity-femininity, Confucian Dynamism, long
vs. short, and uncertainty avoidance. Power distance index refers to the distribution of power
between the powerful members and the lower ranking member of an organization. The less
powerful members of the institutions or organizations accept and observe the uneven power
distribution. Power distance may also express the reluctance of the junior or subordinates to
express disagreement with the senior or supervisors. The senior employees have the
autonomy to make decisions affecting the junior employees without consulting them
(Hofstede, 1984).

Individualism is the measure to which individuals in the region or a country act from personal
initiative rather than consulting with others. The individual focuses solely on his or her interests
and that of the family while ignoring the opinion of others. Collectivism is the opposite of
individualism. Collectivist culture refers to individuals or cultures subscribe to and identify the

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group by birth or by other forms of affiliations. The members in a group protect the interest of
others to which they owe their loyalty (Hofstede, 1984).

Gender identity also influences cross-cultural communication. Hofstede describes masculinity

as a degree to which masculine values as earnings, advancement, and access to information.
A masculine culture has a male gender at the helm of affair in the organization and the family.
The complex tasks in the society such as assertiveness, success, competition, and
performance are for men. The femininity refers to values describe the friendly atmosphere,
physical condition, and cooperation. The female gender performs tasks with tender values
such as quality of life, care for the vulnerable, and solidarity, and maintaining warm personal
relationships. Different culture has a distinct role for men and women (Hofstede, 1984).

Uncertainty avoidance refers preference to structure. People in a country have different

preference to structured and unstructured systems. The structured scenarios are those with
defined provision and rules regarding the behavior of individuals in a setup. The provisions
can formal in the form of rules or unwritten traditions. The people who operate under culture
avoidance express nervous energy while their counterparts are easy going. A culture that
scores high in the uncertainty index is usually rigid in its operations. However, the low
avoidance culture is usually flexible and conforms to various external factors. The uncertainty
index relies on the perception of unforeseen danger in approaching issues from a different
that desire to remain relevant (Hofstede, 1984).

The power cultural index influences the operations of business in other regions and with
different individuals. Success in business or organization refers to how well an organization
can conform to the different cultural provisions. The organizations must embrace the cross-
cultural diversity in communication to thrive in the global market.

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CONCLUSIONS

Culture is compounded outcomes of experience, knowledge, attitude, beliefs, hierarchies,

values, religion, roles, spatial relations, material objects, the notion of time, or wealth that
individuals across generations develop and pass onto the next. The cultural differences are
essential in understanding the cross culture communication. The cultural differences arise
from a composite measure technique that dictates the cultural index. Cross culture
communication focus on the difference between people based on the mode and types of
communication. The communities of Asia value their cultural identity. The communities believe
the communitarianism is far more superior to the western culture, which based on
individualism, self-indulgence, lack of discipline, and selfishness.

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REFERENCES

Abugre, J. B., & Debrah, Y. (2013). Does Cross-cultural communication competence facilitate
Expatriates' assignment in MNCs in Foreign Subsidiaries?. The Business &
Management Review, 3(4), 198.

Angelelli, C. V. (2004). Medical interpreting and cross-cultural communication. Cambridge

University Press.

Bjerregaard, T., Lauring, J., & Klitmøller, A. (2009). A critical analysis of intercultural
communication research in cross-cultural management: Introducing newer
developments in anthropology. Critical perspectives on international business, 5(3),
207-228.

Carbaugh, D. (Ed.). (2016). The Handbook of Communication in Cross-cultural Perspective.

Routledge.

Chaney, L., & Martin, J. (2013). Intercultural business communication. Pearson Higher Ed.

Fuld, M. L. (2012). Cross-Cultural Communication Takes More than Manners. Havard

Business Review. Web.

He, R., & Liu, J. (2010). Barriers of cross cultural communication in multinational firms: A case
study of Swedish company and its subsidiary in China.

Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to
economic growth. Organizational dynamics, 16(4), 5-21.

Iguisi, O. (2009). Motivation-related values across cultures. African Journal of Business

Management, 3(4), 141.

Xie, Y. (2013). Cross-cultural communication barriers between staff in overseas-funded

enterprises and management strategies for overcoming them. Journal of Languages
and Culture, 4(4), 44-48.

Wierzbicka, A. (2003). Cross-cultural pragmatics (pp. 285-340). Walter de Gruyter Inc.

Kim, Y. Y. (2001). Becoming intercultural: An integrative theory of communication and cross-

cultural adaptation. Sage.

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PRACTICAL
EXERCISE

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Section 2: Cross-Cultural Communication: The Case of Chinese and Americans in

Multinational Organizations

The communities of Asia value their cultural identity. However, the discourse increases with
the modernization and globalization as well as the westernization. The East Asian countries
experience significant economic growth. The communities believe the communitarianism is
far more superior to the western culture, which based on individualism, self-indulgence, lack
of discipline, and selfishness. The western culture has more of family dissolution, juvenile
delinquency, drug use, inferior education, the breakdown of the justice system, high violence,
and crime rates. On the contrary, the Asian values comprise of filial piety, loyalty, and
familyism, which form the basis of communitarianism. The Asian culture stresses the aspect
of social order, discipline of personal interest, respect to the authority, diligent lifestyle,
consensus, and harmony over confrontation and competition, among other social values
(Kang, 2004).

The values are deeply embedded both in political and economic processes. The Asian
countries defend their culture and are always against westernization of the people of Asia
especially by the Americans. The countries believe that the West should not impose their
culture on the Asians. The governments, businesses and social institutions all operate under
the tradition without the consideration of western influence. The Asian communities always
work towards defending their culture for fear of dilution and ultimate fall by westernization.
Despite the uptake of the culture of the west, the Asian countries continue to apply the
principles of capitalism and democracy regarding the Asian values; forms of capitalism known
as Confucian symbiotic capitalism (Kang, 2004).

Imperatively, the countries of the Asian continent believe in strong cultural affiliations and
always conduct all their social, and political affairs based on the culture. Therefore, the
organizations founded on the western culture must learn the aspect of Asian culture in a quest
to establish a strong relationship with the market in the Asia. The investors should understand
that the Asian Culture does not subscribe to the westernization. Therefore, businesses that
seek to venture in China should understand the aspect of cross-cultural communication.

Cross-Cultural Communication in China

China is among the countries across the globe with a high cultural context where the
individuals prefer information from the context of the message, rather than the content. The
Chinese culture upholds in directedness, ambiguity, and politeness with heavy reliance on

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nonverbal cues. However, the concept of nonverbal cues varies with the culture. While one
community considers eye contact as a show of trustworthiness and honesty, others also
consider eye contact as a challenge and rude. According to the Chinese tradition, direct eye
contact with the senior appears rude and disrespectful. A prolonged eye contact is usually a
challenge. The junior members should avoid eye contact as a means of preservation of the
privacy of those in authority. This is contrary to the western culture, which considers eye
contact as a show of sincerity, intelligence, and strong intent.

The Chinese rely both on verbal and nonverbal cues. The culture and traditions consider
manners and communication as an important social aspect. The Chinese people do not use
large movements, or neither do they use their hand gesture while speaking such as finger
pointing because it is a distraction to the others. While communicating, there is no personal
contact between people of the opposite gender in public.

Culture Index between Chinese and Americans

The Chinese people observe a high power distance which follows that leaders enjoy
dominance over their subjects to whom they attract total respect. The Chinese culture is built
on a firm hierarchical structure of power. Therefore, an investor in China needs to understand
the management system in the place to conform to the Chinese people. The culture provides
that the people embrace their place and roles while revering those above them. The structure
thus allows the top managers to make independent decisions without consulting with the junior
members. The junior members thus address the seniors with ultimate respect desired (He
and Liu, 2010).

The Asian countries are majorly socialist which follows that they are more of a collectivist
community. The Chinese believe in the collective responsibility other than the individual effort.
Most of the Chinese business embraces Guanxi that means relationship. The people,
therefore, allow more teamwork. Companies or corporations that embrace individualism have
limited chances of surviving in the Chinese market because communication is more of ‘we’
that ‘I’ (He and Liu, 2010).

The people of China are a society that embraces success in the form of achievement.
Therefore, the country leans more on masculinity. The people, therefore, spend time working
for long hours, more effort for better pay, promotion, and overall success. The society upholds
the belief of maximum output from an individual’s ability. Therefore, the people always aspire
to achieve greater from personal effort. The country thus does not embrace femininity. The

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businesses should be more masculine oriented to thrive in Chinese marketplace (He and Liu,
2010).

The uncertainty avoidance in China is high. The people prefer a structure and plan within
which to operate. The culture does not embrace the spirit of adventure. The market \place
thrives in certainty with few people willing to take the risk. Therefore, establishing a business
in the Chinese marketplace requires trust (He and Liu, 2010). The people operate on a long-
term orientation. The success of an individual is commensurate with the degree of hard work
over the long term. The society does encourage a short-term gratification hence insist on a
long-term investment. The product and services should always last long to appeal to many
people (He and Liu, 2010).

Language code is a matter of importance while venturing in the Chinese markets. The
American companies seeking to extend in the Chinese Market have a linguistic disadvantage.
The Chinese use Mandarin as a national language to simplify the linguistic diversity in the
country. However, for countries trying to venture in China, there is still in issues with the
language barrier. The Chinese people also prefer companies and brands with auspicious
meaning. For instance, when Pepsi moved to China, they had to change the brand name that
conforms with the psychology of the buyers, ‘Bai Shi Ke Le’ meaning everything is enjoyable
making it a success.

Non-language code is also essential in understanding the Chinese culture. The non-
language code is a supplement to education. The facial expression, symbolic objects, and
body language are essential asset in communication in high context culture like Chine.
Chinese view flowers as show of gratitude to the integrity of the recipient. However, other gifts
apart from lotus are unacceptable. The non-language codes have the ability to make or break
the business relationship between foreigners and Chinese. Chinese women, when
communication, never maintain eye contact. The American employees may then feel lack of
trust. However, to the women, it is a show of respect and obedience to the authority. The
culture provides the women revere the male counterparts. The trend is not an exception in
the work place. Therefore, the Pepsi Company had to adapt and embrace the Chinese culture
during negotiations and inquiries to uphold the cultural space of the Chinese women
professionals. The cultural provision did not auger well with the Americans because eye
contact in a non-language code that connotes trustworthiness, honesty, and confidence
between partners or among employees. Avoiding eye contact thus created a doubtful

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atmosphere in negotiations not until the Americans learnt of the secret Chinese cultural codes.
In most cases, the negotiations ended up in jeopardy because of cultural differences.

Cultural Values and Belief: Americans and Chinese

Pepsi has a difficult time establishing itself in Chinese market even after extensive
market research because of the difference in cultural beliefs and values. The Americans and
Chinese score absolutely opposite in the Hofstede’s culture index.

Power distance

The power distance among Americans and China differs because of cultural difference. The
junior Chinese employees always observe hierarchy and revere the people above them.
However, the power distance among the Americans. Power distance influences
straightforwardness and modesty within the work place. Collectivism and individualism also
plays a role in straightforwardness and reticence. The American communicates and express
themselves more openly compare to the Chinese. The American workers are more open and
straightforward. The collectivist Chinese expresses themselves in a subtle manner, with
politeness and respect. Whereas the Americans were able to challenge the management, the
Chinese remained subtle and silently followed the rules of the company whether it was to their
benefit or not.

Individualism and collectivism

Americans value individualism whereas Chinese value collectivism. According to the

Americans, individual effort, competence, achievement, and productivity are what determines
the success of a company. The individual goals, aspirations, and autonomy mask the herd
mentality. Selling individual goals to Chinese professionals never work. The Pepsi had to
adopt group mentality of collectivist to blend in the Chinese workforce. The Chinese value
collectivism and takes charge over personal interest. Individual interest can never supersede
the desire of many. The Chinese working environment thrives under Confucianism that
embraces the good of all in the society. Therefore, most Chinese working in the Company felt
that the Americans were cold, non-caring, and indifferent. The workers had a rough time
adopting to the workplace because of inadequate exposure to teamwork.

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