Unit III

ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING STANDARDS

Nature and role of professional societies :

Professional bodies are organisations whose members are individual professionals. In some
professions it is compulsory to be a member of the professional body, in others it is not. This usually
depends on whether or not the profession requires the professional to have a ‘licence to practice’,
or to be on a professional register, in order to do their job. This is related to how the profession is
regulated i.e. who is responsible for making sure that professionals are doing their jobs properly.

The professional body may have a number of functions. They may:

 Set and assess professional examinations

 Provide support for Continuing Professional Development through learning opportunities

and tools for recording and planning

 Publish professional journals or magazines

 Provide networks for professionals to meet and discuss their field of expertise

 Issue a Code of Conduct to guide professional behaviour

 Deal with complaints against professionals and implement disciplinary procedures

 Be enabling fairer access to the professions, so that people from all backgrounds can
become professionals.

 Provide careers support and opportunities for students, graduates and people already
working.

Professional responsibilities :

An engineer's conduct (as captured in professional codes of conduct) toward other engineers,
toward employers, toward clients, and toward the public is an essential part of the life of a
professional engineer, yet the education process and professional societies pay inadequate attention
to the area. If one adopts Skooglund's definition of professional ethics (how we agree to relate to
one another), then the codes of professional conduct lay out a road map for professional
relationships. As professionals, engineers need to internalize their codes and to realize that they
have a personal stake in the application of codes as well as the process of developing the codes. Yet,
most engineers view professional codes as static statements developed by "others" with little (or no)
input from the individual engineer. Complicating the problem, questions of professionalism (such as
ethics) are frequently viewed as topics outside the normal realm of engineering analysis and design.
In reality, professional responsibility is an integral part of the engineering process.

The Role of Engineering in Society: Engineering Design:

The National Research Council recently recognized the need for improvement in both engineering
design and engineering design education. Although there are numerous articles on engineering
design. we will concentrate on the interaction between engineers and society.

One of the first sources of confusion, particularly among those who are not engineers or scientists, is
the distinction between science and engineering. The primary role of science is to develop
knowledge and understanding of the physical universe. As pointed out by Davis and others, an
important distinction is that this pursuit of knowledge (science) may occur largely without regard to
societal need (or to societal implications). The direction of scientific research has been described by
some as curiosity-based research which is not necessarily driven by the values of society. Societal
values (and resulting priorities) do not necessarily define the bounds, direction or scope of scientific
curiosity. * This is not a criticism of science, for such is the nature of "inquiring." Furthermore, it is
often not possible to determine relevance of a particular field of scientific inquiry to the future
needs of society. Given this curiosity-driven process, the base of scientific knowledge about the
physical universe may be represented by an amoebae-like structure uneven in its extent in the
various directions with current scientific research efforts acting to extend its coverage (fig. 1).

Figure 1.

The utilization of scientific knowledge over time establishes that some of the knowledge is
immediately relevant to societal needs while other parts are less immediately relevant (society may
never realize the relevance of a particular scientific inquiry). While the congruence of societal need
with scientific knowledge is much more complex than indicated in this article, it may be represented
for the purpose of this discussion by a Venn diagram as seen in figure 2. The authors maintain that it
is this overlap of scientific knowledge with societal need, more specifically, the application of
scientific knowledge to the needs of society, that is the domain of engineering (inter alia) (see
below). Clearly, the extent of human enterprise is much more complex than is represented here. If,
for example, it is in the interest of society to increase our store of scientific knowledge, then
engineers and scientists who ply their trade in the frontiers of scientific research are both serving
societal need. Nevertheless, our contention is that the central focus of the engineering profession is
the application of scientific knowledge to meet societal needs.

Figure 2.
This analogy can be extended by superimposing the distinction of the creative versus the analytical
aspect of the human enterprise. We can represent this aspect of the human intellect by another
Venn diagram shown in figure 3. As indicated in the diagram, one may pursue creative efforts
without involving analytical skills, and one may apply analytical skills without entering the domain of
creativity. For example, as engineers apply commercial software to the solution of an engineering
problem, the application of analytical skills, per se, may involve little or no creativity.

Figure 3.

One may superimpose these two Venn Diagrams and use the resulting diagrams to examine
engineering enterprise as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4.

Considering the intersection of scientific knowledge with societal need (designated as the domain of
engineering), the authors will discuss three sectors, shown as A, B, and C.

Sector A represents the intersection of purely analytical talents with the engineering domain. This
may be used to represent engineering science, an ability to model complex systems and predict their
response to various inputs under various conditions. This segment of engineering has, of course,
been the subject of intense development over the last half century and has benefitted most directly
from the availability of fast digital computers.

Sector C, the intersection of our creative capacity with the engineering domain, can be viewed as
representing those sudden intuitive leaps often responsible for revolutionary advances in technology
called "significant novelty" by Spier as well as those aspects of engineering, not yet fully supported
by engineering science, that remain more art than science.

The third sector, B (the intersection of knowledge and need with both creative and analytical
capability) can be used to represent engineering design and much "real world" problem solving. This
sector includes activities ranging from developing innovative products and processes, to creating an
innovative bridge design, to developing a new control process for petrochemical production. This
vision of engineering design as the quadrilateral intersection represented by Section B is consistent
with statements expressed by Pahl and Beitz , Dixon and Penny.

Current approaches to teaching used in engineering schools have been designed more for
developing analytical skills (Sector A) than creative skills. The Accreditation Board for Engineering
and Technology (ABET) identifies engineering as "that profession in which knowledge of the
mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with
judgment to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature "for the
benefit of mankind" (emphasis added). ABET further recognizes that "a significant measure of an
engineering education is the degree to which it has prepared the graduate to pursue a productive
engineering career that is characterized by continued professional growth" . One can conclude that
analytical skills are essential tools for engineers, but are not sufficient for a complete engineering
education. An education that only uses classroom problems in which all variables are accurately
known and only one correct answer exists not only misrepresents the situations engineers
encounter in their jobs, but also does little to stimulate creativity. A trend toward using open-ended
problems in the engineering classroom is a healthy step in the direction of more complete and
relevant engineering education.

This four-circle representation of human endeavor (fig. 4) also offers a useful perspective for other
enterprises. Sector 1, the intersection of analytical skills with societal needs outside the bounds of
scientific knowledge might include economics and philosophy while sector 3 may encompass the
arts. Sector 2 may be used to represent those societal needs outside the bounds of scientific
knowledge that required both analytical and creative skills, perhaps including public policy, business
administration, and music.

The view of engineering presented in this paper differs from the view of "method" presented by
Koen, and the notion of "significant novelty" presented by Spier. Spier argues, "There is a product
that results from the activity of an engineer" and interprets the term "product" broadly (we presume
to include processes). Our emphasis, however, is not on the product, but the engineer's interaction
with society.

Professional Responsibility and Engineering Ethics

Discussion of an engineer's inherent interaction with society and societal needs, leads naturally to an
engineer's responsibility to society. Since the Grinter report , engineering education has made
significant progress in strengthening the basic sciences in engineering, including mathematics,
chemistry, and physics . Recent trends toward increasing discussion of professionalism in the
classroom notwithstanding, topics of professional responsibility (as compared to science,
engineering sciences, and engineering analysis) have received surprisingly little attention in
engineering education over the last several decades. The authors fear that professional
responsibility may also have been underemphasized in the practice of engineering. This includes
such topics as:

 Safety and Welfare of the Public and of Clients

 Professional Ethics

 Legal Liabilities of Engineers

  Environmental Responsibilities

 Quality

 Communications

Each of these topics relates to the interaction of an engineer to others: clients, society, employers,
employees, and to the engineering profession. Regarding engineering ethics, Whitbeck argues that
engineers should study engineering ethics from the perspective of a moral agent as opposed to a
moral judge . We fully subscribe to this approach not only for teaching engineering ethics, but also
for teaching (and practicing) in other areas of professional responsibility. For engineers, engineering
ethics is not a topic separate from engineering, it is part of the essence of engineering as it pertains
to the professional responsibilities that the engineer has with society. The results of an NSF
sponsored workshop on engineering ethics in the classroom utilized techniques from engineering
design methodology to address ethical dimensions of engineering problems, designs, and
interactions. One may consider numerous engineering design methodologies which will illustrate the
point. Pugh, for example, includes the following elements in the "engineering design core".

 Understanding the Market (problem definition: societal need)

 Design Specification (specifying the needs)

 Concept Design

 Detail Design

 Manufacture

 Sell

Pugh's methodology focuses on product design, but also has applications in process design and
general problem solving. Experienced engineers would not logically delay consideration of economic
issues until after completion of detail design. That would not allow the engineer to consider
economic and performance tradeoffs that are essential in the overall evaluation of alternative
designs to be analyzed in the Concept Design element. It is just as important that engineers first
approach ethical, safety, liability, environmental, quality, and communications issues in the first step
of the design process, rather than allowing the design to proceed without regard to these issues.
This allows engineers to address and analyze each element of the problem from the problem
statement to the release of the product or service to the customer. This allows engineers to
integrate (naturally) the consideration of ethical and other concerns directly into the design process
and to expand the alternative designs to potentially eliminate or reduce problems, rather than
simply to react to the problems.

This article started with a quote stating that "the essence of engineering is design." ABET defines
design as:

... the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a decision
making process (often iterative), in which the basic sciences and mathematics and engineering
sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. ...it is essential to
include a variety of realistic constraints, such as economic factors, safety, reliability, aesthetics, ethics
and social impact. (emphasis added)

ABET's definition of design involves engineering activities which include open-ended problems.
These activities include machine design, product and process engineering, manufacturing
engineering, and applications engineering. This broad definition of design includes most of
engineering activities involving societal interaction. Due to their interactions with society, engineers
assume the responsibility inherent in such interactions. ABET's definition acknowledges the
relationship of engineering to society in the recognition of "realistic constraints" in the design
process (remember that "design is the essence of engineering"). The National Research Council also
recognized the importance of engineering in society. Yet engineers frequently give limited attention
to the codes which guide their interaction with society. Skooglund proposes that professional ethics
describe "how we agree to relate to one another". This pragmatic definition of professional ethics
can be useful in examining how engineers view their codes.

Development of course material in the last decade has allowed engineering degree programs to
expand course offerings in fields of professional responsibility. Additionally, faculty have developed
problems for analytical courses which include issues of professional responsibility (see Broom and
Pierce, "The Heroic Engineer"). Though developments supporting an engineer's ability to address
areas of professional responsibility are encouraging, the authors still believe that academic programs
currently are producing far too many engineers who do not understand their professional
responsibilities to society. Observations by Vandenburg and Khan support these concerns. They
state: "Given current economic, social and environmental trends and policies, the study shows cause
for deep concerns..." As indicated in Engineering Education for a Changing World, "...engineering
colleges must not only provide their graduates with the intellectual development and superb
technical capabilities, but following industry's lead, those colleges must educate their students to
work as part of teams, communicate well, and understand the economic, social, environmental and
international context of their professional activities".

Engineers must develop a fundamental understanding of their professional responsibilities. Few

engineers have an opportunity, however, to develop or contribute to the development of a
professional code of ethics. As a result, engineers are in danger of viewing codes of ethics as static,
dictated by "others" for engineering applications. Compare this to the process by which attorneys in
the United States develop professional codes regulating their conduct. State bars and their members
develop and periodically review their professional codes of conduct. Statewide debate about the
codes can be heated and can produce significant discrepancies from state to state in rules of
professional conduct. One should expect these discussions to become heated, since these codes
describe how professionals (attorneys) will relate to clients, courts, the public, and other attorneys.
At the end of the review process, the code describes how the parties will "relate to one another"
(using Skooglund's terminology). Partially due to the process used to develop and review their codes
of professional conduct, attorneys tend to internalize these codes.

The authors do not suggest that the engineering profession model itself after the legal profession; in
fact, substantive differences from state to state have some serious drawbacks. Rather we suggest
that engineers examine and adopt "best practices" in development of rules of professional conduct
which encourage engineers to understand and internalize their professional codes. Engineers need
to develop broad fundamental understanding of their professional responsibilities. In at least one
engineering college, students have developed their own codes of conduct (how they will relate to
one another and the college) for their academic career. This experience gives the students a
personal involvement with professional codes of conduct necessary in the engineering profession.
These students have an opportunity to integrate their "professional code" into their daily work as
engineering students. This allows students to internalize their professional responsibilities and to
develop a fundamental understanding of their obligations and resulting consequences. Students at
other universities and the engineering profession would be well served to learn from the
experiences of these students who developed their own code.

Since it is difficult for every practicing engineer to participate in the development of national
professional codes, it may be better to localize this experience for professional engineers. This can
be done by developing codes for conduct at company, division, or departmental levels in traditional
engineering environments. Texas Instruments and Bell Helicopter have had positive experiences
developing company codes which are intended to describe how professional engineers "agree to
relate to one another".

We suggest, however, that the most effective mechanism is the personal involvement of each
engineer in integrating the topics of safety and the welfare of the public, professional ethics, legal
considerations, environmental responsibilities, quality, and communications into the methodologies
which all engineers use to approach and solve problems in the ordinary course of practice. This could
be considered a natural extension of "Concurrent Engineering" in which the elements of design,
manufacturing, and other issues are considered concurrently in engineering methodology. The
concurrent methodology would include design for manufacturing, design for reliability, design for
maintainability, design for assembly, design for environment, design for safety, design for
economics, etc. This supports the approach taken by Pugh in his concept of "Total Design". Some
elements of integration has been imposed by regulation (such as environmental regulation).

The healthy debate among engineers (as well as clients and employers) which should naturally arise
in the integration and the application of the methodologies will serve to underscore the nature and
importance of the role that the engineer has in society (health, safety, and welfare of the public); the
role the client has in engineering design (realistic requirements, economics, reliability,
maintainability, and other associated topics of quality); the effects of engineering activity on society;
and the relationship of society to engineering activities (including product liability, protection of
intellectual property, environmental regulations, etc.).

Confidentiality and Proprietary Information:

Confidential and Proprietary Information means any information that is classified as confidential in
the Firms Global Policy on Confidential Information or that may have intrinsic value to the Firm, the
Firms clients or other parties with which the Firm has a relationship, or that may provide the Firm
with a competitive advantage, including, without limitation, any trade secrets; inventions (whether
or not patentable); formulas; flow charts; computer programs; access codes or other systems
information; algorithms; technology and business processes; business, product or marketing plans;
sales and other forecasts; financial information; client lists or other intellectual property;
information relating to compensation and benefits; and public information that becomes proprietary
as a result of the Firms compilation of that information for use in its business, provided that such
Confidential and Proprietary Information does not include any information which is available for use
by the general public or is generally available for use within the relevant business or industry other
than as a result of your action. Confidential and Proprietary Information may be in any medium or
form, including, without limitation, physical documents, computer files or discs, electronic
communications, videotapes, audiotapes, and oral communications.

Examples of Confidential and Proprietary Information in a sentence

The Executive expressly acknowledges the trade secret status of the Confidential and Proprietary
Information and that the Confidential and Proprietary Information constitutes a protectable
business interest of the Company.

The Executive hereby warrants that the Executive will not retain in any form such documents,
Confidential and Proprietary Information, Work Product or other information or copies thereof.

The Executive agrees: (i) not to use any such Confidential and Proprietary Information for himself or
others; and (ii) not to take any Company material or reproductions (including but not limited to
writings, correspondence, notes, drafts, records, invoices, technical and business policies, computer
programs or disks) thereof from the Company's offices at any time during his employment by the
Company, except as required in the execution of the Executive's duties to the Company.

Executive will at all times regard and preserve as confidential such Confidential and Proprietary
Information obtained by Executive from whatever source and will not, either during his employment
with the Company or thereafter, publish or disclose any part of such Confidential and Proprietary
Information in any manner at any time, or use the same except on behalf of the Company, without
the prior written consent of the Company.

In such cases, Executive shall promptly provide the Company with a copy of the Confidential and
Proprietary Information so disclosed.

The Group recognizes the proprietary interest of the Administrator, Parent and their Affiliates in any
Confidential and Proprietary Information (as hereinafter defined).

The Group acknowledges and agrees that Administrator, Parent or their Affiliates are entitled to
prevent the disclosure of Confidential and Proprietary Information.

The Group further acknowledges and understands that its disclosure of Administrator's Confidential
and Proprietary Information will result in irreparable injury and damage to Administrator, Parent or
their Affiliates.

In the event of any termination of this Agreement for any reason whatsoever, or at any time upon
the request of the Group, the Administrator, Parent and their Affiliates will promptly deliver or cause
to be delivered to the Group all documents, data and other information in their possession that
contain any Group's Confidential and Proprietary Information.

Administrator, Parent or their Affiliates hereto recognize the proprietary interest of the Group in any
Confidential and Proprietary Information (as hereinafter defined).
Proprietary information, also known as a trade secret, is information a company wishes to keep
confidential. Proprietary information can include secret formulas, processes, and methods used in
production. It can also include a company's business and marketing plans, salary structure, customer
lists, contracts, and details of its computer systems. In some cases, the special knowledge and skills
that an employee has learned on the job are considered to be a company's proprietary information.

LEGISLATION

Federal legislation came into effect in 1996 with the enactment of The Economic Espionage Act of
1996 (EEA). The EEA was in part modeled on The Uniform Trade Secrets Act (UTSA), a model law
drafted by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws but expands UTSA's
definition. The EEA definition of trade secret follows from Section 1838, paragraph (3):

"[T]he term 'trade secret' means all forms and types of financial, business, scientific, technical,
economic, or engineering information, including patterns, plans, compilations, program devices,
formulas, designs, prototypes, methods, techniques, processes, procedures, programs, or codes,
whether tangible or intangible, and whether or how stored, compiled, or memorialized physically,
electronically, graphically, photographically, or in writing if—

"(A) the owner therefore has taken reasonable measures to keep such information secret, and

"(B) the information derives independent economic value, actual or potential, from not being
generally known to, and not being readily ascertainable through proper means by, the public[.]"

With the passage of EEA, trade secrets now enjoy protection under federal law as do inventions
through patents, creative works through copyright, and unique names and symbols through
trademark legislation. In addition, 39 U.S. laws also define trade secrets in various ways and define
the conditions under which theft has taken place. Based on such laws a significant body of case law
covers proprietary information and trade secrets. This legal framework recognizes a company's right
to have proprietary information and provides the company with remedies when its trade secrets
have been misused or illegally appropriated.

PROTECTING TRADE SECRETS

In general, for information to be considered proprietary, companies must treat it as confidential.

Courts will not treat information readily available in public sources as proprietary. In addition,
proprietary information must give the firm some sort of competitive advantage and should generally
be unknown outside of the firm. A company must be able to demonstrate that it has taken every
reasonable step to keep the information private if it hopes to obtain court assistance in protecting
its rights. "Courts require that trade secret holders take 'reasonable' steps to maintain the secrecy of
their trade secrets," Randy Kay wrote in the San Diego Business Journal. "Courts do not require that
companies take all measures conceivable to maintain the secrecy, nor do courts require absolute
secrecy. Rather, the confidentiality measures must be 'reasonable under the circumstances."

A company has several options to keep its information proprietary. Key employees with access to
such information may be required to sign restrictive covenants—also called confidentiality,
nondisclosure, or noncompete agreements—that prohibit them from revealing that information to
outsiders or using it to compete with their employer for a certain period of time after leaving the
company. Restrictive covenants are usually enforced by the courts if they are reasonable with
respect to time and place and do not unreasonably restrict the former employee's right to
employment. In some cases the covenants are enforced only if the employee has gained proprietary
information during the course of his or her employment.

In addition, the courts generally consider it unfair competition for one company to induce people
who have acquired unique technical skills and secret knowledge at another company to terminate
their employment and use their skills and knowledge for the benefit of the competing firm. In such a
case the plaintiff can seek an injunction to prevent its former employees and its competitor from
using the proprietary information.

Companies may also develop security systems to protect their proprietary information from being
stolen by foreign or domestic competitors. Business and industrial espionage is an ongoing activity
that clandestinely seeks to obtain trade secrets by illegal methods. A corporate system for protecting
proprietary information would include a comprehensive plan ranging from restricting employee
access, to data protection, to securing phone lines and meeting rooms. In some cases a chief
information officer (CIO) would be responsible for implementing such a plan.

As Kay noted, other means of demonstrating reasonable efforts at secrecy include marking
documents as "confidential," prohibiting people from making photo copies of trade secret
documents or removing them from company premises, limiting the access of employees to sensitive
materials, creating a written trade secret protection plan, and bringing suit for the theft of trade
secrets as required.

On the other hand, small businesses are unlikely to prevail in cases involving trade secret protection
if they sell a product or publish technical literature that discloses the trade secret, expose the secret
to employees or colleagues who haven't signed confidentiality agreements, publish information
about the secret in professional journals or on the Internet, or disclose the trade secret in public
documents such as court records and government filings.

Conflict of Interest:

A conflict of interest is a situation in which an individual has competing interests or loyalties. A

conflict of interest can exist in many different situations. The easiest way to explain the concept of
conflict of interest is by using some examples.

 with a public official whose personal interests conflict with his/her professional position.

 with a person who has a position of authority in one organization that conflicts with his or
her interests in another organization

 with a person who has conflicting responsibilities.

Is Conflict of Interest a Crime?

Like other types of illegal or unethical activities, conflict of interest activities carry the risk of
consequences.
In certain circumstances, conflict of interest can result in prosecution. For example, public officials,
like state legislators, are specifically prohibited from activities that would result in a personal gain
because of conflict of interest.

In most cases, though, conflict of interest matters are handled in court by a civil lawsuit. For
example, if a company has proof that a board member profited from her role on the board, the
board member has violated her duty of loyalty and can be taken to court.

Conflicts of Interest in the Workplace

An employee may work for one company but he or she may have a side business that competes with
the employer. In this case, the employee would likely be asked to resign or be fired.

A common workplace conflict of interest involves a manager and his or her employee who are
married and have a relationship. This is a conflict because the manager has the power to give raises
or promotions to the employee. Discussions about the company between the two people may also
breach confidentiality restrictions.

TheBalance has more examples of conflicts of interest in the workplace.

Conflicts of Interest by Boards of Directors

Members of a corporate board of directors sign conflict of interest policy statements. If a board
member has a conflict of interest, he could be kicked off the board and possibly sued. For example, if
a board member has a sexual relationship with an employee, or if he is taking business away from
the company and giving it to others.

A common conflict occurs when a board member hears of a potential deal that might affect the
selling price of company stock (up or down). The board member's attempt to profit from this
knowledge is called insider trading; it's illegal as well as being a conflict of interest.

Non-profit boards have the same issues. In fact, the IRS requires that non-profits to disclose
potential conflicts of interest.

Conflicts of Interest in the Public Sector

Judges must recuse themselves (take themselves off a case) if there is a conflict of interest. For
example, if the judge has a financial relationship with one of the parties in a case, she must disclose
that relationship immediately and recuse herself from the case.

Any public servant, in the federal, state, or local government, may have a conflict of interest based
on their knowledge of events. If the legislator attempts to profit from knowledge, this is another
example of insider trading.

Conflicts of Interest in the Professions

Attorneys are bound by the Code of Professional Responsibility of the American Bar Association.
One common example of conflict of interest by an attorney is if the attorney tries to represent both
parties in a case (like a divorce).
Physicians have the same types of conflicts of interest as attorneys. For example, physicians should
not be handling financial matters for patients and should avoid improprieties with patients and
staff.

Journalists and reporters can get into ethical trouble by publicly endorsing a political client or cause,
or by getting too close to a source or becoming too friendly with the subject of a story.

To avoid conflicts of interest, it's most important to avoid the appearance of a conflict.

Competitive bidding

Transparent' procurement method in which bids from competing contractors, suppliers, or vendors
are invited by openly advertising the scope, specifications, and terms and conditions of the proposed
contract as well as the criteria by which the bids will be evaluated. Competitive bidding aims at
obtaining goods and services at the lowest prices by stimulating competition, and by preventing
favoritism. In (1) open competitive bidding (also called open bidding), the sealed bids are opened in
full view of all who may wish to witness the bid opening; in (2) closed competitive bidding (also
called closed bidding), the sealed bids are opened in presence only of authorized personnel.

Who Does Competitive Procurement Work For?

Companies who want the lowest price or best value, do not have an urgent need or are not familiar
with the companies that would be bidding on the tender.

Competitive procurement involves opening the process to bids and tenders to obtain the best value.
Noncompetitive procurement (sometimes called “sole source” or “single-source” procurement)
happens when the buyer either selects the company to buy from or restricts the bidding process to
certain suppliers.

Advantages of Competitive Procurement

Competitive procurement involves the buyer receiving bids from sellers or vendors and evaluating
those bids before choosing a supplier. In competitive procurement, any company that could provide
the good or service is able to submit a bid or proposal. This promotes competition and makes the
procurement process more transparent.

Disadvantages of Competitive Procurement

Competitive procurement can take a long time and involve a lot of complex paperwork.
Furthermore, not all companies will want to bid on the tender. To undercut competitors’ prices,
some companies may underbid or provide unreasonably inexpensive goods or services.

Who Does Non-Competitive Procurement Work For?

Companies that have an urgent need, companies with an ongoing project that requires continuity
(such as construction projects) or companies with important trade secrets.

Advantages of Noncompetitive Procurement

In non-competitive procurement, the buyer either selects one company to provide the good or
service or invites certain suppliers to bid. The buyer doesn’t open the process to every potential
supplier. This can be useful if there is only one company that provides that good or service. If
requesting open bids would expose the buyer’s trade secrets.

Disadvantages of Non-Competitive Procurement

Noncompetitive procurement can result in higher costs and can be difficult if the buyer has not
previously worked with the selected company or companies. An inability to compare the vendor’s
proposal to other proposals gives the buyer no way to determine if the bid is reasonable.

Whistle-blowing

Whistle-blowing is the act of telling the authorities or the public that the organization you are
working for is doing something immoral or illegal.

A whistleblower is someone that blows the whistle! No, not the tiny flute instrument. We're talking
about someone that calls out, or reports, someone else's wrongdoing. A whistleblower is a person
working within an organization who reports that organization's misconduct. The person can be a
current or past employee. Also, note that the misconduct can be a past act, can be ongoing, or can
be in the planning stages.

There are two types of whistleblowing. The first is internal whistleblowing. This means that the
whistleblower reports misconduct to another person within the organization. The second type
is external whistleblowing. This means that the whistleblower reports misconduct to a person
outside the organization, such as law enforcement or the media.

Accountabilities

Whistleblowers

a. Bring to early attention of the Company any improper practice they become aware of.
Although they are not required to provide proof, they must have sufficient cause for
concern. Delay in reporting may lead to loss of evidence and also financial loss for the
Company.

b. Avoid anonymity when raising a concern

c. Follow the procedures prescribed in this policy for making a Disclosure

d. Co-operate with investigating authorities, maintaining full confidentiality

e. The intent of the policy is to bring genuine and serious issues to the fore and it is not
intended for petty Disclosures. Malicious allegations by employees may attract disciplinary
action.

f. A whistle blower has the right to protection from retaliation. But this does not extend to
immunity for involvement in the matters that are the subject of the allegations and
investigation.
 g. Maintain confidentiality of the subject matter of the Disclosure and the identity of the
persons involved in the alleged Malpractice. It may forewarn the Subject and important
evidence is likely to be destroyed.

h. In exceptional cases, where the whistle blower is not satisfied with the outcome of the
investigation carried out by the Whistle Officer or the Investigation Team, he/she can make
a direct appeal to the Chairman of the Company.

Whistle Officer and Investigation Team

Whistle Officer:

a.Maintenance of documents pertaining to Investigation, Complaints etc.

b.Maintenance of Register of issues

c.Maintain confidentiality

d.Acts as a secretary of ombudsperson

Investigation Team:

a.Conduct the enquiry in a fair, unbiased manner

b.Ensure complete fact-finding

c.Maintain strict confidentiality

d.Decide on the outcome of the investigation, whether an improper practice has been
committed and if so by whom

e.Recommend an appropriate course of action - suggested disciplinary action, including

dismissal, and preventive measures

f.Record Investigation Team deliberations and document the final report

g.Provide information, documents to whistle officer regarding complaints.

Reporting Mechanisms

Employees should raise Reportable Matters directly to the Ombudsperson appointed by the
Company to receive all such complaints under this policy and ensure appropriate action. The
employees can notify a Reportable Matter in one of the following ways:

1. By writing an email on email id of the Ombudsperson, i .e ombudsperson@npci.org.in;

2. By sending a complaint letter in a sealed envelope marked "Whistle Blower-Private and
Confidential" to the Ombudsperson/Whistle Officer.

Reportable Matter: Reportable Matter includes:

1.General Malpractice
  Abuse of authority

 Breach of contract

 Negligence causing substantial and specific danger to public health and safety

 Manipulation of company data/records

 Financial irregularities, including fraud or suspected fraud or Deficiencies in Internal Control

and check or deliberate error in preparations of Financial Statements or Misrepresentation
of financial reports

 Any unlawful act whether Criminal/ Civil

 Pilferation of confidential/propriety information

 Deliberate violation of law/regulation

 Wastage/misappropriation of company funds/assets

 Breach of Company Policy or failure to implement or comply with any approved Company
Policy

2.Potential Infractions of the Code of Conduct

3.Breaches of copyright, patent and disclosure of confidential data/information to

competitors/outsiders.

 “Audit Committee” means Audit Committee constituted by the Board of Directors of the
Company in accordance with section 177 of the Companies Act, 2013 read with the rules
thereon.

 “Disciplinary Action”: means any action that can be taken on the completion of /during the
investigation proceedings including but not limited to a warning, imposition of fine,
suspension from official duties or any such action as is deemed to be fit considering the
gravity of the matter.

 “Good Faith”: means an employee shall be deemed to be communicating in “good faith‟ if

there is a reasonable basis for communication of unethical and improper practices or any
other alleged wrongful conduct. Good Faith shall be deemed lacking when the employee
does not have personal knowledge on a factual basis for the communication or where the
employee knew or reasonably should have known that the communication about the
unethical and improper practices or alleged wrongful conduct is malicious, false or frivolous.

 “Ombudsperson”: means a person appointed by the Board, who ensures with the fair and
expeditious resolution of complaints in an impartial, confidential and independent manner.

 “Investigation Team”: means those persons appointed by the Ombudsperson, required for
assistance in the investigation of the Protected Disclosure and who submit their findings to
the Ombudsperson.
  “Whistle officer”: Whistle officer shall be the Audit In charge/ Audit Head who shall act as
secretary to Ombudsperson.

Investigation:

Any such disclosure/complaint received by the Ombudsperson would be investigated confidentially

in order to avoid discrimination against the complainant. The Ombudsperson would decide whether
the complaint qualifies for further investigation under this policy or not.

If the Ombudsperson decides that the complaint qualifies for investigation under the Whistle blower
Policy, initial enquiry would be conducted by the Ombudsperson. If the initial enquiry indicates that
the concern has no basis, or if the matter is not to be pursued under this policy, it may be dismissed
at this stage and the decision would be documented.

If initial enquiry indicates a necessity of further investigation, then that will be carried out by the
Investigation Team. Investigation may involve study of documents and interviews, access system and
other information required for the purpose of investigation. Full cooperation must be provided to
Investigation team.

The Investigation Team would submit the report (Not Later than 90 days from date of receipt of
concern/disclosure) to the Ombudsperson clearly indicating their findings as early as possible.
Ombudsperson can allow additional time for submission of report based on the circumstances of the
case.

The final decision will be taken by the Ombudsperson in consultation with the Audit Committee.

All information disclosed during the course of the investigation will remain confidential, except as
necessary or appropriate to conduct the investigation and take any remedial action, in accordance
with any applicable laws and regulations. The Company reserves the right to refer any concerns or
complaints regarding Reportable Matters to appropriate external regulatory authorities.

If the investigation of a report that was done in good faith and investigated by ombudsperson is not
to the Whistle blower's satisfaction, then he/she has the right to report the event to the appropriate
legal or investigative agency.

The Whistle blower will be kept informed of the progress and the final outcome of the investigation,
within the constraints of maintaining confidentiality.

If the malpractice constitute criminal offence Ombudsperson can take appropriate action including
reporting to police. Ombudsperson to ensure implementation of Final decision/recommendation.
Though no time frame is specified for such action the company will endeavour to act as quickly as
possible in case of proved malpractice.

Nature and role of software engineering standard:

To understand the nature of software engineering it is helpful to understand the nature of

engineering in general. Engineering has its roots in two important human activities: sciences and
crafts. The next two sections describe the nature of these activities. The section after that describes
the nature of engineering in terms of its conceptual relationships with sciences and crafts. The last
section discusses characteristics of software engineering that are not common to all engineering
disciplines.

Sciences

A science is a body of causal knowledge about a subject matter, organized into theories. The
theories provide explanations of relationships between characteristics of objects covered by the
subject matter and the behavior of those objects. Scientific understanding begins with an
understanding how things behave. Later, a science focuses more on why they behave as they do. In
some areas of science, this understanding can be used to predict behavior, leading to a utilitarian
value for science. However, a well developed science has a core which is concerned with
understanding for its own sake.

The human mind does not deal well with a large collection of facts. In order to serve human needs,
the facts must be organized into theories, with a single theory encompassing and explaining a large
number of facts. Often, a good explanation requires new concepts. Although our perception is the
ultimate source of knowledge, the primitive perceptual concepts may be only indirect indications of
factors that cause changes. New concepts identify those factors.

Most sciences attempt a quantification of the relevent concepts if it is practical. In some well-
developed sciences, such as physics and chemistry, the quantification plays a central role, resulting
in a methematical theory at the heart of the science. In some areas of science, such as evolutionary
theory in biology, measurement is not always practical and the mathematical theory is not very well
developed.

Practicing a science is a creative effort. Creativity is an important quality that distinguishes expert
scientists from average scientists. It takes imagination to put facts together in a way that makes
sense. It takes imagination to develop concepts that have explanatory power.

Crafts

A craft is concened with the production of a type of product. In some cases, a craft is also concerned
with maintenance of the products. Like a science, a craft involves a body of knowledge. In part the
knowledge concerns the behavior of the products and their constituents.

In addition, a craft requires the development of tools and techniques involved in production. This
implies a second type of knowledge. This is the "know how" of a craft - skills involved in the use of
the tools and techniques.

Finally, a product is produced for its value. The value of a product may be asthetic - it is valued as an
end itself, or it may be utilitarian - it is a means to another end. In either case, practicing a craft
requires a knowledge of values and means for achieving them. However, knowledge by itself does
not ensure achievement of value. Practice is needed to develop habits in the use of the tools and
techniques. These habits partially automate the achievement of value, freeing the mind to deal with
more complex issues that may arise. The knowledge of values together with the practiced habits
make up the work ethics of a craft.
As in science, quantification may be important in a craft. The quantification of physical properties of
raw materials may be essential in the construction of a finished product. However, a full-blown
mathematical theory is usually not needed.

As in science, practicing a craft is a creative effort, and creativity is an important quality that
distingushes expert practitioners from average practitioners. It takes imagination to put raw
materials together in new ways to create a product of value. It takes imagination to use tools and
techniques in new ways to enhance the value of the product.

Engineering

Conceptually, engineering disciplines arise from crafts as their knowledge bases evolve into sciences.
The reasons for and impact of this evolution are described in this section. The presentation is not
intended to be historically correct. It is approximately correct for civil engineering, but other
engineering disciplines vary considerable from the pattern. In spite of historical differences, different
engineering disciplines deal with similar problems and those problems have a similar effect on the
end result.

If a craft is producing a utilitarian product then there is a demand for greater functionality of the
product, higher quality in the product, and greater quantities of the product. Meeting these
demands results in more complexity in the product, or in the production process, or both. In order to
deal with the increased demands and greater complexity, a craft must change in three important
ways.

First of all, in the early stages of development of a craft, understanding how things behave is of
primary importance; understanding why is of secondary importance. With more complex products
and production processes, just knowing how things behave is not sufficient. There is also an
increased need for understanding causal relationships - the answers to "why" questions. The
answers to these questions often have predictive power that is essential for developing new
techniques and methodologies of design and production. When the knowledge about the behavior
of the product and it constituents is well-developed, it becomes a science.

Second, producing products with greater functionality or higher quality requires a greater
understanding of values. This leads to a value theory that deals with factors involved in the quality of
a product, means for quantifying the factors, concepts that identify controllable characteristics of a
product that affect its quality, and principles that focus attention on important value-related product
design issues. The work ethics deals with deeper causal issues: causes that affect value. When the
work ethics of the craft is well-developed, it also becomes a science.

Third, production of complex products, large quantities of products, and more functional products
all require a significant amount of planning. When the product is complex or the product has greater
functionality, planning focuses on designing the product. When large quantities of a product are
produced, the planning focuses on designing a production process. In some cases, a significant effort
is needed for designing both the product and its production process. The magnitude of this effort
may require that the people involved develop specialized skills. Some continue with the actual
production, others are involved in the design of products and production processes. Those that are
involved in the design become a part of a new discipline - an engineering discipline.
An engineering discipline builds on the same knowledge bases as a craft, but they have matured into
sciences. An engineering discipline also has tools and techniques as does a craft. However, these
tools and techniques are developed within the engineering discipline more as aids to design rather
than production. As in a craft, practice is needed to develop habits in their use. The partial
automation of the achievement of values is of even greater importance because an engineer has
more complex issues to deal with. The knowledge of values together with the practiced habits make
up the work ethics of an engineering discipline.

Production of complex products adds another new dimension to the task of an engineer. Production
of complex products requires the use of teams of engineers to do the design. When dealing with a
lot of people, it is important to have a well-defined design process. It is also important to have a
management structure to guide people through the process, identify risks involved, and allocate
necessary resources. To manage effectively, the managers must themselves have an understanding
of the engineering discipline. Managers of a design process are usually engineers with substantial
experience in design. To prepare engineers for this role, management is an important part of
engineering education.

Software Engineering

Part of the nature of software engineering is implied by its classification as an engineering discipline.
This section discusses some of its unique characteristics and problems. Uniqueness here does not
imply that the characteristics and problems cannot be found in other engineering disciplines. It only
means that they are not common to all engineering disciplines, or significantly more important in
software engineering.

The various engineering disciplines are distinguished by the type of product and/or the type of
constituents that form the raw material for the product. Software engineering is characterized by its
primary product, which is software - programs that direct a computer to perform some task. In
software engineering, there is a well developed science, computer science, that covers, among other
things, concepts of programming languages, algorithms, data structures, and important aspects of
hardware systems and systems software. Many of the subject areas of computer science deal with
software products. Because of this, the boundary between computer science and software
engineering is difficult to define. In particular, the values of software engineering are an important
element of computer science.

In some engineering disciplines where production in large quantities is an objective, the quantities
introduce a great deal of complexity into the production process. Reproducing software is relatively
easy, once it has been designed. The engineering problems that do arise are also of a very different
nature than the software design problems. They are problems that are handled by other engineering
disciplines. Software engineering is concerned almost exclusively with the design of the product and
not the production process.

Although there is a clear-cut category that describes the product of software engineering, the
functionality of that product is extremely broad. One indication of this is the fact that any
engineering process could automated so that it becomes, in part, a software engineering project.
More generally, software can be applied towards the automation of any human task. This has two
important consequences.
First, there is no single domain of knowledge that covers the behavior of all software products.
Software engineering does not have a single body of theory that tells us how to specify and measure
the behavior of its products. Computer science deals with the components of software and some of
the tools and techniques involved in its construction, but does not and cannot deal with all of the
kinds of behavior exhibited by software.

Second, the values of software engineering are driven by customers who have an unlimited range of
needs. A classification of the wide range of values is a virtually impossible task. Even where there are
common values, they vary considerably in importance. A value that is unimportant in one software
product may be crucial in another. For these reasons, the ethical and value-oriented side of software
engineering takes on a more prominent role.

The extensive variety of software functionality and values can be dealt with in three ways. First,
software engineers can specialize. To some extent this has already happened. There are some
software development firms, for example, that specialize in business and accounting software. A
more common mode of specialization is in-house software development. A firm that uses software
extensively will often have a department dedicated to software development. The software
engineers that work in that department will automatically develop a specialization tailored to the
needs of the firm.

However, there are numerous areas where the demand does not warrant a specialization. A second
option is that people that are trained in the application area develop programming skills. This is a
workable option for relatively simple software. For more complex software, the loss in
understanding of software construction may outweigh the advantage of familiarity with the
application domain.

A more general solution to the problem is to modify the software development process. The basic
idea is to allocate a significant amount of time early in the development on domain analysis. Domain
analysisinvolves communicating with experts in the application area, noting important concepts and
their relationships. During domain analysis, software developers build a domain model that can be
readily converted into software. Another important process change involves building the product in
stages and getting feedback from the customer about the preliminary versions.

Maintenance

Unlike other engineering disciplines, in software engineering, maintenance is not primarily

concerned with the deterioration of a product over time. Instead, its objective is improving the
software. There are three general types of software maintenance, defined by the types of
improvements.

 corrective - software modifications that correct defects.

 perfective - software modifications that add new behavior, modify old behavior to make it
more suitable to users, or modify structure to simplify future maintenance (refactoring).

 adaptive - software modifications that aim towards adaptation for new or modified
platforms.
The low cost of software reproduction and installation makes it practical to develop software that is
continuously upgraded while in use. It has been estimated that 80 percent of the software
development effort is involved with maintenance. This figure reflects overall effort, including
unsuccessful software. For successful software with a long history, the figure is nearer to 100
percent.

Since so much of successful development effort is involved in maintenance, the interests of

developers weigh heavily in software values. Some of the effects are listed below.

 It is more important to document the design of software in addition to its use. With a poorly
documented design, software maintainers will spend a lot more time studying the existing
software before making changes. Working with undocumented aspects of design are also
likely to introduce new errors.

 It is more important to expend extra effort in developing test software and procedures and
save them for reuse after maintenance. Software engineers have recently focused on an
important technique called refactoring. Refactoring refers to changes to software that do
not change its functionality. The changes are made for the purpose of simplifying future
maintenance. After a refactoring maintenance, the original test software can be reused
without modification.

 It is more important to structure the design so that future changes can be made more easily.
The complexity and nature of interactions between component is the most important
consideration here. The concepts of coupling and cohesion are intended for dealing with this
problem.

One of the most important recent developments in software engineering concerns design patterns.
Much of the effort in design patterns is analysis of reasons for change and patterns that reduce the
impact of changes.

Engineering standard:

What are standards?

Standards are documents that describe the important features of a product, service or system. For
example, CSA Standard Z262.34-00 Ice Hockey Pucks specifies a hockey puck's material, size, mass,
hardness at room temperature and test methods.

There are thousand of standards in use around the world. They cover everything from the simplest
screw thread to the most complex information technology network.

By applying standards, organizations can help to ensure that their products and services are
consistent, compatible, safe and effective. Today, products are assembled from components made
in different countries, and are then sold around the world, so standards are more important than
ever.

Standards affect nearly every product or service we encounter in our daily lives. Just imagine how
difficult and dangerous it could be to change a light bulb if there were not standards concerning
electric safety, voltage, and light bulb sizes.
The Standards Council of Canada is a federal Crown corporation with the mandate to promote
efficient and effective standardization in Canada. It has accredited four standards development
organizations: the Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB), the Canadian Standards Association
(CSA), Underwriters' Laboratories of Canada (ULC) and the Bureau de normalisation du Quebec
(BNQ).

Two of the most important international agencies for standardization are the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). ISO
and IEC standards are often adopted by countries as voluntary standards, or included in national
rules and regulations.

Standards prepared by some American associations are used as international standards. Here are
some examples: American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).

The Engineering and Science Library provides access to standards of CSA, CGSB, ASTM, IEEE and
other organizations.

Standard of care of practice

Architects and engineers are required to meet the appropriate standard of care for their work on a
construction project. Such a simple phrase is actually a very loaded statement. What, exactly, is the
“standard of care” that the design professional is required to meet? This is one of the “terms of art”
that lawyers love and everyone else tends to hate.

Basically, the “standard of care” is a shorthand description that states the designer owes a duty to
perform reasonably well on the project. How is “reasonably well” defined? It is not perfection. It is,
however, the showing of “reasonable care” and performing the “level of skill and diligence those in
engaged in the same profession would ordinarily exercise under similar circumstances.” Again,
what? If you are an architect practicing in, for example, Raleigh, you will be presumed to:

1. possess the required degree of learning, skills, and experience that is ordinarily possessed
by similarly situated professionals in the community (that is, perform as well as other
architects practicing in the Raleigh area);

2. use reasonable and ordinary care and diligence in the exercise of your skill to accomplish
your professional tasks; and

3. use your best good professional judgment in performing your professional tasks.

Notice that nowhere did I say that the architect’s plans had to be perfect. However, the plans do
need to meet a “typical” standard. They must meet the applicable Codes. They must generally be
sound. But they do not have to be perfect. (Question: Is there ever a perfect set of plans?).

Courts in North Carolina have spent a lot of time, and a lot of ink, discussing the deceptively simple
concept of “standard of care,” but essentially this is how it is defined. If you want to read caselaw
discussing the standard, a good case is RCDI Const. Inc. v. Spaceplan/Architecture, Planning, &
Interiors, PA., 148 F. Supp. 2d 607 (W.D.N.C. 2001).
Design of standards:

1. HIERARCHICAL DECOMPOSITION

During the general design of the system, the system shall be hierarchically decomposed into its
component parts. The hierarchy of components, from largest to smallest, is as follows:

System: the entire application functionality

Subsystem: a logical functional entity within the system

Task, if applicable: the smallest executable piece of code

Frame, if applicable: a graphical window including the screen image and associated
processing

Unit: the smallest compiled piece of code

Procedure: the smallest function entity defined

Copy Member, if applicable: a portion of code which is copied into another component

Naming conventions for the component parts.

1.1 System

A "System" is a set of programs which perform all functionality defined within an application. It is
the first level in the hierarchy.

1.2 Subsystem

A "Subsystem" is a functionally related subset of the System (a logical grouping according the
function). It is the second level in the hierarchy.

1.3 Task

A "Task" is a grouping of one or more executable object files that perform a specific function. It is
the third level of the hierarchy.

1.4 Frame

A "Frame" is the grouping of the screen image and associated processing required to provide one
functional, graphical window. It is the third level of the hierarchy.

1.5 Unit

A "Unit" is the smallest compiled piece of code which performs a cohesive set of functionality. In
COBOL, a Unit consists of both the program Unit (Source file) and compilation Unit (Object file). It is
the fourth level in the hierarchy.

1.6 Procedure
A "Procedure" is the smallest functional entity defined. Each program Unit is organized into a
number of procedures containing the logic of the Unit. A Procedure shall correspond to:

· a "paragraph" in COBOL or SCOBOL

· a "procedure" in block structured languages (e.g., TAL)

1.7 Copy Member

A "Copy Member" is a portion of source code which is commonly used by other source code and is
copied into it from its location in a copy library.

2. COMPLEXITY MEASURES

When a large program is coded and tested as a single monolithic module residing in a single file, a
number of problems occur, such as:

· takes long time to compile

· difficult to understand

· difficult to maintain

· Only one person can work on it at a time

Refer to the Knowledge Base for a description of the McCabe Complexity guidelines. While these
guidelines will not be enforced, they should be kept in mind while designing and coding.

3. DEFINING CRITICAL PROCEDURES, UNITS AND TASKS

Procedures, units or tasks (components) are designated as "critical" to facilitate design, review and
maintenance of the system. A module shall be designated as critical if it falls into one of the
following categories:

A-CRITICAL (Architecturally Critical):

The module is integral to the design of the subsystem, task, or unit and incorporates important
control logic. The module needs to accommodate changes or growth, or is widely used to provide a
defined service (e.g., message text lookup).

F-CRITICAL (Functionally Critical):

The module performs important or essential functions, such as error recovery or a table lookup,
which if inoperable bring down the entire subsystem, task or unit.

P-CRITICAL (Performance Critical):

The module contributes to meeting the response times required of the system.

If a module falls into more than one of the above categories, choose the one category which is most
important for the particular module.
4. ACTIVITIES TO BE FOLLOWED DURING DESIGN

Some of the activities to allow time for during the course of creating the high level design document
are as follows:

· identify tasks, frames, units, and procedures

· identify common modules (shared software)

· identify the language in which each unit will be written

· define the control logic for each task and unit

· determine and/or expand on design considerations

· define and explain the IPCs

· identify database accesses

· assess performance requirements

· define the "hows" for each process rule and edit item identified in the analysis. These will
become the logic descriptions in detailed design.

· refine all dictionary items, where necessary:

- attributes

- entities

- reports

- screens

· conduct "JAD" sessions with architects

· conduct design walkthrough

· produce the document (printing, generating reports, drawing diagrams, putting everything
together, reviewing the final output)

· testing considerations: the standards for identifying and documenting test plans and cases are
in Section Software Testing Guidelines. The requirements include identifying data files accessed,
TMF tests, and startup considerations.

· TMF testing requirements.

5. PSEUDOCODE

The purpose of pseudocode is to concisely and unambiguously indicate flow of control. The
objectives of the pseudocode are:

· A programmer can code the unit from it.

· A maintenance programmer can use it to understand how the unit works.

5.1 Conventions

The following conventions shall be used when writing design pseudocode:

· Write pseudocode statements in the active voice, beginning with a verb.

· Capitalize the first letter in each statement. Write control structure words, called routines and
constants in uppercase. Write attributes and verbs in mixed case.

· Indent the grouped statements following a control structure. Indent nested groups of
statements.

· Use the following control structures:

IF-[ELSE]-[ELSEIF]-ENDIF

CASE-DO-[OTHERWISE]-ENDCASE

LOOP-ENDLOOP

FOR-ENDFOR

WHILE-ENDWHILE

DO-UNTIL

· THEN is optional in the IF-ENDIF structure. If used, write in capital letters.

· Use AND and OR for compound conditions.

· Use the following operators for conditional expressions:

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

= Equal to

<> Not equal to.

· Reference arrays using the convention that the lowest index value is one, and enclose array
subscripts in round brackets.

(e.g., A(1) is the first element of Array A).

· No punctuation shall be used.

· Pseudocode shall be written in Times Roman font, using a font size of ten.

5.2 Pseudocode Examples

Pseudocode examples are as follows:

Read schedule file for tables to be loaded

IF any tables to be loaded THEN

Call XYZ to load tables

ENDIF

IF (value > low-value) AND (value < high-value) THEN

Update table

ELSE

Display error message 123 on screen

ENDIF

DO

Get field value

Determine screen-field-number

CASE screen-field-number OF

1: Perform edits for field-1

2: Perform edits for field-2

3: Perform edits for field-3

OTHERWISE

Display error message 112

ENDCASE

UNTIL no error in field values

6. TEMPLATES

Templates for the design documents