1 Introduction to Print Reading & Precision Measurement 5

2 Understanding Part Prints, Print Symbols and Abbreviations 9

3 Geometric Dimensions and Tolerance 27

4 Semi Precise Measurement Using the Machinist Scale 43

5 Vernier and Digital Micrometers 53

6 Dial and Electronic Calipers 73

7 Miscellaneous Precision Measuring Tools 95

8 Introduction to the Machinery’s Handbook 111

9 Open Setup Inspection & Quality Control 117

Last Edit 10/03/14 MJS

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 Chapter 1: Introduction to Print Reading

and Precision Measurement

In just about any manufacturing facility throughout the United States, no matter what products
are being manufactured, they will almost all use part prints and measuring devices throughout the
manufacturing process. In the old days the prints used to create manufactured parts were called blue
prints. Today they are simply called part prints. Reading and extracting information accurately from a
part print is called print reading. It is one of the most important skills to possess when working in
manufacturing facilities. The part prints help detail and outline critical shapes and sizes to be used
throughout the part creation process. After manufacturing, the part will need to be checked for
accuracy. This is where measuring tools are used to check the created features to make sure they
conform to the set standards noted on the part prints. The act of measuring these attributes is called
precision measurement.
During this class, you will be taught various techniques for both print reading and precision
measurement that are widely used in large and small manufacturing facilities. You may be surprised to
find that over all, the techniques used in large and small facilities do not vary greatly. However, in
larger facilities you may find a greater variety of measuring tools and devices. This is because larger
facilities often manufacture products which may have hundreds of different size and shaped parts.
There is usually a broader range of manufacturing processes as well as machine types and brands in
larger facilities compared to those found in the smaller facilities. Each manufacturing facility
throughout the region is dynamically different based on the type of parts being made versus the tools
available to measure with so your experience will vary. The important thing to remember is that just
because one facility uses one technique to check work piece features, another may use entirely
different techniques.
Along with learning standard print notations, a dimensioning technique known as Geometric
Dimensioning and Tolerances (GD & T) will be learned on a basic level so you can decipher and read
feature tolerances used in a standard feature control frame. This form of dimensioning may be added
to prints to allow the draftsman to show and dimension the relationships and importance between one
geometric feature and another. It is being used more and more in today’s manufacturing drawings.
Quite often mistakes in manufacturing are made when one feature is not kept in alignment with

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another feature within an operating tolerance. GDT solves this by attaching relationships between one
feature to another. Though the GDT training during this class is mostly for the understanding of what
the various symbols are and their definition, it is a skill that is being requested by area companies for
their employees to know.
Throughout your training you will encounter a metal ruler that you will use to take fast, semi
precise measurements that will help you estimate values and confirm dimensions. This ruler is known
as a machinist scale or machinist rule. There are several different versions and configurations of the
scale and you will be introduced to the most common types.
After learning about the machinist rule, you will start to encounter more precise measuring
instruments. The first two precision measuring tools you will experience during this class with be the
vernier micrometer and the dial caliper. These two tools have been in use in machine shops since the
mid 1800’s. Though there have been some advancements in regards to accuracy, the overall function
of these two devices has not changed much in almost 165 years. You will learn the proper way to
handle, use, and care for micrometers, calipers and other measuring devices in upcoming lessons.
After you have mastered the use of the micrometer and caliper, you will be shown other
measuring tools. Several of the tools appear to simply be modified versions of the common
micrometer and for the most part, that is true. What sets them apart is what they are checking and the
way in which the measurement is obtained. Again, there will be more to come on those in later
lessons.
A valuable tool / resource that you will learn about and use throughout all of your training will
be the Machinery’s Handbook. It is a giant reference book of technical data that contains just about
everything you will ever want or need to know for use in manufacturing. Throughout your training,
your instructor will have you locate and extract information that will aide in the manufacturing process
and also to help decipher data found on part prints. The book contains common manufacturing
techniques and valuable technical resource data for almost everything related to manufacturing.
Having this information is important in the development, set up, and operations of manufactured parts
used throughout the many types of industries in the world.
Once you have become familiar with print reading and precision measurement techniques, you
will be taught how to employ your skills to validate sample parts using a skill called Open Set Up
Inspection. This technique is widely used especially when parts are to be mass produced and will need
various feature sizes verified throughout the manufacturing process. Open Set Up Inspection uses all of
your learned skills and helps reinforce some of the techniques you have acquired during your training.

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 After training is complete, you will have a solid foundation of skills and knowledge that will help
you in your journey down the many pathways found in the world of manufacturing. It is important to
know that throughout your various travels and job experiences you keep an open mind and learn as
many techniques as possible. Try not to close off your mind to a new experience just because the
company you are with does not currently use a certain type of inspection technique or does not have
the equipment currently on hand.

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 Chapter 2: Understanding Part Prints,

Print Symbols and Abbreviations

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Defining a Part Print
Types of Lines used in Drawings
Print Symbols and Abbreviations
Parts, Descriptions and Layout of a Typical Drawing Sheet
Reading Basic Part Prints and Extracting Information

What is a part print?

The name itself implies that it is a drawing of a part for an assembly or mechanism. Part prints
are typically a sheet or multiple sheets of paper which display two or three dimensional images of the
part being created along with detailed locations and sizes for various features that make up the parts
geometry. The locations and sizes of part features are commonly called dimensions. You will learn
more about dimensions in a little bit. Some part prints may have only one picture called a view or may
have up to six normal views for any given part. The names for the six normal views are as follows:
Front (otherwise called the Primary) Back, Top, Bottom, Left Side and Right Side.

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 Auxiliary View
Depending on the shape of the various features, there may need to be more than the six
normal views so that the part may be oriented to a specific angle in order to be able to see details as
well as dimensions for a particular geometric feature. These added views are called Auxiliary Views.

On the example above, the left drawing represents a normal top and side view of a standard 2D
drawing. This view clearly shows the location and look of the ¾” Ø holes as they would be machined
into the work piece. The views to the right represent auxiliary views of the same part but the part is
rotated 45° to show the ½”Ø holes looking straight on so you can get a better understanding of how
the holes should look when machined into the work piece.
A print may have as many Auxiliary Views as necessary in order to describe all geometric shapes
so that the part can be manufactured. With the development of 4 and 5 axis machines that allow for
the creation of complex geometry at compound angles, prints today have more and more auxiliary
views. Be careful to note how a specific view is rotated in relation to the primary or front view.
Another type of view that can be shown on a part print is an isometric view. This view is
commonly used for reference purposes and shows a 3D representation of the work piece. Often used
when there is a lot of information and features being shown on the part print, an isometric view shows

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how the features would look in relation to each other and will also give a close depiction of what the
finished part will look like. This view is almost never dimensioned on manufacturing or production part
prints due to the possibility of creating confusion while trying to determine reference points during the
manufacturing process.
Line Types
Most part prints contain several types of lines in many types of thicknesses and patterns in
order for the user to identify what is the part and what are reference / dimension lines, etc. Here is a
list of what each type of line is commonly used for
Object lines are bold, medium thickness lines that represent part features. The bold and thick lines
allow for people reading the prints to immediately identify tell the difference of what is part geometry
and what is not.

Center lines are sharp thin lines that have a long dash, short dash, long dash pattern. This represents
the axis of rotation for either a hole or round feature. Often times, round parts will have a centerline
running through the middle of the part print from one side of the part to the other. The following chart
shows a list of common lines that will be encountered during your training and are widely used in
manufacturing drawings. Be sure to pay attention to not only the pattern but also the scale or
thickness of how each line type is drawn.

Hidden lines represent a feature that is hidden from normal view such as a relief cut inside a bore but
is shown almost like an x-ray view in order to reveal feature detail. This type of line is shown using thin
evenly spaced dashed lines.

Cutting Plane Lines show where a part, feature, or piece of geometry has been cut in order to reveal
interior details that would normally be hidden from view.

Phantom Lines are used to show an imaginary motion or potential placement of a part or feature. This
is often used for assembly drawings and can help with identifying where parts of an assembly fit up to
another part.
Long Break Lines declare that a part, feature, or dimension is longer than what is being shown. Often
due to limits in paper size, a long or large part or feature cannot be displayed in its entire form. A Long
break line is used to show how a long continuous feature is cut or broken so that it fits on the page and

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allows for the part to be shown large enough to view smaller details that would be difficult to read if
the original part was shrunk in order to fit it on the sheet.

Dimension Line with Extension Lines is used to display the size of a geometric part feature. The
extension lines extend upward from the part so that it is obvious where the measurement is being
taken from and to help organize all of the dimensions on a print from becoming cluttered and
confusing. Arrows indicate the start and end of the measurement. Sometimes, one or both extension
lines will not be shown if the measurement is made on the part from one part feature to another.

Leader Dimension Line is similar to a standard dimension line except that there is a single line with an
arrow which points to a part feature so that important information regarding that feature can be
expressed in detail.

part features

the axis of rotation

inside relief feature

feature cut in order to reveal interior details

for long or larg features

length

dimention

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 Dimensions
Part prints give us a lot of information to aide in the creation of work pieces but they do not tell
us how to create the work piece. Dissecting and understanding each piece of information is equally
important. Without one specific detail, a work piece or an entire assembly may be scrap. It may sound
silly but if you were to use a print that shows where each part of a table goes as your assemble it and
leave out a couple of the nuts that held some of the bolts in place, it will not be too long before you
tried to use the table and either the table may not seem sturdy or worse, the legs may fall off and the
table would collapse. That is the importance of locating, reading and understanding print information.

Dimensions on part prints come in several types, from the simplest, often describing part
features in a fractional value to the most complex with decimal values to the tenth of a thousandth.
Each type is named for what and how it is used. Often a line with arrows on each end will be used with
the dimensional values to help establish from which point of the part a dimension starts and to which
point it ends. This is called a dimension line. If there is not enough room to show all the dimensions for
a part, a sharp thinly drawn line may be drawn from a part feature to an extended distance from the
part so that dimensional information can be read clearly. This is called an extension line and they are
quite common on part prints, especially one with a lot of detail and part features. Below is what a
standard dimension with dimension lines and extension lines at the ends looks like.

Standard Dimension

Reference Dimensions

When using a casting, forging or partially machined part for the raw material of a work piece,
there are often features pre formed or partially machined before work is ever done to it. In order to
machine the part and also to be sure that the work piece is oriented correctly for machining, simple,
non tolerance which are enclosed in parenthesis ( ).

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 Basic Dimensions

This means that standard dimension tolerances cannot be applied to this dimension.
Instead, another type of tolerancing, called GD&T, will be used.

Dimension Schedule
Some part prints may have a generic part view but instead of dimensions for features, there are
dimension lines with letters in the place where the actual size would be. The size will be found in a list
otherwise known as a schedule. This is typically found when manufacturing a family of parts where the
general look of the part is almost the same from one part to another but there will be subtle changes in
diameters, locations, depths or even added features like holes and slots. This will be a prime example
of why part prints should NEVER be scaled (measured with a ruler). The image shown does not
completely represent the part which you are trying to make. Another reason not to scale a part print is
that with today’s printing systems, images that you have drawn to scale may be resized in order to fit
on a specific sized piece of paper.

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 Dimension Layout and Tolerances
nominal size. The size stated on any dimension is considered to be the nominal size. This means
this is the preferred size that the feature should be made to.

tolerance. Since no machine can make perfectly sized parts all day long, an allowed variance
from the nominal amount is allowed. This variance is known as a tolerance. A tolerance is usually
stated next to the size of a part feature. If it is not found next to a part feature, a normal tolerance will
use the generic tolerance limits which are stated in the title block. When reading a tolerance, the
numerical value shown will be the largest and smallest amounts that a feature can be and still be not
only acceptable, but functional. Tolerances vary in amount based on the level of accuracy which a
feature needs to be made and held to. An example of this would be a pin fitting into a hole. If the pin is
made too large in comparison to the hole, the pin will not fit. If it is too small, then the pin will fit very
loosely into the hole and not function correctly. The intended of use of machined features often plays a
large role in how closely toleranced a feature will be and to what extent a tolerance will be allowed to
vary in either direction from the exact drawn size. The total amount of tolerance plus and minus a
specific amount from the drawn size is called the tolerance zone, sometimes called the total deviation
limit.

Below are several common ways tolerances are shown on part prints.

Symmetrical – This is the most common . It simply shows an equal amount which machined features
can deviate from the drawn or stated size. . An example (±.005). This type of tolerance is sometimes
called an equal bilateral tolerance.

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Deviation – When a tolerance varies more in one direction than another, this type of tolerance is used.
Deviation tolerances display exactly how much a feature size can vary in each direction and the
amount does not have to be the same in each direction. An example of this would be having a
tolerance that was (+.005 / –.002). When applied to our example of .750, our part feature can be as
large as .755 and as small as .748. This type of tolerance is sometimes called an unequal bilateral
tolerance
When a deviation tolerance is applied in only one direction such as (+.007) our example from above
can be made as large as .757. When only one direction is stated for a tolerance, it is described as a
unilateral tolerance.

Limits – Sometimes prints will not display a plus / minus tolerance value for a feature but instead the
actual calculated limits will be shown. This means that the desired size of a feature needs to fall inside
the lower and upper stated limits. For most manufacturers, having dimensions written this way helps
prevent errors in calculating tolerances. The one issue that occasionally arises is where would the
nominal value for a feature size be? The answer is often using the simple rules of averaging to calculate
the nominal value for a size. Add both the upper and lower stated sizes together and divide the sum by
two. This will give you the nominal with an equal deviation from the upper and lower limit. For
example, if a size is stated as .747 / .753, this means that the feature cannot be any smaller than .747
and no larger than .753. The nominal size would be .750 since .747 + .753 = 1.500 that value is divided
by 2 for an answer of .750 for the nominal size

Detail Views

A detail view is an enhanced or zoomed portion taken from a normal view which shows small or
hidden details which may not be clear or easily defined in the normal views. This is done by using one
of two common methods.

First, a specific set of lines, called cutting plane lines, will be drawn through the view and
arrows will point in the direction that the view will be pointing to. The arrows are often labeled with a
letter or letter and number designation. The letter or letter/numbers are used to name the view so
that it can be found elsewhere on the drawing or on another part print sheet. When the new view will
is drawn, detailed information or features that the draftsperson wants to highlight will be clearly seen.

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Beneath or above this view will typically be the letter or letter/number combination that names the
view.

center
An example of a Detail View using a cutting plane line. It is labeled View A – A

Example of a Detail View using Viewing Plane Lines. It is labeled View P – P

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 Expanded or Zoomed Detail View

The other common method is to draw a circle around a view or part feature. The purpose of
this is often to enlarge small areas so that intricate details can be shown described and/or dimensioned
as accurately as needed. It may also be used if there is a large group of dimensions, dimension lines,
and other data obscuring the view of a feature so that the isolated view shows only details for a
particular feature. This method often looks as if someone is putting a magnifying glass over the circled
area because the circled view is often enlarged as if viewed under a microscope or magnifying glass.
Common features that are enhanced this way are grooves, threads, radii, and other small lines and
curves that would not be clear when shown with normal views.

Circled Detail View

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 Symbols and Abbreviations
In order to save space and to keep part prints from becoming jumbled with descriptions and
notations, symbols and abbreviations are used. There are currently several common print symbols and
abbreviations that are used on manufacturing prints. With a little practice, memorizing these common
symbols and abbreviations will help with understanding the prints. Throughout your training, you will
be quizzed in order to sharpen your skills and once you encounter these symbols on a drawing, you
should have no trouble reading the details as you are reading this book.
Below are common print symbols and abbreviations used in most shops. Though most design
engineers use a Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) system, you will find that these symbols and
abbreviations are used on older part prints as well. Note that the symbols and abbreviations are in no
particular order.

v Counterbore w Countersink

x Depth C,CFR, CHAM Chamfer

n,D, Dia Diameter R, RAD, RIA Radius

Typ Typical 2X Times or Repetitions

TIR / FIR / FIM when measuring runout or concentricity.

Though there are more symbols that can be used on any given part print, the ones shown
above are considered common and reoccurring. Here are the definitions for each symbol /
abbreviation.
Counterbore –This feature is made by creating a larger diameter in an existing hole. A common
example of counterbore use is to help recess bolt heads to prevent interference.
Countersink – When holes and counterbores are made, the top of the hole where it meets the
face of the work piece will have a sharp edge. A countersink is a device which in its simplest use, can
debur that sharp edge. It can also be used to prepare a hole for accepting a flathead bolt.
Countersinking tools come in many different shapes, sizes and angles. The two most common angles
are 82° and 90°. If the angle of a countersink is not declared in the notation, an 82° or 90° type can be
used.

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 Depth – Used with the creation of many different geometric shapes is frequently associated
with counterbores, holes, milled pockets and tapping. An example of depth is describing how deep a
counterbore needs to go into an existing hole.
Chamfer – Similar to countersink, a chamfer notation describes an angular edge prep where
one part feature meets another. The angles created are typically common in value, such as 30°, 45°, &
60°, but can actually be any angle greater than 1° and less than 90°. This type of edge prep is often
performed after machining two surfaces which creates a sharp edge or burr that needs to be
eliminated to prevent injuries during handling or misalignment / damage when assembling.
Diameter & Radius– Every round feature has a size. There are two ways to note this on a part
print; diameter, which is the distance from one point of a round feature, through the exact center to
the opposite side and radius, which is the measured distance from the exact center to any point on a
round feature. Radius is exactly ½ of any diameter. Radius is often used to describe a feature that is
less than a whole circle as it might be difficult, if not impossible, to measure diameter. Radius is also
used to describe the edge prep where one part feature meets another.
Typical – When a feature, such as a hole, appears more than one time on a part print, typical is
used in the features notation to signal that every other feature that looks the same as the one noted
will be made to the noted specification. This is done only when it is obvious to tell when one feature is
a different size than other features that may be using the typical description in their notation. Using
typical instead of notating each feature location saves space and de-clutters part prints.
Minimum / Maximum – These two notations are used to declare when a feature has to be
created and held to a specific minimum and/or maximum condition. Often used when creating a
feature where a mating part interacts closely with the machined feature, this notation will have a
stated size that is usually declared to within a few thousandths of an inch at most.
Times / Occurrence – When a series of features are created at a set interval / distance, the
number of these occurrences is shown with a times (X) symbol. This is often done when it is obvious
that features are created at equal spacing, such as for holes machined in a circle around a flange called
a bolt hole pattern.
TIR / FIR / FIM – Used to note to the person measuring a part feature of what is required to
note when making a measurement. Often noted in TIR or FIR, FIM simply means Full Indicator
Movement. All three acronyms declare that the total amount read on an indicator as is moves from
highest reading to lowest is what needs to be written. This type of notation is often declared when
measuring runout or concentricity.

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 How a Dimension or Notation is Shown
Using Symbols and Abbreviations
A typical notation using symbols and abbreviations would be when a hole description is listed.
Sometimes what is shown as a simple hole on a print is actually a much more detailed feature. For
example:

5/16”Ø Thru, ⊔ ½”Ø x x ¼”

Simply stated the above statement is calling out for a .3125” diameter hole to be created and
will extend thru the work piece. A counter bore will then be created in the hole with a diameter of
.500” and will extend .250” deep.

Using statements like the one above is a useful way to insert a large amount of information in a
confined space and also making the working area on a drawing less cluttered. Be careful when
interpreting the symbol and numeric values though. The placement of sizes is often user definable in
modern CAD systems so if you are not sure, be sure to ask questions. Remember, there are no stupid
or silly questions. If it is important enough to you to ask, it should be important enough for someone to
answer.
During this portion of your training, you will be exposed to different prints as they are used in
the industry. Depending on the complexity of a given part to be manufactured, you may find that some
prints are very simple in nature, only having just enough information needed to produce the part. If the
part is but a small piece of a larger assembly, you may have other parts drawn on the same print. Some
parts are so intricate that they may have several prints that show the vast amount of detail required to
produce the part accurately.
Almost all drawings have an information area called a title block. This is a boxed in portion of
the drawing sheet that is usually located in the lower right hand corner of most prints. It contains
important information regarding not only the part to be made but also information used within a
company so the part may be cataloged and tracked throughout the manufacturing process. First and
foremost you will usually encounter the name of the company who owns the part that is shown on the
drawing. After that, you may find some or all of the following details: part name, part number, revision
level, date of drawing, scale of the drawing, size of the drawing sheet, material type, material size,
date of last revision, tolerances, name of person who drew this print, name of person who approved
it, number of pages used to make up this part print, and any other information used to help in the

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manufacturing process of this part. What you should not find in the title block is: lines used to draw
the part, dimensions, dimension lines, leader lines, and notes regarding other processes required for
manufacturing this part. The notes area is usually located to the left or above the title block but
almost never within the title block area. Most modern drawings have a revision block located usually
at the top right of most drawings. This will display any of the latest revisions that are relevant to the
manufacturing process so that it will be easier for everyone involved in the manufacturing process to
identify the changes made, if any. Sometimes a revision is used to clarify a detail that might have been
vague on previous versions but most of the time, it is used to show a change made in the actual part
design.
Below is a common blank part print that you might find in use by today’s manufacturing
companies. Notice that this drawing does not contain an actual part but still has a revision in the
revision block.

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 Throughout your training, your instructor will have exercises which will be used to reinforce and
improve your print reading skills. One important print reading skill that you will need to hone will be to
find missing information that will be used when creating or checking work pieces. As discussed earlier,
today’s draftsmen use many different types of CAD systems to aide in creating part prints. Along with
the various methods of drafting, there are also different methods and ideologies in regards to
dimensioning. Most of the time, it is not the intent of draftsmen and engineers to leave out
information on part prints. They often do not see the need to dimension a feature from every possible
angle as a manufacturer would like to see it because this would end up crowding the drawing with
redundant dimensions. Another thing to consider when wondering why a part feature is not
dimensioned from a specific location is that most draftsmen and engineers are not machinists and do
not know how the part will be held or referenced when it is machined.
Look at the part print below, it has several part features that need to be machined.

Multi Baseline Dimensioned Part

Notice how some of the location dimensions for one feature is given from one side of the part
but those for another similar feature are given from the opposite side? This is not a cruel game I
assure you; rather it is simply more convenient to dimension a part this way. It is called multi baseline
dimensioning. The problem is manufacturers of parts typically use one side of a part as its zero
reference point when locating features to be machined. This leads us to having missing or more
accurately stated, recalculated dimensions.
Calculating feature dimensions is a VERY important skill when manufacturing work pieces. This
is fairly obvious that without the correct calculation, the feature will be out of position and the work
piece will, in effect, be wrong.

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 The general rule of calculating dimensions or making just about any calculation is to always
confirm it three ( 3 ) times. It is highly unlikely that you will get a calculation wrong when performed
three or more times. It is also suggested to write down your results from each calculation so that you
are not trying to remember the previous result to the current result.
Be careful to note that dimensions have a common baseline and are not chain dimensioned.
Chain dimensioning is a form of dimensioning that is defined by having some or all of the dimensions
start where the last dimension ended. Look at the following images and you will see one with Chain
style dimensioning and the other with Baseline style dimensioning.

Chain Dimensioned Part Baseline Dimensioned Part

Can you see where you might potentially have problems? The chain dimensioning, though
effectively showing the length of each feature, relies that the previous feature is made correctly so that
the next feature will not only have the correct length but will also be in the correct location. If the
tolerances for each feature are held to the extreme, say all of the features were held to the +.005 side
of tolerance, the overall length of the part would be out of tolerance while each feature technically
would be correctly made. This has been one of the greatest issues with chain dimensioning, the build-
up of tolerances as each feature is created. Be careful when calculating tolerance zones when using
chain dimensioning.

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 Chapter 3: Geometric Dimensions and Tolerance

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

What Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerance is Used For
Defining the Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerance Symbols
Understanding How Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerances are Different from Normal Print
Tolerances
Understanding the Feature Control Frame
Applying Geometric Tolerances While Checking a Part Feature

Whenever a machined part needs to be created, engineers and draftsmen use the basic
building blocks of their trade to create all of the geometric shapes you will see. As stated in an earlier
lesson, those basic building blocks are the point, the line and the plane. Every geometric shape
interacts with at least one of these basic building blocks in one way or another.

Knowing that due to mechanical wear and tear as well as human error, specific print tolerances
were created so that certain geometric features that are critical to the design would function as
intended when created during the manufacturing process. Though it seems simple enough, the
tolerances must be held as stated in order for a work piece to function correctly. To function correctly,
work pieces will need to have a proper form or shape and they must fit with their respective mating
pieces. We call this concept Fit, Form and Function. Although Function is a combination of Fit and
Form, it .

GD&T establishes very precise and measureable relationships between various features of a
work piece. Features and sizes are almost always established using Basic Dimensions. This system will
help maintain the size and shape of critical features that will affect the work piece’s functionality when
assembled with other parts. Though the relationships are often stated in a theoretical format, meaning
they declare things such as using perfect circles and straight lines, the tolerance applied establish the
limits a feature can have from perfect form before it is out of tolerance and becomes unusable.

With this in mind, engineers and draftsmen can create machined part designs and assemblies
that can be made and measured in a productive machining environment. Throughout this chapter, you
will learn to identify the symbols used in GD&T called Characteristics and what they mean to a

27
machined feature. You will also learn terms such as tolerance zone, datum, maximum and minimum
material condition, and also how to read / understand the common GD&T statement format known as
a Feature Control Frame.

We will not go too far down the proverbial rabbit hole as far as explaining all of the theoretical
relationships and why they are used. The definitions will be kept in layman’s terms. The two main
reasons are because this is an introduction to GD&T for beginning operators and machinists and also
because we simply do not have the time it would take to go over all of the theory behind what each
GD&T relationship means.

GD&T Symbols and Their Basic Meaning

Now that you have a definition of what GD&T is, we will now look at the symbols that are
commonly used in machining and their basic definition. Please note that each geometric characteristic
symbol listed has a specific meaning and no two GD&T symbols will be used when describing a
geometric relationship of a given feature. There may be some cases where more than one GD&T
symbol and feature control frame will be present for a machined feature. This means that you will have
to measure each GD&T characteristic for what the symbol is requiring and confirm that they are within
the given tolerance zone.

As you can see from the chart above, each GD&T symbol follows a specific Geometric
Characteristic and is assigned to a Type of Tolerance group. The Type of Tolerance categories are
organized so that each specific geometric characteristic can be grouped with other characteristics that
relate to the group name. For example, all of the Location Tolerances will be used to measure a
distance from a reference point, known as a datum, to a machined feature and then compare the
measured distance against the allotted tolerance. Whether it is comparing the overall distance to a

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known datum or the difference of one feature’s placement to another, the location is what is being
measured for those examples given.

In most cases, the datum used as a reference is theoretical in nature, meaning it cannot be
physically checked. One such theoretical datum is the axis of a hole or shaft. Since an axis has no
physical size, it cannot be checked however, the idea of the axis can be maintained by comparing the
hole or shaft’s straightness to that of what a theoretically straight axis would be. Other datums are
usually surfaces such as a machined top or sides of a work piece which will establish a clean and square
edge to gage from. The datum for these locations is typically a plane. A plane is another theoretical
form that cannot be measured since it does not have a thickness. It is a theoretically flat surface.

Feature Control Frame

The Feature Control Frame is a simple rectangular box which contains symbols and numeric
values that are used to determine which GD&T characteristic is being checked, how much the
tolerance is and to which datum, if any, is being used as a reference. The frame is often attached to the
feature, extension line, dimension line, or dimension itself so that the user will be able to determine
what feature the information is being applied to. Below is an example of a Feature Control Frame

The detailed illustration above should make reading the Feature Control Frame a lot easier and
clearer when determining what all of the symbols and numbers mean. Though the above illustration is
a common example, there are several optional configurations which attach additional symbols, letters
and numbers onto or near the frame in order to clarify or enhance the area to be checked.

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 Form Tolerance

Form tolerances are primarily used to compare measured sizes of a feature’s manufactured
shape to the theoretical perfect form that is stated on a part print. The four common machining
tolerances in this group are Straightness, Flatness, Circularity and Cylindricity. Though there are many
more highly detailed, defined and descriptive manuals and reference guides, the following descriptions
are to help the true beginner in understanding what each GD&T symbol means.

Straightness is simply where a surface or axis created / machined in a straight line is then
measured or compared to the theoretical line drawn on a part print. Since it is nearly impossible to
repetitively make something perfectly straight, a tolerance is applied to the drawn line that will allow
for the deviation of a surface or axis by no more than the specified amount. Some common features
that straightness is applied to are shafts, pins, plates, and holes.

30
 Flatness is used to check the work piece in order to confirm that every point of a surface lies
within the theoretical geometrical plane that runs parallel to that surface. A tolerance is applied to
allow for flaws in the machining process, equipment, and/or raw materials. Though flatness is usually
called out for a theoretical plane that runs parallel to an entire surface being checked, the tolerance
can be limited to just a specific area of a machined surface. Machined faces, pockets and tabs often
have flatness tolerances called out.

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 Circularity shows how round a feature is compared to the theoretical perfect form drawn on a
print. A tolerance will be applied where all parts of the feature must fall within the amount stated
regardless of feature size. Holes are commonly tagged with circularity callouts as well are shafts and
conical shapes.

Cylindricity checks the entire length of an axis or cylinder of feature to confirm that the feature
stays within the stated tolerance no matter what the size is. It is a hybrid combination of straightness,
flatness and circularity. The tolerance zone is made up of two perfect circles for which no part of the
feature can go beyond throughout the length of the feature. A turned diameter or bore are two
examples of where cylindricity tolerances are applied.

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 Location Tolerances

The purpose of location tolerances is to validate the physical location of a part feature to a
reference point or datum. The three characteristics measured with form tolerances are Position,
Concentricity and Symmetry.

Position tolerances check the distance which a machined feature deviates from True Position.
True Position is defined as the theoretically perfect or exact location. Though it is one of the most used
characteristics, especially in milling, it is also one of the most misused and confused GD&T tolerances
because of the way traditional tolerancing determines what a tolerance zone looks like. Most
traditional location tolerances have a bidirectional amount that a feature can deviate from the drawn
location. This creates a square tolerance zone. With a Position tolerance, the zone is a diameter so it is
round, not square. Hole locations, slot lengths, groove locations, bolt hole circles, are just a few
examples where positioning tolerances are applied.

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 Concentricity maintains the relationship of one round part feature to other round part
features. It is not limited to only two features. The primary purpose of this characteristic is to set a
deviation amount that the machined feature can be out of location from the reference axis / datum.
Using concentricity tolerances helps with alignment issues as well as functionality during designed use.
This type of tolerance is often applied to surfaces that must run true to each other in order for the
work piece to function at its maximum potential. Threads, holes with counter bores, shafts with turned
steps for bearing races are just a few examples of what concentricity tolerances can be applied to.

Symmetry is a tolerance that is similar to concentricity but instead of a common axis for round
features, a plane is used to determine the center of non-round features. Slots, keys and tabs often use
symmetry to promote proper functionality and alignment. Parts with similar machined features such as
cutting tools or custom sprockets will also apply symmetry to maintain accurate feature shape.

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 Orientation Tolerances

Orientation tolerances control how a geometric feature is aligned to one or more datums. This
helps maintain the alignment of holes, tabs, and angular features in most cases to the reference datum
so that mating features align and function as intended. Angularity, Perpendicularity, and Parallelism
are the three characteristics used in the orientation tolerance group.

Angularity establishes the maximum dimensional value that a feature can be off from the
stated angular dimension in reference to the datum declared. This value is not in an angular amount as
traditional tolerances would apply. Rather it is in a zone width that the surface of the feature must lie
within. Angularity is typically used for alignment purposes and can be applied to planes and axis alike.
Hole orientation is a common angularity callout.

35
 Perpendicularity establishes the amount of deviation a feature can be out of square from a
reference plane or axis. When a feature is called out to be perpendicular, the alignment of the feature
to the reference datum is supposed to be 90° known as a right angle. This characteristic allows for the
deviation of a specified amount from true or perfect perpendicularity. Much like angularity, the
tolerance zone is not stated in degrees as it would with traditional tolerancing, instead, it is declared as
a width of a tolerance zone along the edge of the toleranced feature. This means that no part of the
feature may go beyond the tolerance zone. The length of a bored hole from a surface is often assigned
a perpendicularity callout. This assures that the machined hole will not deviate from the designed
alignment to the surface used as a reference.

36
 Parallelism maintains that a feature must be an equal distance from a reference datum
throughout its area. This creates a parallel plane between the feature and the datum. Parallelism
tolerances are called out as a distance and sets up a zone for which one The sides of a slot often use
parallelism tolerances to ensure that the mating tab or key fits smoothly and properly. Hole locations
on a work piece may also have a parallelism callout if they needed to align when assembled to prevent
binding or interference.

Runout Tolerances

The runout tolerances group is a bit different that the other geometric characteristics in that
the geometric characteristics under this group actually use other characteristics in order to maintain a
specified tolerance callout. What this means is that when checking a runout tolerance, you may need
one or more of the form, location, and orientation tolerance group in order to maintain the required
tolerance. There are two characteristics in this group, Circular Runout and Total Runout. Though they
have the same word in their name (runout) how they are used is what makes them unique.

A key word to remember here is Coaxiality. It means that two or more features share an axis.
Coaxiality is commonly found in most machined parts made on CNC Lathes.

37
 Circular Runout as the name implies, measures the amount that a part runs out or wobbles
from the datum axis. When measuring work piece features using Circular Runout, any single location
along a feature is measured to obtain the tolerance reading. Circularity and perpendicularity
measurements are often used to obtain the measurement required to check the deviation from the
datum axis. Checking circular runout helps maintain Coaxiality and prevents the dreaded wobble and
misalignment of work pieces to mating parts.

Total Runout much like its partner circular runout, checks for wobble but on a much larger
surface area. Instead of checking one location on a surface being measured, the entire surface must be
measured to obtain a proper reading. If any portion of the area measured becomes out of the
tolerance, the entire feature is then considered out of tolerance. The only limit to total runout is that
angular surfaces cannot be measured. This is because the difficulty to maintain the measuring devices
location at different diameters along the length of the taper. Precise fitting work pieces and parts with
high rates of rotation which often require balance and alignment, such as impeller and motor shafts
are the most common work pieces where total runout is required.

Profile Tolerances
38
 The last group of tolerances on the list of GDT symbols from above is the Profile Tolerances.
With this group of tolerances, as the name suggests, the actual desired profile of the feature is
measured and controlled. This type of tolerance is critical for monitoring and maintaining a feature’s
shape so that it conforms to the designed pattern and functions as intended. There are two
characteristics in this group, Profile of a Line and Profile of a Surface.

Profile of a Line is a characteristic that is commonly used when the contour of a part needs to
be checked and the form of the part is as important as the sizes of the feature. To make an accurate
measurement, a cross section measurement is taken and compared to the stated tolerance zone. Any
measured cross section must stay within the tolerance zone or the part will be considered out of
tolerance. This type of tolerance is often used when complex shapes are created such as arcs, lines and
angles with multiple tangent points. The key to this characteristic is that straight lines are not the only
type of feature that it can be applied to.

Profile of a Surface is much like Profile of a Line except that instead of the measured area being
any one cross section of a part feature, the entire surface area is to be measured and compared to the
tolerance zone. As with Profile of a Line, complex shapes are often the target of this type of
characteristic.

39
 GD&T has become an integral part of design and manufacturing in recent years as modern CAD
systems have allowed for the ease of implementation. Though GD&T is being used more and more on
modern part prints, conventional tolerancing is still be used, GD&T will certainly be needed, especially
when features of one work piece need to interact or function with features of other work pieces. No
doubt that moving forward most modern CAD prints will use GD&T symbols to some degree in order to
establish the limits of what is considered a functional work piece. As mentioned earlier in this lesson,
the descriptions above are not the official definitions of each characteristic rather a layman’s
translation so that anyone new to GD7T will feel comfortable in what each symbol is to accomplish and
possible uses for those symbols. It is recommended to take advanced classes in GD&T if you will be
designing or drawing parts as one of your daily job duties. This will ensure that you do not misuse or
over use GD&T when designing work pieces to be manufactured.

Bonus Tolerances

Though it is less common, conventional tolerancing may sometimes be used with GD&T. Doing
so allows for an extra amount of tolerance to be applied to a size or location of a feature. This extra
tolerance is called Bonus Tolerance. This concept is an advanced use of GD&T and will not be covered
during your training.

40
 Chapter 4: The Machinist Scale

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Defining the Machinist Scale
Using a Scale for Reference Measurements
Attachments for the Scale
Pitfalls to Avoid When Using a Scale

When measuring parts to the nearest sixteenth or hundredth of an inch machinist typically use
what is known as a machinist scale. A scale is piece of flat metal that in all appearance looks very
similar to a regular wooden ruler that most people have used at some point in their youth except that
instead of the measuring distance starting at a zero graduation line located about 1/16 from the end of
most rulers, machinist scales start their measuring exactly from the end of the device. There are also
some other differences between the two that lie mostly in manufacturing, durability, graduation and
overall length. A typical wooden ruler, in most cases, has a margin of error from either end to the last
graduated line due to manufacturing practices that can be almost 1/16 of an inch. Scales, in contrast,
do not have this margin of error in manufacturing. Wooden rules are mostly made of solid wood or
pressed wood and composite material. Scales are mostly carbon or stainless steel. The graduations on
a wooden ruler are almost always in 1/16” and 1/8” increments. Scales have several different
graduation combinations. Starting with fractions, they can have 1/64”, 1/32”, 1/16”, or 1/8”
graduations. They can also be graduated in 1/10”, 1/50”, and 1/100”. A common group of scale
graduations found in machine shops is 1/64”, 1/32” 1/10” and 1/50”. The 64th and 32nd side is for more
accurate readings while the 10th and 50th side is for fast reference readings. Lastly, the common
wooden ruler is almost always 12 inches long while the steel scales are made to various lengths; as
short as 2 inches to as long as 12 feet. The most common size for machinist scales is 6 inches. Below
and on the next page are some pictures of common steel scales used in today’s manufacturing shops in
6” and 12” length.

43
 6 inch long x 3/4 inch wide

6 inch long x 1/2 inch wide scale

12 inch long x 1 inch wide scale

Scales are often used as a quick reference for sizing or gaging parts, tools, fixtures, and
equipment.

Measuring the length of a part with a scale

Measuring the width of a part with a scale

44
 Measuring the shoulder depth of a part with a scale

Measuring the diameter of a bored hole with a scale

Instead of having to grab a precision measuring tool when a quick measurement is wanted, the
scale has no equal. The type of measuring being performed by the scale is called semi precise. This
means that the level of precision is nowhere as accurate as using calipers or micrometers though it will
be close enough in order estimate a size to determine if the feature being measured is close to the size
desired. Though it seems easy enough, it still takes practice and training to be able to make quick
measurements using a scale. One of the common mistakes in measuring with a scale is determining
which line on the scale matches up with edge of the feature being measured. Another problem that
occurs is calculating the resolution of the scale so that a fractional or decimal measurement can be
made. Always be sure to determine the graduation of the scale being used when making a
measurement or calculation errors will likely occur.

Being made of metal, machinist rules are often used for other functions other than measuring.
This includes but not limited to screwdriver, tape cutter, box opener, pry bar, scraper, scribe, and so
on. Though it was not designed to perform these other tasks, it is not uncommon to see this tool being
used to do so. When used as a pry bar, scraper, or scribe, the edges of the scale will tend to become

45
worn. Knowing that this can occur, some machinists do not measure with the end of the scale rather
use the first whole inch mark as their base line for measurement. See the image below.

Measuring the length of a part with a scale

Measuring the diameter of a bored hole with a scale

This will assure that the measurement taken will be as accurate as possible. Rounded, damaged
and worn edges of a scale would make it difficult to take even a semi precise measurement since there
is not a square edge to line up on. Always inspect your scale for damage before using to make
measurements. Remember that if you use the first whole inch mark or any mark other than the edge of
the scale, that you subtract the number of whole inches where you started to take the measurement
when you calculate your reading. For example, using the image above measuring the diameter of a
bore using the scale, note that the 1 inch mark is the starting point of the measurement and the 2 ¼
inch mark is the end. Be sure to subtract 1 inch from your final measurement since you started the
measurement from the 1 inch mark. The final result for this measurement would be 1 ¼”

Using Scales for Layout

46
 Machinist scales will often be used for manually laying out lines and locations on raw material.
There are a number of specialized add on devices that are commonly found in manufacturing facilities
today that attach to or are used with a scale in order to aide in the layout process. The following
pictures are examples of each device and a brief description of their use.

Square Head

This head is allows for the creation of perpendicular, angled (usually 45 degree) and parallel
lines using a scribe tool. It also aides in locating center lines for hole features. The combination square
can also be used with a machinist rule to take simple depth readings on work piece features such as
slots, tabs, pockets, etc.

47
 https://youtu.be/5mzjD3ClfEY?t=395

Centering Head with 12” Machinist Scale

This device used two fixed angular legs to contact the circumference of a round work piece
and is most commonly used with a machinist scale to scribe multiple lines near the center of the
work piece in order to find the center point. This device can also be used to bisect round parts by
scribing a line from one side of the work piece to the other.

Protractor with 12” Machinist Scale

This device allows for the creation of angular scribed lines on flat work piece surfaces. Typically,
the device is aligned with straight edge of a work piece and the machinist scale is projected at the
angle desired. A line can then be scribed into the work piece surface using a scribe.

As you can see, the machinist scale has many functions and is a useful tool to have in any shop
environment. You will be tasked to use various machinist scales and attachments throughout your
training and indeed during your career in manufacturing.

48
 Pitfalls to Avoid While Using a Scale

larger than what they truly are.

This occurs when the scale is placed at a slight angle .
the tool is not properly aligned with the work piece.

Another pitfall .
Most scales use the standard 1/8 and 1/16 increment scales most people have used from back
in their school days. In manufacturing, there are several other types of units of measure. There are
some scales that measure in 10ths and 100ths of an inch.

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 Chapter 5: Vernier and Digital Micrometers

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Defining what a Micrometer Is
Defining the Parts of a Micrometer
Understanding the Different Types of Micrometers
Using the Micrometer
Understanding the 10 to 1 Rule for Accuracy
Defining and Describing the Digital Micrometer

The Micrometer

In today’s precision machining environment, one measuring tool stands alone as being
responsible for making the majority of precision measurements on various types of work piece
features, this tool is the micrometer. It consists of a precision screw shaft that is threaded through a
fixed precisely ground nut until it contacts the work piece feature to be measured. A reading is taken
from the device by following a procedure that will be explained later in this chapter. Though there are a
variety of micrometers in use today, we will focus mainly on the most common type, the OD
Micrometer.

Micrometers, in general, are considered to be highly accurate and very precise measuring
devices and, in most cases, are relied on for precision measurements taken to the thousandth of an
inch. As with any measuring tool, the accuracy achieved will rely greatly on the skill of the user and the
quality of the measuring device. Be sure to always inspect the micrometer for damage before using.
You will be instructed on how to inspect your micrometer later in this chapter. Along with inspecting

53
the micrometer for damage, you should also frequently check the calibration of the device to ensure
the measurements taken are as accurate as possible.

Though it is important to take precise measurements with a micrometer, it will be equally

important to become proficient in using the tool as well. This will not only allow for repetitive accurate
readings, but will ensure that you are not spending too much time taking measurements which might
delay the operation of the machine. Practicing your micrometer handling and measuring skills will
ensure that your ability to make measurements will not slow down the machine’s production while
assuring that the measurements you make are as accurate as possible.

What the OD means of OD Micrometers

As explained above, the OD Micrometer is the most common precision measuring tool found in
machine shops all over the world. They come is all sorts of shapes, sizes and colors but all micrometers
use a simple standardized method of operation to make measurements. Most people mistaken the
two letters OD in the name of this device to mean Outer Diameter. Though micrometers are commonly
used with round work pieces, they are also often used to measure square and rectangular work pieces
as well. The O and D stand for Outer Dimension. This simply means that you cannot use this type of
micrometer to measure things such as hole diameters or pockets on a work piece. OD Mics, as they are
often referred to, are shaped most commonly like a lower case b, d, p or q, depending on how you are
holding them.

Vernier Micrometers

The vernier micrometer looks very much like most micrometers except that they have a vernier
scale located above the numerical scale located on the sleeve. The vernier scale allows micrometers
equipped with this device to make measurements to the tenth of a thousandth of an inch. This scale
has engraved numbers that start with 0 and goes around the sleeve near the frame and go to 9 or 0
again. Each number represents one tenth of inch. Extending from each number is a line that extends
the entire length of the sleeve just like the baseline. These lines are used to compare with lines on the
thimble scale in order to obtain the number of tenths for a measurement reading.

The following picture is an example of a vernier scale. You will be taught how to read a vernier
scale later in this chapter.

54
 Below is a picture of a micrometer and the description of each part. It is helpful to learn the
various parts of all of the measuring tools you may encounter in a shop as it will help you better
explain and describe issues that you may have with using them to a supervisor or peer.

55
 To explain how to make a measurement, it is important to understand how each part shown
above interacts and works to achieve the final reading.

The Frame

First and foremost, you have the frame of the micrometer. This C shaped foundation is what all
the other parts of the micrometer are attached or guided through. It is also where you typically hold
onto the device while making measurements.

The Anvil

On the one end of the frame you have the anvil. Mostly made from ground carbide material,
the anvil is extremely hard and durable to wear. It is ground perpendicular to the spindle shaft that we
will discuss in a little bit. The anvil is considered “dead” side of the micrometer and on most models,
does not move. This establishes and fixed point so the repetitive measurements can be taken.

The Lock
56
 On the other end of the C shaped frame, there is usually a locking device that will secure the
micrometer from rotating when removing the tool from the work piece when making a measurement.
There are two common types of locking devices, the switch and the ring. The ring is usually integrated
with the sleeve while the switch is usually a device mounted directly to the frame. Each locking device
works in the same way by putting tension on the spindle to keep it from rotating.

Switch Style Lock Ring Style Lock

The Sleeve

Next, you will find the sleeve. A precision ground hole is located in the frame which the sleeve
attaches to. The sleeve projects upward and is marked with a ling straight line along the length of the
sleeve. This is called the baseline and is where all measurements are made. The baseline is broken into
sections by precisely graduate lines. Numerical values may also be engraved on the sleeve indicating
the value of each line. Often these numerical values are only engraved for every .100 on a typical inch
micrometer. Most OD micrometers measure one whole inch at a time but there are some models that
may be graduated further or less. Be sure to check your micrometers to be sure their measuring range.
On some models of micrometers, the back side of the sleeve will have more long lines and a series of
numbers from 0 through 9 and then 0 again. This is known as the vernier tenths scale. If your
micrometer does not have this series of lines and numbers, it is only able to read to the thousandth of
an inch. Moving on, the end of the sleeve will have a precisely ground nut attached to it. This nut is
where the next part of the micrometer moves along and is how the micrometer is adjusted to make
measurements. The following picture shows the engraved numbers and lines found on a typical vernier
micrometer sleeve.

57
 The Spindle Assembly

The next part of the micrometer has two main parts to it. Together it is called the spindle
assembly. The spindle is a partially ground and partially threaded shaft that extends down through the
sleeve and project through the hole in the frame until it contacts the work piece. On the end of this
spindle is another ground anvil. It is ground to be precisely parallel to the spindle attached to the
frame. The spindle shaft is attached to another sleeve called the thimble. The thimble is engraved and
graduated with lines and numbers going around the circumference and usually starts are 0 and ends at
24. Most times, the numbering is engraved for every 5 lines, 0, 5, 10, 15 and so on. Each line on an inch
style micrometer is equal to one thousandth of an inch. (.001) Each time you rotate the thimble one
full revolution it will equal twenty five thousandths of an inch. (.025) About half way up from the
numbered graduations, the thimble will have a knurled surface. This will allow you to have a textured
surface that will aide in rotating the thimble / spindle in order to open or close the micrometer
smoothly.

58
 Friction Thimble and Ratchet Stop

To make sure you do not over tighten the micrometer when you make measurements, most
manufacturers install one of two devices, a friction thimble or ratchet stop.

Friction Thimble Ratchet Stop

A ratchet stop is a device that projects directly from the end of the micrometer and will click
once proper measurement tension has been reached. They are usually made with a spring mechanism
that will slip after a specific number of inch pounds of force are applied.

A friction thimble takes the place of the standard knurled thimble by using a calibrated spring
that allows the knurled portion to slip once the proper tension has been achieved. Similar to the
ratchet stop, the mechanism is designed to slip only after a specific number of inch pounds are reached

There are some micrometers that do not have either safety device. You should inspect your
micrometers to identify the type of anti over tightening device you have, if any.

Calibrating the Micrometer

Whenever you are going to use a micrometer for the first time during your shift, you should
perform a simple calibration to be sure the device is working properly. To do this with a 0-1 inch
micrometer, you simply wipe the anvil and spindle with a clean cloth. Once the anvil and spindle are
clean, slowly close the micrometer by rotating the thimble until the anvil and spindle just about touch.
Use the ratchet stop or friction thimble to make sure you do not over tighten and possibly damage the
micrometer. The reading on the thimble should be 0. If the baseline is not lined up with the 0 line on
the thimble, you will need to calibrate the micrometer. Most micrometers have a hole in the sleeve
which allows the sleeve to be rotated using a small spanner wrench until the baseline and 0 on the
thimble line up exactly. The micrometer is now calibrated.

59
 To calibrate larger micrometers, size 1-2” and larger, you will need a device called a standard or
a gage block. The standard is typically a rod which is a little larger in diameter than the spindle and
anvil. They are usually ground and are highly accurate. The gage block is a ground hardened metal
block which is precisely sized for accuracy.

Below is an image of a micrometer being calibrated, a standard and gage blocks.

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 Making Measurements

Now that you know the various parts of the micrometer and their purpose, it is time to start
making measurements. We will discuss this using a step by step pictorial lesson. Each picture will have
a caption beneath it explaining what it being done.

First and foremost, you need to make sure your work piece surface and micrometer are clean of
dirt and debris and also check to make sure the part is deburred to prevent misreads. To clean the
work piece and micrometer use a CLEAN rag or cloth.

61
 Now that the tool and work piece are clean, figure what features you want / need to measure.

Align the tool to the feature so that the upper and lower anvils will contact the surface squarely
when closed. The micrometer in most cases will appear to be perpendicular to the work piece. Make
sure the micrometer spindle is open far enough to make sure the feature will fit in without having to
be forced or allowing the anvils to scratch the work piece surface.

62
 Carefully position the micrometer over the feature you are wanting to measure, being careful
not to bump the anvils so that the work piece does not get scratched or the anvil does not become
damaged.

Close or lower the spindle by rotating the thimble until it appears to be close to the surface of
the work piece. If you make contact with the work piece surface, it will be okay as long as you do not
continue to rotate the thimble. Simply back the thimble off a half of a revolution or so.

Next, using the friction thimble or the ratchet stop, rotate the thimble until it touches the
surface of the part feature being measured. The friction thimble should slip and the spindle should not
move or the ratchet stop should start clicking and again the spindle should not move. This indicates
that the micrometer is now in position to take a reading.

63
 To make a measurement, you simply look at graduations on the sleeve until you cannot see
them because they are covered up by the thimble. Remember, most micrometers are numbered in one
hundred thousandths increments so each numbered line equals one hundred thousandth of an inch.
Each of the three spaces between each numbered, one hundred thousandth line is equal to twenty
five thousandths of an inch.

The easiest way to do this is to use a scrap piece of paper and first thing you should write down
is the total the number of hundred thousandth lines you can see that have cleared the edge of the
thimble.

64
 After that, look at the number of twenty five thousandth lines visible between the last hundred
thousandth line and the edge of the thimble. Write down the total of twenty five thousandth lines.

Next, look at the previous picture and examine the numbered graduations on the thimble and
identify the last graduation line that has crossed the baseline. This is the number of whole thousandths
to add

65
 Moving on, if your micrometer has the tenth graduations on the sleeve, rotate your micrometer
so the sleeve and thimble are facing straight up and down. Find the line on the sleeve that is closest to
the line on the thimble.

66
 Usually the way to tell you have it is that the lines on either side of the line you think is the
correct one will be inside the lines on the thimble for those. This is the number of tenths. Now simply
add up your results and you have your measurement.

As with any measurement, you should always verify your results three (3) times. Once you have
done this several times, you will start to be able to add up the values without the scratch paper but it is
recommended to use the scratch paper until you can confidently and repeatedly make measurements
in less than 30 seconds.

Other types of Micrometers

There are other types of micrometers which you will be introduced to and shown in a later
chapter. Each micrometer type has a specific function and method for not only taking measurements
but also for how to obtain the reading. Some are like the OD micrometer in use, while others work
completely backwards. Practice and use of the micrometers is a good way to make sure that you are
confident in your measurements taken.

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 Digital Micrometers

Mechanical Digital Micrometers

It has been often argued that the hardest part of using a vernier micrometer is reading the
micrometer. Mistakes can be and have been made at every part of the reading process. This happens
most when readings are taken in haste and not added up and verified. Some blame it on being over
confident or cocky but no matter what, these mistakes can be and have been costly. Industry has
answered the pleas for help by developing micrometers which are easier to read. The first of which
was the mechanical digital micrometer. This device looked and often worked exactly like a standard
vernier micrometer but with one benefit, it had a numerical counter which is part of the frame. The
counter used a gear mounted to the spindle to count the values as the spindle was moved inward or
outward. The way the counter worked mimicked an automobile’s mechanical odometer in appearance
and functionality. Usually the numbers were white and the dials were contrasting black so that the
user could read the values quickly. Below is a picture of a mechanical digital micrometer.

As you can see, the counter is imbedded into the frame. The mechanical digital micrometer was
very popular, especially by people who were not comfortable or familiar with using a standard vernier
micrometer. The ability to give a quick measurement made them a “must have” device for fast paced
production environments. The only drawback to most mechanical digital micrometers was that you still
had to read the vernier scale to get the tenth value.

As with most new technologies, there were a few bugs to be worked out. One such bug was the
rate at which the device could be opened. If you scrolled the thimble too fast, the gears had a tendency
to jam, especially in cheaper models. Speaking of gears, a problem that also arose in cheaper models
was that the gears would wear and also jam if sufficient maintenance was not performed on a regular
basis. Keeping the tool clean and oiled usually prevented this problem from occurring.

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 Electrical Digital Micrometers
As electronic technology progressed through the mid 1980’s and into the early 90’s, the
emergence of a new type of digital micrometer appeared. The electrical digital micrometer came on
the market and was immediately well received. There was not the same type of gear counting system
like the mechanical model and the display was an LCD, calculator type, display which showed the
numbers usually as black in color against a grey background. This allowed for easy reading. Another
feature that led to the demise of the mechanical version was the ability to read not only to the tenth
but even to the millionth’s place (.00001). This meant that highly accurate and repeatable
measurements could be taken but of course, the higher the accuracy, the higher the price with some
electronic digital micrometers costing as much as $1200.

Another feature that made the mechanical version of the digital micrometer obsolete was the
display could be changed from inch measurements to metric with a simple press of a button. This
meant that metric parts could be manufactured and measured without the need for converting so that
they can be measured using inch measuring tools. A further improvement was the ability to
temporarily zero the micrometer at a specific size so that deviation reading could be taken. Deviation
readings are ones where the size stated on a part print will have a tolerance of plus and or minus a
specific amount. Instead of taking a reading and then calculating whether a feature falls in the size
range, the amount of variation can be measured and compared the deviation tolerance on a part print.
This was also a useful innovation for fast paced production environments.

Below is a picture of a common style electronic digital micrometer.

As you can see, most electronic displays are larger and the sleeve numbering that was present
on most mechanical digital micrometers are not used for the electronic style. Though you can still find
some higher end electronic models with the numbered sleeves, most companies use a style like the
model shown above.

One of the early issues with electronic digital micrometers was the battery life. Without a
battery, most of these micrometers were inoperable. Manufacturers worked to fix this and within the
last five years, micrometers had power saving features and used less energy to operate.

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 Chapter 6: Dial and Electronic Calipers

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Defining What a Caliper Is
Defining the Parts of a Caliper
Using the Caliper for OD Measurements
Reading the Caliper
Pitfalls to Watch for When Using Calipers
Using the Caliper for Depth Measurements
Understanding the 10 to 1 rule as applied to calipers

The Caliper

In most manufacturing facilities, one tool stands above the rest when it comes to speed and
ease of use for taking measurements. That tool is the caliper. It is a simple measuring device made up a
moveable jaw that slide along a rail called a beam which is has another fixed jaw that is parallel to the
moveable jaw. Once the proper tension is reached when taking a measurement, the user will read the
markings that are engraved on the beam as well as the value stated on the dial or LCD display in order
to obtain the measurement. In its modern forms it is one of the easiest measuring tools to master.
Though there are limitations to the accuracy of calipers, it is, at the very least, a great quick reference
tool when setting up even super precise features. Unlike micrometers, calipers are designed with
multiple measuring contact surfaces and can routinely make measurements of internal, external and
depth features. The various designs of some common calipers used in machine shops will be displayed
and explained below. Calipers also come in various but common size configurations. This will be
explained in the description below as well. In the hands of a truly skilled machinist, the versatile caliper
can be used to make fast, accurate measurements without requiring a large array of other measuring
tools.

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 Parts of a Caliper

The calipers that will be shown are samples of commonly found dial calipers used throughout
the machining industry. The image is labeled to help point out caliper features. In today’s machining
environment, we generally use dial and electronic calipers but for your training we will focus on dial
calipers exclusively.

The Beam
The Beam is the foundation of any caliper. It is typically slightly longer than the specified
measuring capability that a caliper has. Most beams are hardened and ground for repeatability and
accuracy. On the beam, there are engraved numbers and lines which represent the number of whole
inches and hundred thousandths of an inch. There is often a slot cut in along the length of the beam
which has a gear rail mounted onto it. This rail allows for the slide assembly to be mounted so that the
caliper can be opened and closed for the various measurements to be taken. At one end, the fixed jaw
project out from the end of the beam and is perpendicular to the beam.

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 Slide / Slide Assembly
Moving to the next part of the caliper, the slide is actually an assembly of a several parts of the
caliper. The slide has the movable jaw, the dial, the thumb wheel, and the locking screw. The slide is
designed to move smoothly and quickly along the beam so that measurements can be taken quickly.
The movable jaw attached to the slide is usually identical to the fixed jaw which is attached to the
beam. Using the thumb wheel, the slide can be moved slowly so that precise measurements can be
taken.

Indicator Dial
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 As mentioned previously, the dial is part of the slide assembly. This dial is a calibrated indicator
which usually measures to the nearest thousandth of an inch. The dial is usually graduated in one
hundred thousandths per each revolution which match each small numbered value marked on the
beam. Some calipers may be graduated in two hundred thousandths for each revolution. This means
that for each half revolution, the caliper will move one hundred thousandths.

Thumb Wheel
Though the slide can be moved quite easily, there are times when the caliper will need to be
slowly. Such times this will be needed may be when tensioning the caliper while making a reading,
opening or closing the caliper slowly so the tool does not contact the work piece. The thumb wheel is
usually located on the right end of the slide on the bottom of the beam. The thumb wheel works by
friction and is usually easy to control so that slow, precise movements can be made.

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 Lock Screw
When the caliper needs to be locked into place, there is often a lock screw that can be
tensioned. The lock screw helps secure the slide by pressing either a brass or aluminum spacer into the
beam.

Jaws / Knife Edges

As described earlier, the jaws are often a matched pair. They are usually hardened and ground
so that they are parallel with each other and perpendicular to the beam. At the end of the jaws on
most small dial calipers between 6 and 12 inches in length, may have knife edges ground into it. Knife
edges are a tapered thinning of the jaws near the tips of each jaw. This allows the caliper to measure
narrow features such as grooves and recesses.

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 The Blades
On the other side of the beam on some calipers, directly opposite of the jaws, the blades
project upward. This part of the caliper is used to measure ID measurements. The blades are often
shorter than the jaws and had knife like tapered edges that extend down the entire edge of each blade.
Since the blades are not very long, they cannot extend very far into features. This is one of the
limitations of blades on most calipers equipped with them.

Depth Rod
As with the blades, this is a feature only available on some calipers, often smaller versions
under 12 inches. The depth rod is used to measure the depth of features from the end of the beam.
The depth rod is made similar to the rest of the caliper, hardened and ground for durability and
accuracy. Most depth rods are notched at the end so that they can fit into smaller features.

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 Taking Measurements with Calipers
Now that you understand what the parts of a caliper are, it is time to use this device and take
your first type of measurement, the Outer Dimensional (OD) Measurement. Similar to the previous
chapter about making measurements with micrometers, the caliper has the ability to make several
types of measurements. The three most common methods of measurement with calipers will be
explained in this lesson, OD, Inner Dimension (ID) and Depth Measurements.

Outer Dimensional Measurements

Taking OD Measurements are the most common use of calipers. The large jaws allow for a fast
alignment to work piece surfaces. In order to make accurate measurements, be sure to always check
that your caliper is functioning properly and is free of debris. Below is the procedure for making an OD
measurement with a dial caliper.

Calibrating the Caliper

As with the micrometer, you should always calibrate the caliper before making any
measurements. Calipers are simpler to calibrate than the micrometer. Just like the micrometer, clean
the caliper with a clean rag. Slowly close the micrometer using the thumb wheel until the caliper is
completely closed. Check the dial to see if the dial reads 0. If it does, the caliper is calibrated. If it isn’t,
you may need to adjust the dial. Before doing so, be sure to clean the caliper jaws again and verify that
the calibration is out.

To adjust the dial, loosen the dial lock screw and slowly rotate the dial to align the needle to the
zero line. Once set, lock the dial clamp screw and recheck the calibration. If the caliper zeros out, it is
ready to use to make a measurement. Below is an image of the caliper being checked for calibration.

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 How to Read a Caliper

Now that you understand how to make measurements, let’s be sure you are confident in
reading the measurement as it is found on a caliper. Below is a graphical example of a caliper
measurement taken on a part feature which measures 1.531 inches. Follow the steps on the left for
how to read it.

10 to 1 Rule when used for Calipers

You have learned the 10 to 1 rule for measuring with precision equipment means that the
device must be 10 times more accurate than the level of measurement being taken for repeatable
measurements. When used with a Caliper, the 10 to 1 rule will still apply and since almost all standard
dial calipers read to the .001, the repeatable accuracy of the caliper will be .010. This means you could
consistently read measurements for dimensions which have up to a .01 tolerance zone. You will not
accurate in saying that your device is repeatable on tolerance zones less than .01. Does that mean you
cannot read measurements to the .001 in accuracy? No, what it means is that you cannot repeatedly
rely on the measurements to be read to the .001. When wanting to make repeatable measurements to
less than .01 tolerance zone, you will need to use a tool with a higher resolution for repeatability such
as a micrometer with a vernier tenths scale.

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 Making Measurements

First and foremost, use a clean rag or shop towel to clean the surface of the part to be
measured as well as the jaws of the caliper.

Estimate the size that the caliper needs to be opened and then slide the jaws of the caliper
open so that the caliper is opened larger than the estimated size.

Now that you have the caliper open and ready to use for the measurement, position the part so
the jaws of the caliper are on opposite sides of surface that is going to be measured. Slowly close the
caliper by resting the fixed jaw (left side) against the work piece surface and with your thumb pressed
gently against the thumb wheel, start pushing the caliper closed with your right hand. Please note you
may need to reposition your right hand if you had the jaws open too far before starting this process.

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 Once you have closed the caliper and removed most of the gap between the jaws and the work
piece surface, be sure to check and verify that the caliper is square and flat to the work piece surface
otherwise your reading will be incorrect.

Proper tension is how firm you need to press against the work piece is critical while taking a
measurement. It is advised not to look at the dial while making a measurement as you might be
tempted to squeeze a little firmer or possibly not firm enough in order to achieve the reading you are
wanting. It is recommended to solely rely on your “feel” for the amount of pressure required. You
might consider practicing on a gage block or some other reference part in order to establish what the
proper tension or “feel” is supposed be like.

Opinions vary on whether you should lock the slide in place and remove the caliper before
taking a reading or whether you should just take the reading once the proper tension is reached.
Consult your company’s policy regarding this matter. For this class, you will be taught how to do it both
ways and you can choose which is more comfortable for your use.

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 If locking the slide before making a reading:
Slowly turn the slide lock screw located usually at the top of the slide and to the right of the dial
after the proper tension is reached.

Before removing the caliper, take note of the position of the needle to the location on the dial.
This will prevent the measurement from changing or being distorted if the slide moves when removing
the tool from the part. If the slide does move, it usually is only a small amount and can be easily reset
to the point that was noted before removal.

Now that the caliper is clear of the work piece, note the number of whole inches that are visible
on the slide and that the edge of the slide has passed. Do not count a value if the slide has not passed
the graduation mark on the beam!

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 Looking at the previous picture, count the number of one hundred thousandths lines that have
been crossed.

After the number of hundred thousandths lines has been noted, now look at the dial and count
the number of thousandths you see. Remember, only count the value which the needle has completely
passed.

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 Once you have documented each step, simply add the values together and the result is your
size reading.

If making a measurement without removing the tool from the work piece:
Note the number of whole inches that are visible on the slide and that the edge of the slide has
passed. Do not count a value if the slide has not passed the graduation mark on the beam!
Once you have taken note of the whole inches, count the number of one hundred thousandths
lines that have been crossed.
After the number of hundred thousandths lines has been noted, now look at the dial and count
the number of thousandths you see.
Once you have documented each step, remove the tool from the work piece feature and then
simply add the values together. The result is your size reading.
As with micrometers, you always verify your results three (3) times to be sure the calculations
are correct.

85
 Narrow OD feature and groove measurements are taken the same way as listed above but
using the knife edges instead of the main body of the jaw. Be extra careful to align the surfaces of the
knife edges to the work piece. Due to the fact that the knife edges are narrower than the standard jaw,
it is easy to present the jaws to the work piece feature at an angle which will result in an inaccurate
measurement.
Inner Diameter features use the same steps as listed above except that the blades on the top of
the slide are used and that the caliper is moved to be smaller than the size being measured before
moving the slide to make a measurement.

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 Pitfalls When Using Calipers
The most obvious pitfall that occurs when making measurements on OD and ID features is
presenting the caliper square to the work piece feature being measured. Often the caliper is a couple
degrees out of square and the result is a measurement larger than what the feature truly is.
Another pitfall is misreading the graduation marks on the beam of the caliper. Always confirm
that the number of hundred thousandths lines read have ACTUALLY passed the edge of the slide. This
is confirmed by looking at the indicator dial. If the reading is in the low range, 0 – 10, then the
graduation mark is counted. However, if the reading is in the upper range 90 – 99, then you MUST NOT
count the hundred thousandth graduation mark as passed. The same goes for reading the number of
thousandths on the dial. Only count the value that the needle has crossed.
Lastly, be sure to watch for transposition errors when documenting your results. Often it is this
last pitfall that gets even the most skilled user. By simply switching two numbers around during
calculation or when transferring the result to a check sheet, the size variance now shown by this
mistake may render the part scrap when it might have been an acceptable work piece.

Depth Measurements

One of the features available on most dial caliper is the ability to take depth readings. The
depth rod, a calibrated, often rectangular shaft that extends from the right side of the beam when the
slide is opened, is used to take readings such as shoulder and keyway depth. Though it is a nice feature
of the modern dial caliper, you will need to be careful as it is very easy to make inaccurate
measurements using this part of the caliper. The following steps should be used as a guideline to make
depth measurements.

Step one in making depth measurements is to be sure the tool and work piece are both clean of
dirt and debris. Use a clean shop towel to clean the work piece and measuring tool.

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 Now that the part and tool are ready to use, extend the depth rod by moving the slide to the
right on the beam. Use the graduations on the slide to move the depth rod out at least .100 beyond
the depth of the work piece feature being measured.

88
 Slowly move the caliper into position alongside the work piece. Try to position the tool to the
location where you will make the measurement. Be sure to keep the tool parallel to the side of the
work piece.

Slowly lower the beam carefully while checking alignment so that the depth rod and caliper
remain square to the side of the work piece.

89
 When the end of the beam contacts the face or edge of the work piece area that is used as a
reference point, lift the caliper up and away from the work piece on an angle so that you do no bump
the tool which may result in the reading being changed.

Now rotate the caliper and make your reading just as you did when making OD or ID
measurements. The process of documenting should not change. It is important to make sure you note
where the needle is on the indicator dial before you remove the caliper from the work piece feature
just in case the tool bumps the work piece during removal. The tool can be rotated back to the correct
reading and locked in place before making a measurement.

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 Digital Calipers
Throughout this chapter you have been introduced to dial calipers and their functions. With the
advent of electronic measuring tools, calipers have grown into a much easier version to read and use.
Since their introduction back in the late 1980’s, digital caliper have been replacing the dial versions in
manufacturing facilities large and small. This is mainly due to several features which a digital caliper
has that a dial caliper does not. Fast readings can be taken without having to add up values is the most
common reason for switching to a digital caliper. Another reason is the ability to switch from inch to
metric measurements with just a press of a button. This allows for the measurement of metric values
without having to convert them manually, which may lead to mistakes. The ability to zero out the
display and use positive and negative values in relation to a tolerance zone is another feature of
modern digital calipers. Some calipers have the ability to hold the measurement taken with a press of a
button rather than trying to rotate the lock screw while holding proper tension.

As you can see, there are many features that modern digital calipers have that make measuring
much easier and faster for even a novice operator. The only drawback to using a digital caliper is the
same as it is for digital micrometers, the fact that it is electronic and uses a battery. However, battery
life has improved greatly in the last ten years with power saving modes, newer battery types and even
smarter energy efficient electronic systems. The cost of each caliper will vary depending on the
features and quality of a caliper. Different manufacturers have many different models, much like
automakers have many different models of cars. Calipers now come in different colors as well. One of
the newest features that is very popular is the large LCD display.

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 Chapter 7: Miscellaneous Measuring Tools

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Understanding the Various Measuring Tools
Defining Adjustable Gages
Defining Fixed or Comparison Gages
How to Select One Gage Over Another

Often Used Measuring Tools

These include the ID micrometer, Pitch micrometer and the depth micrometer.

More unique measuring tools were designed for certain intended use and may only be able to
only check one specific type of feature. The principle behind most measuring devices will be to
compare size values to the stated size and tolerances found on part prints. In most cases a dial gage
that is graduated with pre calibrated markings will be used to obtain the size measurements.

Sometimes the actual size will not matter as much as not allowing the feature to go beyond the
tolerance limits. In this case, functional gages may be employed. We will discuss functional gages at the
end of this chapter.

Adjustable Gage

Examples of an adjustable gage are micrometers. The action of opening and closing the thimble
of a micrometer allows the device to have an accurate range of measurement. This then makes the
device adjustable.

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 Fixed Gage

Fixed gages are either made to one size or shape in order to be used to compare its size or
shape that of a part feature. examples of fixed gages are ground pins, gage blocks and radius gages. The
pitfall with using such devices is that the accuracy may rely on the person operating the gage. If a
precision measuring device is used in conjunction with a fixed gage, the accuracy can be as good as an
adjustable gage. An example of this is comparing the height of a stack of gage blocks against the height
of a part feature by using an indicator mounted to a probe base.

Picking the Correct Measuring Tool

Selecting the correct measuring device will vary greatly on the specific tolerance and intended
use of a part and the features being measured. In most cases, micrometers and calipers will be more
than accurate and adequate. Sometimes, depending on the shape and location of part features,
micrometers and calipers are not able to be used. For this reason, you will need to pay close attention
to specific details in order to select the right gage for the job. The following are examples of various ID
measuring gages ranging from the simplest to the most complex. Almost all of the gages shown require
a degree of practice and “feel” in order to obtain consistent and accurate measurements.

Telescoping Gages

Sometimes mistakenly called snap gages, this type of gage by itself cannot make a
measurement. It must be used in conjunction with graduated measuring devices such as micrometers
or calipers in order to obtain the size of the feature. Telescoping gages are considered to be
comparative gages, meaning that you use it to capture the size of a feature and then use a measuring
tool to obtain the size of the feature by measuring over the tips of the device. There are two spring
loaded spindles that are tensioned with a locking screw. The tool is usually inserted into a bore/hole
feature on an angle with the locking screw unlocked. Once the depth is reached, the screw is snugged
and then the tool is rotated through the centerline of the feature until the tool becomes loose. This
usually occurs at about 15 – 20 degrees past the center point of a hole. The tool is then carefully
removed from the feature so that a comparative measurement can be taken.
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 Telescoping gages are usually used when the size tolerances zones are not less than .001 and
also when there is not a sufficient quantity of parts to be produced that warrants the setting a more
sensitive and accurate gage like a bore gage. Just like the ID micrometer, the issues with using a device
like this are presenting the tips squarely to the feature being measured. You will often find Telescoping
Gages used during set ups and on small quantity runs. The range which most sets come in is ½” to 6”.
These types of tools require a deft touch and feel so that the correct comparative size is achieved.
Practice is paramount for use of this type of tool.

Small Hole Gages

For a comparative gage smaller than ½” you may use a Small Hole Gage. Similar to the
telescoping gage in that it does not take direct measurements, this device differs in that instead of
spring loaded spindles tensioned with a locking screw, the spindles are typically arced in form so that
there are no sharp edges that may cause the tool to contact prematurely and result in an inaccurate
reading. Instead of a locking screw, the center screw is used to slowly expand the small arced anvils so
that the comparative size can be achieved. This device requires a deft touch so that the comparative
size is felt and can then be measured when the tool is removed from the feature.

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 Full Ball Partial Ball
Small Hole Gages

ID Micrometers

When the hole size becomes large enough, a gage that is often used to check sizes to the
thousandth of an inch is the ID micrometer. The only limit to this type of micrometer is that the
minimum hole size often needs to be more than 1 ½” depending on the manufacturer. This is due to
the size of the thimble and micrometer body which will need to fit inside a hole and then be opened
using your fingers. Unlike OD micrometers, most ID micrometers usually have a .500 thimble travel
range which means that the device is set in ½” increments.

Rod Style Id Micrometer Tube Style ID Micrometer

Most ID micrometers start at 2” in size and usually range up to 12” Some larger sets may be
settable all the way out to 36 inches. Unlike an OD micrometer, the ID micrometer has interchangeable
anvil shafts. These anvils add ½ to 1” of size to the micrometer when added. To add a new anvil, the
existing one is unscrewed using a wrench to break it loose and then should be simply unscrewed and
removed. The new anvil and micrometer head are cleaned and checked for debris. The anvil screws
onto the head and locked in place with firm pressure of the wrench. Ideally, the micrometer should be
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checked against a gage standard to check for device accuracy. If a standard is not available, a calibrated
OD micrometer can be set to specific size. The ID micrometer would then be used to make a reading on
the anvil and spindle position of the OD micrometer and the value on the both micrometers should
read the same. Using this method is risky if you have not checked the OD micrometer for accuracy
before use. The one thing to be very careful of when using an ID micrometer is to be sure to find the
correct gage “feel” whilst inside a bore or slot. The tool must be rocked side to side and up and down
to ensure the correct high spot is achieved. Too often the mistakes made when reading ID micrometers
is that the tool is presented crooked to the work piece feature.

Bore Gages

When trying to measure close tolerances to the tenth of a thousandth on ID features, there are
not many better choices to making those measurements than using a bore gage. As the name suggests
this type of measuring tool is designed to measure bored features to a very accurate and repetitive
level. An example of when it would be practical to use such a device would be if you are creating a part
feature such as a bored hole on a run of 1000 parts and the size must be held to a close tolerance.
Based on its location, number of parts to be measured and range of tolerance, a micrometer and
caliper might not be the most practical device to use. Another advantage of using a bore gage is that it
can be used quickly to check for measuring and again, has a high degree of repeatability. Bore gages
are typically preset to a specific size and have a limited range so they are typically set to the nominal
dimension.

Set Ring

Bore
Gage Gage
Bore

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Using a bore gage will allow the repetitive measuring of all the bored holes at that specific size and
tolerance range. The only drawback to using a gage of this type is that it may have to be checked
periodically during frequent use against a master size ring gage or some sort of gage standard in order
to be sure the device remains set to the proper set size. The checking of gages that can be set to
varying sizes simply assures personnel that the device remains as accurate as required. Bore gages are
limited to specific ranges that they can be set to and are usually detailed in the assembly instructions
and case which the device is usually stored.

Now that we have discussed common ID measuring devices found in today’s modern
manufacturing facilities, we can move on to devices that measure heights and depths.

Depth Micrometers

Depth micrometers are one of the most common height/depth measuring devices used today.
Similar to the ID micrometer in that most depth micrometers come with interchangeable
spindle/anvils, most depth micrometers have a large rectangular flange that helps align, stabilize and
support the device while being used to make measurements. Some come equipped with a ratchet stop
on the end which doubles as a cap where the spindle/anvils are exchanged.

Standard Depth Micrometer Electronic Digital Depth Micrometer

The biggest difference using a depth micrometer over an OD or ID micrometer is that the
graduated scale on this device is graduated backwards to those found on the OD and ID micrometer.
This is due to the way the device takes measurements. If the thimble is fully extended to the last
graduated value, the size will be the smallest depth that can be measured. If, for example, a 0-1” depth
rod is being used and the thimble is extended to 0 on the sleeve, the spindle/anvil should not be
protruding from the end. With the thimble closed to the last graduation near the base, you will find
that the spindle/anvil is extended to the deepest value that can be measured. In this case, the value
will be 1”. Just as you should check calibration of an ID micrometer when spindles/anvils are
exchanged, you should do the same for depth micrometers.

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 Caliper Depth Attachment

A depth attachment can be used with a caliper to help steady and support the tool when depth
measurements. It is typically a hardened and ground bracket that slides onto the end of a caliper beam
and is secured by a set screw. This allows for a greater surface contact area when making depth
measurements.

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 Height Gages

Height Gages are found in more and more facilities due to the many brands on the market and
also the versatility that most height gages give a manufacturer when needing to make accurate
height/depth measurements and also other types of measurements that can be performed. By far,
height readings are still the most common type of reading performed with a height gage. There are
three styles of height gages, the vernier, dial and digital height gage. The vernier style, due to the time
it takes to make a measurement is not as widely used as the dial and digital.

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 Functional Gages

Functional gages are another type of comparative gage in that they do not measure a feature’s
size, but rather check the limits of a feature’s functionality. In most cases, functional gages are used
when a part feature needs to mate or fit with another work piece. Types of functional gages commonly
found in today’s manufacturing facilities are pin, ring and thread. This type of gage is often called go /
no-go gages because one gage is usually set at the very lowest tolerance while another is set at the
upper tolerance. When used in an application one gage should always fit in a feature but the other
gage should not be able to fit. Go /no-go gages will usually be identified by either color or some sort of
marking so that the user will be able to tell easily which one is which. Some gages are colored green for
go and red for no-go but in the case of color blind users, some gages have a groove for the no-go gage
as well. This is quite common on ring gages. No matter what method is used to identify what is
potentially a go / no-go, the user should ALWAYS check the size of the gage and also check for
calibration if possible to make sure the gage is functioning correctly.

For example, suppose you have a hole with a size of .500 with a tolerance of +/- .005. The lower
tolerance limit for this feature is .495 and the upper is .505. When using a go / no-go pin to check this
hole, you would select a pin that measures .495 as the go pin and another pin that measures .505 as
the no-go pin. As long as the hole is in tolerance, the go pin will fit in the hole every time it is
presented. The no-go should NEVER fit into the hole as this would mean that the hole has become
oversized.

The green colored end of the above gage pin holder is the go end or lower size of tolerance, the red is the no-go end or the
upper size of tolerance.

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 A frequent question asked with this type of set up is; How do we know what the size of the hole
is if we only use the extremes? The answer is, we don’t know what the size is. This type of system relies
on repeatability of a tool or machining process to make the feature over and over and over without the
size varying much if any. Typically, the hole size will be checked with a precision measuring tool to
verify the actual hole size during the set up process. This is important for the purpose of knowing what
the cutting tool or cutting process is creating as compared to what is used or programmed. NEVER
assume that a go / no-go gage checks a size of a feature just because the gage does not fit. There are
many reasons why a pin might stop working in a hole. Burrs, chips, or clamping force can adversely
affect a part feature. Whenever a gage stops fitting, a precise measuring tool must be used in order to
figure out the cause.

Pin and ring gages are typically made from hardened and ground steel and may even be plated
with a coating to promote a smooth, unbinding action while interacting with part features. Most pin
and ring gages are clearly marked with the actual size of the gage with some sort of chemical or
engraved markings.

gage pins

gage rings

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 Thread gages are used to compare a threaded feature to both its proper pitch diameter and
lead. Care must be taken in determining what might be wrong with a thread if the gage does not work
because two different characteristics are being checked. Typically, if the gage does not work, a
measurement must be taken to see if first and foremost, the pitch diameter is correct. A pitch or lead
gage can be used to compare with the machined thread’s lead in order to be sure that the thread is not
jamming up in the gage as it is being screwed onto it. There are styles types of thread gages, plug and
ring. Much like the plug and ring gages mentioned above, thread plug and ring gages measure internal
and external threaded features.

thread plug gage

thread ring gages

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 Gage Blocks

Similar to plug and ring gages, another type of functional gage that can be used to compare a
size limit of a feature are gage blocks. Gage blocks or Jo blocks as they are sometimes called, are
precisely sized pieces of steel, carbide or ceramic material which are engraved or chemically etched
with the size of each block and are often ground for flatness and accuracy.

Being that each block has been ground, they have a very smooth, flat surface. Along natural
with oils from contact with skin, sliding one block on top of another block allows for the blocks to cling
to one another up to a certain amount of pressure and weight. This process is called stacking or
“wringing”. Stacking the gage blocks allows for just about any size to be achieved. The key to stacking
blocks is to make sure that you not only verify the size of the blocks before you assemble them, but
that you also check the stack with either a height gage or other precision measuring device. Too often
the fact that the thinner blocks do not vary much in appearance, they get misplaced when returned to
the case. This results in the next user thinking they are selecting one size block but actually picking up
the wrong size. REMEMBER, VERIFY, VERIFY, VERIFY!!!!!!

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 Gage blocks are often used when comparing height readings so that accuracy of measuring
devices can be confirmed. When using gage blocks in this way, you may set one stack for a lower limit
of a tolerance and one for the upper.
Some manufacturing facilities use gage blocks in order to calibrate measuring tools as well. As
stated earlier, gage blocks are made to very exacting standards so their repeatability should not be in
question. This makes each block an excellent comparative gage to ensure your measuring tools are
functioning correctly.

Radius Gage

Another type of comparison gage used in today’s manufacturing facilities is radius gages. This
type of gage utilizes premade radius samples in several common convex and concave configurations so
that the tool may be used on most machined features in order to visually verify that a described radius
is indeed what it is supposed to be. Though people will argue that this type of device is not considered
precise, any deviation of a radius’ true form will immediately be spotted in most cases. This is often
because a radius with accurate form will not allow light to pass by edge of the gage where it meets the
feature. The trickiest parts to using radius gages is presenting the gage square to the feature surface
and also being able to fit the gage into smaller feature areas.

A common radius gage set with sample holder. Notice all of the different radii locations for radius comparisons to be made?

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 Chapter 8: Introduction to the Machinist Handbook

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Brief History of the Machinery’s Handbook
The Index and Chapter Tabs
What the Machinery’s Handbook is Used For
Understanding the Information in the Machinery’s Handbook
Looking up Information in the Machinery’s Handbook
Finding Information on Threads for Manufacturing and Measurement

The Machinery’s Handbook

Since the early 1900’s, machining has been part of the great industrial revolution throughout
America. Most manufactured parts up until the 1900’s were mostly custom fit and unique with very
few set standards or reference guides. This meant that interchangeable parts were not even an option
when machines broke down. Manufacturing techniques also varied tremendously from work place to
work place. To remedy this as well as to provide a book of instructional knowledge, a reference book
was developed. In 1914 a company named Industrial Press published an encyclopedia or sorts
containing manufacturing and engineering data and standards. There were two authors who are
credited for the development of the Machinery’s Handbook, Erik Oberg and Franklin D. Jones. The
original book was focused more for engineering purposes but became an instant “must have” item for
any manufacturing facility. The modern Machinery’s Handbook is often referred to as the Machinist’s
Handbook. Most machinists today refer to the huge reference book as the “machinist’s bible” as it
contains just about every reference used in machining and is considered the gold standard of reference
books.

Uses for the Machinery’s Handbook

As mentioned above, the machinery’s handbook is the primary reference tool used when
looking up information on daily manufacturing processes. Everything from metallurgy to metal
finishing is referenced in the book. The current version of the book, the 29th edition, has 2700 pages of
information relating to everything that is involved with manufacturing. That does not include the 88
page index that is invaluable for locating specific key words or concepts. Furthermore, there are

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specific sections that have tabs cut in the edge of the pages to that certain references can be turned to
quickly. These quick reference tabs are as follows:

Math & Mechanics

Properties of Materials

Inspection

Tooling & Toolmaking

Machining Operations

Manufacturing Processes

Fasteners

Threading

Gearing

Machine Elements

Units

Index

Each tab has a brief table of contents which will further break down the location of a specific
amount of detail for the reference needed.

Using the machinery’s handbook will depend greatly on what you are trying to look up. Some
information is just that, information; it will give ideas and suggestions but will not give step by step
techniques on how to perform every possible function of a manufacturing process. Often there are
cautions and noted pitfalls which may be encountered while performing manufacturing processes. The
key to the book is the organized reference information. This information allows for the creation of
interchangeable parts which then allow for the mass production of an infinite amount of parts.

One of the most used sections of the machinery’s handbook is the threading section. It is by far
one of the most detailed collections of almost every known manufactured thread form. Technical
information from the most basic to the most complex is included in this section. If you need to look up
simple data such as a tap drill size, you will find it in this section. If you want to know about helix angles
as they vary on ACME screw threads, this section has the answers you are seeking. Sometimes,
information contained in sections like this is overwhelming so it does pay to go through the section

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thoroughly to make sure you are using the correct data. Most data is in simple format such as charts
and lists so that cross referencing information is easy. More complex information may be presented in
the form of a diagram with a schedule chart below which can become confusing even to the most
seasoned manufacturer.

The first step in looking up data in the machinery’s handbook is to have an idea of what type of
information you want to find. For example, if you have a bolt and want to know more about the
specifics such as grades, tensile strength and sizing, you would select the fastener section. If you want
to know how to make a specific thread that you measured from a bolt, you would go to the threading
section. Maybe you want to look up information about inspection of threads? You would then turn to
the inspection tab. Some sections may refer to information in other sections of the book so that
information is not repeated. Be sure to try to get an understanding of what it is you are looking for and
then branch out from there.

Please complete the following exercise by looking up information as requested. Be sure to look
up only the information asked for otherwise you may overwhelm yourself and your answer with
unneeded information. The page number in parenthesis is for the Machinery Handbook 29th edition. It
is the exact page you will need to use to get the correct information.)

1. Look up the RPM equivalent for a 2 5/8” diameter fractional drill set to run at 90 feet
per minute. (pg. 1016 – 1020)

2. Look up the RPM equivalent for a #34 number drill set to run at 130 feet per minute.
(pg. 1016 – 1020)

3. Look up the RPM equivalent for an 80 mm metric drill set to run at 75 feet per minute.
(pg. 1016 – 1020)

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4. Look up the thread information for a 1 15/16 – 12 2A OD thread. Include the minimum
and maximum pitch diameter and also the minimum and maximum major diameter.
(pg. 1817 – 1843)

5. Look up the data for an 18 pitch thread. Include the pitch, depth of a sharp V thread,
maximum external thread root radius, and the depth of a UN external thread. (pg.
1815)

6. Look up the thread information for a 9/16 – 32 2A OD thread. Include the minimum and
maximum pitch diameter and also the minimum and maximum major diameter. (pg.
1817 – 1843)

7. Look up the basic thread information for a 4 1/8 – 8 OD thread. Include the basic major
diameter, basic pitch diameter, lead angle, and minor diameter for ID thread. (pg. 1847
– 1853)

8. What is the included angle for a 23/32” taper per foot in degrees, minutes and
seconds?(pg. 683)

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 Chapter 9: Open Set Up Inspection & Quality Control

Skills Taught in this Chapter:

Defining What Open Set Up Inspection Is
Understanding Open Set Up Inspection Methods
Performing Open Set Up Inspection
Defining Quality Control
Understanding the Importance of Proper Record Keeping.
Difference Between Quality Control and Open Set Up Inspection

What is Open Set Up Inspection?

It is easy enough to understand what the term inspection means but as soon as you throw the
words Open Set Up in front of it, people often become confused or lost. This method of inspection
simply means that the inspection procedure is performed using non dedicated fixtures or inspection
set ups. Parts are checked using various measuring methods which directly correlate to feature sizes
and relationships found on part prints. This means that most open set up inspection occurs by using
the same print which the machinist used to make the part. If you are using a premade fixture or
measuring device that can only be used to check one specific work piece, it is not considered open set
inspection up but rather a production gage measurement.

Measuring devices used in conjunction with open set up inspection vary as greatly as each set
up. Along with micrometers and calipers, other types of measuring tools, such as the ones mentioned
in Chapter 8, are often employed in order to obtain accurate and repeatable measurements. Some
common types of measuring devices that may be used in open set up inspection include but are not
limited to, gage blocks, height gages, 1-2-3 blocks, gage pins, angle plates, V blocks, and optical
comparators. Selection of the proper gage will vary per each inspection set up. Reading, Interpreting
and extracting the necessary information that will be used in selecting the proper inspection gage and
method of inspection is an important skill that takes time to master. Common mistakes that are made
during the gage selection process is not understanding all of the symbols and abbreviations on prints,
misinterpreting the features which leader and extension lines are pointing to, and also miscalculating
sizes of features and locations when adding / subtracting dimension values.

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 A key concept in applying open set up inspection is to be sure that the inspection process used
to achieve the measurement for any given feature can be repeated and set back up without too much
effort. This promotes efficiency and also keeps each inspection process from becoming overly complex
and time consuming.

Getting Started with Inspection

When you ask people in manufacturing what inspection of work pieces means to them, an
overwhelming portion of will answer that it is nothing more than someone trying to find mistakes in or
nitpick their work. Though the response is often a matter of a craftsman’s pride by not wanting to
acknowledge that there are flaws in almost all work, there is some truth in that statement. Inspection
is the act of checking of work for errors. The inspector’s goal is not to show that the person creating
the part is flawed but rather to confirm that the work performed conforms to the part print and
customer specifications. Quite often inspectors are given a bad rap because they bring errors or flaws
to the manufacturer’s attention. Inspection should be looked at as more of a validation of making of
good work pieces rather than the finding of mistakes and flaws.

The following is an example of how to inspect a work piece. Please keep in mind, just as there
are many ways to manufacture the features of a part, there are often many ways to inspect them as
well. Most inspection techniques will be based on the inspection tools available and also the level of
accuracy required for the inspected features. Always remember to keep in mind the 10 to 1 rule for
repeatability when inspecting numerous work pieces.

To inspect a work piece, you should have the part print, a part which is free of chips, debris, oils
and burrs, and also inspection equipment that is clean and calibrated. When inspecting any sort of
quantity of parts, it is advised to label or number each part and then document the sizes so that they
may be referred to later if the need arises.

Start by examining the part print and look for any close tolerance dimensions as these will likely
be the most critical features that will need to be checked and documented.

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 Try to identify features that you will be able to use the same measuring tool for. This will save
time from jumping back and forth from one tool or device to another. This goes for both close or
critical dimensions as well as non close and non critical dimensions.

Look for and identify any GDT feature control frames and datums. The presence of feature
control frames and datums will vary from print to print based on needs for the use of GDT.

These will need to be analyzed so that the geometric characteristic and feature that they are
applied to are checked correctly to the corresponding datum(s).

After inspecting close tolerance dimensions, move onto any other dimensions that have a
tolerance stated. It is often a good practice to complete all of the dimensions that have a tolerance
dimension first and then move to dimensions which use the stated tolerances shown in the title block
or notes section. This will assure you that the critical stated sizes are checked first.

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 Inspection should not be some sort of mystery to anyone who is manufacturing parts on a daily
basis. Being able to read and check your work helps reassure you that the parts you create are accurate
and conform to all print requirements. There are very rewarding careers in the inspection / quality
control field. You might find that using skills you learn during your training might open a door of
opportunity as an inspector for a manufacturing company. That first opportunity might then lead to a
manufacturing job later on.

Quality Control

A term that seems to go hand in hand with inspection and is sometimes confused with the
action of inspection is quality control. Like inspection, most people think of quality control as a system
hell bent on looking for bad measurements and non conforming work pieces. You should think of it as
the validation of not only the part being measured but as a gage of how your equipment is set up and
also how well the tools which make the cuts are performing. Quality control is defined as the
maintaining of quality of work by periodically checking / verifying critical feature sizes on work pieces
made in any quantity greater than two pieces. This directly implies that you would not consider the
inspection of one or two work pieces as performing quality control. Quality control differs from
inspection in that only critical functional dimensions and features are checked and not all of the part’s
features.

Quality control parts are usually labeled just as they are for regular inspection so that they may
be referenced if the need arises by either a customer or a quality auditor. Critical sizes and features are
usually documented on a quality control sheet so that the inspector does not have to scan the drawing
each time he/she goes to perform a quality check. This also helps speed up the quality control
inspection process as well.

Quality control was developed in an effort to lessen the burden of inspecting every work piece
when made in any sort of production environment. Sometimes the act on inspecting a work piece
feature may take longer than the manufacturing of that feature. If production is stopped every time a
feature is measured, production times would go up as well as production costs. There are many
different ideologies being used when it comes to quality control, some have set intervals when part
features are to be inspected, some are random so that the machines are not waiting on inspectors to
come by to perform the inspection. The latter method tries to help keep production flowing and not
waiting but it also has the inherent risk of some non conforming parts being run before inspector can

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get to that machine. Random quality inspection relies heavily on the machine operators performing
their own inspections and maintaining quality control. Overall, each production situation is unique and
will need to be analyzed to see which quality control method ensures the highest quality parts being
made while maintaining efficient quality standards.

Documenting critical part feature sizes is the most common function performed during quality
control. Companies will often use a specific form to write down the results of measurements taken and
will also have other information regarding the work pieces being measured. Quality control relies
heavily on serializing parts made during a specific run so that when a discrepancy is found, other parts
close to that serial number can be checked to find when the measured size first went out of tolerance.
Serializing also helps track when a specific work piece was manufactured and often, who the operator
was that performed the machining.

The following is an example of a simple and generic quality control inspection form. Though
each company should adopt their own form, there are pre made forms that can be found on the
internet or through various quality organizations. No matter what form you use, the most important
information on each form is present on each form. Such information would be the part number, part
name, date of manufacture, part serial number, part feature sizes / tolerances and documented
measurements of those part features. Other information which may be found on these forms can be
the revision level, client name, client contact information, manufacturer name, machine operator
name / initials, and any extra information which can be used to help in the quality control inspection
process.

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