Network Fundamental - 1 PDF

Introduction to Computer Networks 1
Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Networks

Notes
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Computer Networks
1.3 Defining Network
1.4 Characteristics of Computer Network
1.5 Properties of Computer Network
1.6 Networking Goals
1.7 Why Computer Network Needed?
1.8 Network Hardware
1.8.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)
1.8.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
1.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
1.8.4 Wireless Networks
1.8.5 Internetworks
1.9 Uses of Computer Networks
1.9.1 Network for Companies
1.9.2 Networks for People
1.9.3 Business Use
1.9.4 Scientific Use: Computer Enhanced Collaborative Work (CECW)
1.9.5 Complexity in Network Systems
1.9.6 Computer Network Concept
1.10 Data Communication
1.11 Communication Model
1.11.1 Data Communications
1.12 Network Examples
1.12.1 Novell NetWare
1.12.2 ARPANET
1.12.3 NSFNET
1.13 Summary
1.14 Check Your Progress
1.15 Questions and Exercises
1.16 Key Terms
1.17 Further Readings
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

2 Computer Communication Network
Objectives
Notes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the various uses of computer networks.
 Discuss different technologies involved in defining the network hardware
 Explain concept of process network software and the significance of
layering the communication process and related design issues for the layers
1.1 Introduction
The merging of computers and communications has a profound influence on the way
systems are organized. The concept of computer center as a room with a large
computer to which the users bring their work for processing is now obsolete. The old
model of a single computer servicing all the computational needs of an organization has
been replaced by the one in which a large system of separate but interconnected
computers do the job. These systems are called computer networks. The two
computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The
connection between the computers need not be only via a copper wire or fiber optics or
microwaves. A communication satellite can be used for networking the computers.
1.2 History of Computer Networks

Following is a brief history of computers, networking and telecommunication milestones:
1897: CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) credited to Braun.
1900–1915: Teletype (telegraph 5 bit).
1915–1020: ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) credited to Van Duuren.
1930–1940: ENIAC credited to DOD/MIT.
1950s: SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) MIT 1950s.
1960s: Transistorized Computers–2nd Generation.
1961: CTSS (Compatible Time Sharing System) credited to Cobato/MIT.
1965: Auto Equalization Techniques of Phone lines credited to Lucky et al.
1966: Fiber Glass credited to Kao & Hockman.
1967: Integrated Circuits Computers–3rd Generation.
1968: Carterfone–FCC Decision in.
1969: A group of DoD researchers linked four computers at UCLA, SRI, University
of Utah and the UCSB. They created a network to communicate with one another about
government projects. The network was part of the DoD’s Advanced Research Project
Agency, and was dubbed ARPAnet.
1972: More than 50 universities and military agencies were linked together on the
network. For a short period of time, it was a top secret defence project, ensuring that
computers could talk to each other in the event of a nuclear attack. The communication
system between the sites was called email and was invented by Ray Tomlinson of Bolt,
Berank and Newman.
1973: The defence project links were extended to Norway and England.
1974: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was published and the military and
educational links diverged. Organizations like NASA began to experiment with computer
networks, and the networks began to interconnect and the name Internet was coined.

1976: The Queen sends an email from RSRE Malvern.
1983: TCP/IP become the protocol standard for ARPAnet. Scott Fahlman invents Notes
the smiley to convey emotions in email.
1984: In the US, the NSF built high speed, long distance lines that connected
supercomputer sites across the USA. These eventually replaced the original ARPAnet.
In time, NSFnet was joined by other networks at dozens of universities, research
laboratories and high-tech companies. The system for assigning names to computers
on the network was introduced — DNS. JANet was launched to connect British
Universities.
1986: The NSF established its own faster network NSFnet and Network News
Transfer Protocol (NNTP) was introduced making on-line interactive discussion a
reality. Backbone speed was 56 Kbps.
1987: 1000th RFC and 10,000th host.

1988: Robert Tappan Morris releases the first Internet Worm and CERT was set up
in response to this. Backbone speed upgraded to 1.544 Mbps. IRC developed.
1989: 100,000th host. Cuckoo’s Egg released by Cliff Stoll telling true story of East
German cracker accessing US installations.
1990: ARPAnet ceased to exist and the Internet effectively took its role.
1991: Gopher, a software program for retrieving information from servers on the
Internet was made available by the University of Minnesota. The US Government
announced that it no longer intended to restrict activity on the Internet to research. This
policy shift was sufficient for 12 companies to co-operate and produce CIX. Phil
Zimmerman released PGP. Backbone speed upgraded to 44.736 Mbps.
1992: The World Wide Web became a possibility after CERN, in Switzerland,
th
released hypertext. 1,000,000 Host. The author gets his first dialup email account with
Demon Internet (Nov. 1992).
1993: Mosaic, a software program to browse Web sites written by Marc Andreesen,
was released followed by Netscape.
1994: Shopping Malls arrive on the Internet. The UK Treasury goes on line and the
first cyberbank opens. The first banner adverts appeared for Zima (a drink) and AT&T.
1995: Traditional dialup services (AOL, CompuServe etc) start to provide dialup
services. The Vatican goes on line. A number of Internet companies go public.
Netscape leads the field with the largest ever IPO on NASDAQ. DEC launches
AltaVista, which claims to index every HTML page there is. Jeff Bezos launches
Amazon.com. eBay is launched.
1996: 9,272 organizations find themselves unlisted after the InterNIC drops their
name service as a result of not having paid their domain name fee. Various ISPs suffer
extended service outages, bringing into question whether they will be able to handle the
growing number of users. AOL (19 hours), Netcom (13 hours), AT&T WorldNet (28
hours – email only). China requires users of the Internet to register with the Police.
Saudi Arabia restricts use to universities and hospitals. Domain name tv.com sold to
CNET for US$15,000. Backbone speed upgraded to 622 Mbps.
1997: 2000th RFC. 16 Million hosts. 1,000,000th Domain name registered (March
th
6 for Bonny View Cottage Furniture Company).
1998: 3,000,000th Domain name registered. US Postal authorities allow purchase

of postage stamps on line for downloading and printing. Gigabit Ethernet standard
ratified. Google is launched.

1999: First full service bank opens on the Internet (First Internet Bank of Indiana).
First forged web page, looking like Bloomberg, raises the shares of a small company by
Notes 31% (7th April). Melissa strikes. 5,000,000th Domain name registered. First Cyberwar
starts between Serbia and Kosovo. Shawn Fanning Launches Napster — record labels
are furious.
2000: 10,000,000th Domain name registered. French Courts require that ‘hate’
memorabilia for sale on Yahoo’s auction site must be removed. Gnutella is launched.
ICANN selects new top level domains. Backbone is upgraded to IPv6.
2001: Forwarding email becomes illegal in Australia (Digital Agenda Act). Napster
forced to suspend service after legal action. Taliban bans the Internet in Afghanistan.
Nimda released on the Internet.
2002: Distributed denial of Service attack hits 13 DNS root servers, causing
national security concerns.
2003: The first official Swiss online election takes place in Anières (7 Jan), SQL
Slammer (goes round the world in 10 minutes and takes out 3 of the 13 DNS Servers).
Followed by SoBig.F (19 Aug) and Blaster (11 Aug).
2004: Lycos Europe releases a screen saver to help fight spam by keeping spam
servers busy with requests (1 Dec). The service is discontinued within a few days after
backbone providers block access to the download site and the service causes some
servers to crash.
1.3 Defining Network

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites or infrared light beams.
The term of ‘computer network’ means an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers.
(a) Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
(b) The requirement for computers to be autonomous excludes from our definition
systems in which there is a clear master/slave relation.
The key difference between a computer network and a distributed system:
1. In a distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous computers is
transparent to the user. A distributed system looks like a virtual uni-processor to its
users.
2. With a network, a user must explicitly do the followings:
 log onto one machine (e.g., rlogin),
 submit jobs remotely (e.g., rsh),
 move files around (e.g., rcp, ftp, uucp), and
 generally handle all the network management personally.
In effect, a distributed system is a special case of a network, one whose software
gives it a high degree of cohesiveness and transparency.
So, one can say that, Network is an interconnected collection of autonomous
computer. When a number of users work together with a single computer, using their
independent terminals to share resources and information the system is called
networking.

Two devices (Computer) are said to be networked or connected, when a process in
one device is able to exchange information with a process in another device. Networks
may be classified by various characteristics, such as the media used to transmit signals, Notes
the Communication protocol used to organize network traffic, network scale, network
topology, benefits, and organizational scope. The best known computer network is the
Internet.
Figure 1.1: Computer Network
Advantages of Computer Network

 File sharing
 Resource sharing
 Increased storage capacity
 Flexible handling
Disadvantages of Computer Network

 Security concern
 Virus and malware
 Lack of robustness
 Lack of independence
1.4 Characteristics of Computer Network

The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources:
(a) You can play CD music from one computer while sitting on another computer.
(b) You may have a computer with a CD writer or a backup system but the other
computer does not have it; In this case, you can burn CDs or make backups on a
computer that has one of these but using data from a computer that does not have
a CD writer or a backup system.
(c) You may have a computer that does not have a DVD player. In this case, you can
place a movie DVD on the computer that has a DVD player, and then view the
movie on a computer that lacks a DVD player.
(d) You can connect a printer (or a scanner or a fax machine) to one computer and let
other computers of the network print (or scan, or fax) to that printer (or scanner, or
fax machine).
(e) You can place a CD with pictures on one computer and let other computers access
those pictures.
You can create files and store them in one computer, then access those files from
the other computer(s) connected to it.

1.5 Properties of Computer Network

Notes A computer network has the following properties:
 Facilitates interpersonal communications
People can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat
rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
 Allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information
Authorized users may access information stored on other computers on the
network. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important
feature of many networks.
 Allows sharing of network and computing resources
Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as
printing a document on a shared network printer. Distributed computing uses
computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.
1.6 Networking Goals

(a) The main goal of networking is Resource sharing, and it is to make all the
programs, data and equipment available to anyone on the network without the
regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.
(b) A second goal is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of
supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if
one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be available.
(c) Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than larger ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten
times faster than the fastest single chip microprocessors, but they cost thousand
times more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to build systems
consisting of powerful personal computers, one per user, with data kept on one or
more shared file server machines. This goal leads to networks with many
computers located in the same building. Such a network is called a LAN (local
area network).
(d) Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as the work
load increases by just adding more processors. With central mainframes, when
the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense
and with even greater disruption to the users.
(e) Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. A file that has
been updated/ modified on a network can be seen by the other users on the
network immediately.
1.7 Why Computer Network Needed?

Computer networks help users on the network to share the resources and in
communication.
The following are the important benefits of a computer network.
 File sharing: Networking of computers helps the users to share data files.
 Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM
drives, hard drives etc.
 Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows
to implement client/server applications.
 User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups, and video conferencing etc.
 Network gaming: Lot of games are available, which are supports multi-users.
1.8 Network Hardware
There are two important dimensions for classifying networks — transmission Notes
technology and scale.
Transmission technology can be classified into two types:
1. Broadcast networks.
2. Point-to-point networks.
(a) Broadcast networks: These networks have a single communication channel
shared by all the machines on the network. They work as follows:
 All the others receive packets sent by any machine.
 An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is intended.
 Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If it is intended for
itself, it processes the packet; otherwise, it is just ignored.
It is also possible to address all broadcasting or multicasting a subset of the
machines.
A common scheme:
(i) The address consisting of all 1 bits is reserved for broadcast.
(ii) All addresses with the high-order bit set to 1 are reserved for multicasting.
(iii) The remaining addresses bits form a bit map corresponding to groups.
(iv) Each machine can subscribe to any or all of the groups.
(b) Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of
machines.
 Multiple routes and intermediate machines may exist between a pair of
machines; so routing algorithms play an important role here.
 A general rule (with many exceptions): smaller and localized networks tend to
use broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually are point-to-point.
 An alternative criterion for classifying networks is their scale, which is as
follows:
1.8.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

Three distinguishable characteristics for LANs:
(a) Size: usually a diameter of not more than a few kilometers, with bounded and
known worst-case transmission time, making special design and simple
management possible.
(b) Transmission technology: usually a shared cable running at speeds of 10 to 100
Mbps (and even higher), with delay of tens of microseconds and few errors.
Allocation of the shared channel:

 Each machine is statically allocated a time slot to transmit, and gets its turn by
round robin.
 Each machine is dynamically allocated a time slot on demand.
 Centralized method uses an arbitration unit to determine who goes next.
 Decentralized method allows each machine to decide for itself.
1.8.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

MAN is a bigger version of a LAN and uses similar technology. It uses one or two
cables but does not contain switching elements. It covers an entire city and may be
related to the local cable TV network.

A MAN standard - DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) IEEE 802.6.

(a) Two unidirectional buses.
Notes
(b) Each bus has a head-end, which initiates transmission activity.
(c) Traffic to the right uses the upper bus.
(d) Traffic to the left uses the lower bus.
1.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A WAN spans a large area, often a country or continent. A WAN consists of two parts:
(a) Application part: Machines for running user programs are called hosts.
(b) Communication part: The hosts are connected by the communication subnet, or
just subnet, whose job is to carry messages from host to host.
The subnet consists of two components:
 Transmission lines (circuits, channels or trunks) move bits between machines.
 Switching elements (routers) are specialized computers used to connect two or
more transmission lines.
Main Characters
(i) A WAN contains numerous cables or telephone lines, each one connecting a pair of
routers.
(ii) For those without direct connection, communication takes place indirectly via other
routers.
(iii) When a message (a packet) is sent from one router to another, it is received at
each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is
free, and then forwarded.
A subnet using this principle is called point-to-point, store-and-forward or packet-
switched subnet.
WANs may also use broadcast channels, such as satellites or ground radio systems.
1.8.4 Wireless Networks

Mobile computers, such notebook computers and Personal Digital Assistants (PDSs),
are the fastest-growing segment of the computer industry.
Applications using wireless networks:
(a) Portable offices which allow people to send and receive phone calls, faxes and
emails, to read remote files or login remote machines, etc., and to do this from land,
sea or air.
(b) Of great value to fleets of trucks, taxis and repair-persons for keeping in contact
with home.
(c) Important to rescue workers at disaster sites and to the military.
Wireless networking and mobile computing are related but not identical, It is
possible to have different combinations of wired and wireless networking.
1.8.5 Internetworks
A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just Internet.
The Internet refers to a specific worldwide Internet that is widely used to connect
universities, government offices, companies and private individuals.

1.9 Uses of Computer Networks
There are many uses of computer network. Depending upon the users’ network has the Notes
following uses.
1.9.1 Network for Companies

Resource Sharing: A network is needed because of the desire to make all programs,
data, and equipment available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the user. Load sharing is another aspect of resource
sharing.
High Reliability: A network may have alternative sources of supply (e.g., replicated
files, multiple CPUs, etc.). In case of one resource failure, the others could be used and
the system continues to operate at reduced performance. This is a very important
property for military, banking, air traffic control and many other applications.
Saving Money: A network may consist of many powerful small computers, one per
user, with data kept on one or more shared file server machines, which offers a much
better price/performance ratio than mainframes.
Scalability: The ability to increase system performance gradually by adding more
processors (incremental upgrade).
Powerful Communication Medium: Networks make cooperation among far-flung
groups of people easy where it previously had been impossible.
In the long run, the use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication
may prove more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.
CSCW (Computer-Supported Cooperative Work) is a rapidly expanding
multidisciplinary area based on communication networks.
1.9.2 Networks for People

Starting in the 1990s, computer networks began to start delivering services to private
individuals at home.
Access to Remote Information

(a) Home reservations for airplanes, trains, hotels, restaurants, theaters and so on,
anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
(b) Home banking and shopping.
(c) On-line and personalized electronic newspapers, journals and libraries.
(d) Access to WWW (World Wide Web) which contains information about many topics -
too many to mention!
All these applications involve interactions between a person and a remote database.
 Person-to-person communication: The 21st Century’s answer to the 19th
Century’s telephone.
 Electronic mails or emails for everyone. Emails may contain digitized voice,
pictures, moving TV and video images (and even smell!). \
 Worldwide newsgroups for the population at large, and cover every conceivable
topics.
 Real-time CSCW systems, such as videoconferencing and virtual meeting
environments, allow remote users to communicate with no delay, possibly seeing
and hearing each other’s as well.
It is sometime said that transportation and communication are having a race, and
whichever one wins will make the other obsolete.

Interactive entertainment is a huge and growing industry.
(i) Video on demand (the killer application): The user can select any movie or TV
Notes program ever made, in any country, and have it displayed on his screen instantly.
(ii) Interactive films: The user may choose alternative scenarios for the story
direction.
(iii) Live and interactive TV: Audience may participate in quiz shows and so on.
(iv) Multiperson real-time games (maybe the alternative killer application): Hide-
and-seek, flight simulators, etc.
If done with goggles and 3-dimensional real-time, photographic-quality moving
images, we have a kind of worldwide shared virtual reality.
The ability to merge information, communication and entertainment will surely give
rise to a massive new industry based on computer networking.
The information revolution may change society as much as the Industrial Revolution
did.
1.9.3 Business Use

The business uses of computer networks include storage and retrieval of information,
reducing the need for paper and moving towards paperless office and rationalizing the
time for producing correspondence and accounts. In the context of business, generally
computer networks provide the following uses:
1. Sharing of resources: Computer networking allows sharing of resources.
Connections of computers in a network will enable you to share files and devices
such as printers, CD-ROM drives, etc. It makes available programs, data, and
equipment available to anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location
of the resource and the user. In case of over capacity utilization of the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) of any one computer in network, the computer networks
helps in transferring loads to another computer in the network. This aspect of load
sharing is the key to the grid computing.
Example: In Today’s world, floppy disks and Cds have taken a back space
whereas networking is taking place to share the files and folders .So people now
share their files and folders with their friends, relatives or their colleagues directly
through computer networks. Now a days file sharing or any resource sharing is
done through internet. Computer networks provide you with more flexible options.
The process of copying files from one computer to another is done using a live
network connection.
2. Reliability: It is also due to sharing of different resources as it provides alternative
sources such as replicated files, multiple CPUs, etc. When one computer breaks
down, you can use other computer available on the network with your replicated
files etc available thereon. Thus, the system continues to operate but at reduced
performance. This could be possible because there is no central computer as in the
case of mainframe. This is very important property for applications of computer
networks in financial services, air traffic control and many other applications.
3. Saving money: Computer networks help in collecting data on either one server or
many servers in the form of file servers in the same network. Thus, a computer
network consisting of many powerful small computers, one per user will be able to
access data collected in file servers. This provides a better price/performance ratio
than mainframes. This model is called the client-server model where the users are
called clients.
Example: Suppose a file is to be shared between employees and their senior head.
So, instead of every employee going to their head by getting their data on
removable media to show the files, the network allows them to share files without
making any effort of moving from their seat. Also networking allows management to

monitor what the employees are doing on their computers, thus reducing wasted
time.
4. Scalability: Use of computer networks facilitates connections of different networks
Notes
at multiple locations to communicate with the computers of other network. This is
accomplished by using phone services and other mode of communication services.
5. Powerful communication medium: Networks make communication among
groups of people easy at remote locations through e-mail, chat, etc. It also
facilitates rapid exchange of information and business data over the company’s
internal network. Use of the computer network and the Internet allows users to
access to data from anywhere in the world.
6. Integration of the business operations: It helps in Integrating the whole business
operation into a networked operation, including sales activity, stock holding,
quotations, ordering raw materials, control the production process, process
invoices, process all the accounts, analyze business performance, quality control,
etc.
1.9.4 Scientific Use: Computer Enhanced Collaborative Work (CECW)

Scientific use of computer networks can be traced back to the beginnings of the Internet
for sharing resources and exchanging data. The Internet, as we know it today, was
created in a laboratory.
In scientific applications, computer networks were useful for sharing data and using
remote computers to carry out large computations. This may include the use of
supercomputers in various locations. Apart from the "outsourcing" of computing power,
the old system of using one powerful computer within a department to carry out large
computations and many small hosts for the creation of reports is very common
application of computer networks. Grid computing is an area in which networked
computers can be used for the parallel processing of large computations using
processors with local memory and shared memory. The distinction between processor
and computer is that a computer is the combination of a processor, memory and
peripheral devices. A processor is an integrated circuit in which the processing takes
place.
Networks for Citizens

Computer network is an important information gathering and transferring tool for
common citizens where interactions between a person and a remote database take
place. They provide access to remote information such as:
 E-governance applications are aimed with the vision of providing citizen services in
an integrated manner. To achieve this mission, the government and private sector
develops citizen centric applications and provides access points in the forms of
Community Information Centers. These services may also be accessed from home.
Some of the applications include land records, agricultural products price, driving
licenses, railway reservations etc.
 Reservations for trains, airplanes, hotels, restaurants, theaters, and so on,
anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
 Networks have made possible online banking and shopping from home or office.
 Proliferation of computer networks is providing on-line and personalized electronic
newspapers, journals, and libraries at your desktop.
 Networks allow us to be mobile because we can access our own computer while
traveling or transfer files to some remote computer.
 Access to WWW (World Wide Web), which contains information about several
topics, has changed the world into global village.

Person-to-person Communication
Notes It involves:
 Exchange of message via emails that may contain text, digitized voice, pictures,
video images, etc.
 Newsgroups covering topics for a particular group.
 Real-time collaborative approaches such as videoconferencing and virtual meeting
environments that allow remote users to communicate with negligible delay with
seeing and hearing each other.
Entertainment
It involves:
 Video on demand allows the user to select any movie or TV program available in
the video library for having it displayed on screen instantly.
 Interactive films where the user has an opportunity to select any scene of his/her
choice to create his/her own film.
 Live and interactive TV enables users to participate in quiz shows, and so on.
 Due to all these benefits and other also, computer networking becomes increasingly
more important.
1.9.5 Complexity in Network Systems

 Viruses can easily attack the system. A system can easily be destroyed through
viruses that appears easily in network systems. It takes much time to remove any
virus, so its very important to keep your systems away from viruses.
 Also a system can be attacked by hackers. They can hack your passwords and may
affect the security of the system.
 Expensive to install: Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software
are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.
 Requires administrative time: Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to
find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
 File server may fail: Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than
any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may
come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary
programs and files.
 Cables may break: The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can
stop the entire network.
1.9.6 Computer Network Concept

The development of computer networks took place in gradual manner and is built in a
highly structured way. They are designed in such a way so that the network architecture
and structure could reduce the design complexity and enable the system designer to
scale up and upgrade the networks.
Network Architecture
Network architecture defines the communications products and services, which ensure
that the various components can work together. In the early days of data
communication systems, the majority of communications were between the DTE and
the host computer. Therefore, transmission control procedures were alone enough as
communication protocols. However, recent computer systems link with other systems to

form a network, resulting in a situation where in different protocols serving different
purposes are required. Hence, the network architecture represents a systemization of
the various kinds of protocols needed to build a network. Notes
Computer manufacturers have developed different protocols as needed. This
means that each type of computer needed to support different protocols. This also
necessitated large development and maintenance costs. All computer manufacturers,
therefore worked together to standardize and systemize protocols to link their models
and thereby reduce the development and maintenance costs. This was how each
manufacturer built own network architecture. Since the concept of the network
architecture was first introduced to connect the computers of the same manufacture, the
process has become easier. However, from user's perspective, the ideal form of
network architecture is one, which enables machines of all manufacturers to connect to
each other. Therefore, the need of standardization of network architecture arose.
Table 1.1: Network Architecture by Vendor
Manufacturer Network Architecture
IBM System Network Architecture (SNA)
DEC Digital Network Architecture (DEC)
Borroughs Borroughs Network Architecture (BNA)
UNIV AC Distributed Communication Architecture (DCA)
Toshiba Advanced Network System Architecture (ANSA)
NEC Distributed Information Processing Architecture (DINA)
Honeywell Distributed System Environment (DSE)
Following are the ways to achieve connection between different manufacturers:

1. Protocol Converters: These are devices that translate from one native protocol
into another, for example, from ASCII to IBM SNA/SDLC
2. Gateways: These are hardware/software combinations that connect devices
running different native protocols. In addition to protocol conversion, gateways
provide a gateway connection between incompatible networks. Examples include
Ethernet-to-Token Ring gateways, X.25-to-Frame Relay gateways, and T-carrier-to-
E-Carrier International Gateway Facilities (IGFs).
3. In addition to the above, Protocol Analyzers are available as diagnostic tools for
displaying and analyzing communications protocols. Analyzers allow technicians,
engineers and managers to test the performance of the network to ensure that the
systems and the network are functioning according to specifications. LAN
managers, for instance, use protocol analyzers to perform network maintenance
and troubleshooting and to plan network upgrades and expansions.
OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was set up as an international standard for
network architecture. OSI Reference Model developed by the International standard
organization deals with connecting open systems. Open systems are open for
communication with other systems. The OSI model contains seven layers. A detailed
discussion of the network architecture has been provided under the topic network
software in this Unit only. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) took
the initiative in setting up OSI. OSI has two meanings. It refers to the protocols that are
authorized by ISO.
OSI Basic Reference Model

OSI reference model divides the required functions of the network architecture into
several layers and defines the function of each layer. Layering the communications
process means breaking it down the communication process into smaller and easier to
handle interdependent categories, with each solving an important and somehow distinct

aspect of the data exchange process. The objective of this detail is to develop an
understanding of the complexity and sophistication that this technology has achieved, in
Notes addition to developing the concept for the inner workings of the various components
that contribute to the data communications process.
1.10 Data Communication

Data Communication is defined as a process of exchanging information or data. In
computer networks, this exchange is exercised among two devices over a transmission
medium. This process includes a communication system which consists of hardware as
well as software. The hardware part includes the sender devices, receiver devices, and
the intermediate devices through which the data passes. The software part includes
certain rules which define what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated
and when.
1.11 Communication Model

The communication model consists of five sub systems: user, transmitter,
communication channel, receiver and destiny. You can see the block diagram of a
typical communication model in figure 1.2(a). The five sub systems are discussed
below.
 User: There will be a source that produces the message and a transducer that
transforms the message into an electrical signal. The source can be considered as
an individual in front of a microphone or a computer itself sending a file. The user
terminal is called DTE (data terminal equipment).
 Transmitter: It can be a radio frequency modulator which combines the signal
coming out of the DTE. You can consider radio frequency as the carrier for the data
signal. Or in case of direct digital transmission, you can consider transmitter as the
Manchester encoder transmitting digital signals directly.
 Communication channel: Communication channel can be guided media or
unguided media. Communication, in both the cases, is in the form of
electromagnetic waves. By means of guided media, the electromagnetic waves are
guided along a physical path. With unguided media, the transmitting
electromagnetic waves are not guided along with a physical path. They are
released through vacuum/air/water., etc.
 Receiver: The receiver is used to amplify the received signals. It removes any
unwanted signals (such as noise) introduced by the communication channel during
the signal propagation and feeds to the destiny.
 Destiny: Finally, the user at the other end receives the message via the data
terminal equipment (DTE) positioned at the other side.
Figure 1.2: (a) Block Diagram of a Data Communication Model

(b) A Typical Dial-up Network
Example
You can see a typical dial-up network setup in figure 1.2(b). The data communication Notes
equipment (DCE) which is positioned at the transmitting end transforms the digital
signals into modulation (audio tones so that the voice grade telephone lines can be
utilised as guided media throughout transmission. At the other end, the receiving audio
tones are converted back to digital signals (Demodulation). This is done by means of
data communication equipment (DCE) positioned at the other end. Finally, these digital
signals are fed to the far end DTE (data terminal equipment).
Now, you will understand the concept of data communications and networking.
1.11.1 Data Communications

A data communication system is a computer system that collects data from remote
locations through data transmission circuits, and then outputs processing results to
remote locations. The different data communication techniques, which are in
widespread use today evolved gradually either to improve the data communication
techniques already existing or to replace the same with better options and features.
Hence, it becomes necessary to review and understand the gradual development of
data communication methods.
Human beings have evolved through communication with other human beings.
They invented spoken and written language as a means of communication, as well as
the telegraph, telephone, radio, and television to conquer time and distance. As we act
in broader areas, supported by these technologies and other transport facilities, we
handle greater amounts of information in increasingly varied forms.
However, human beings can handle just a limited amount of information. A system
is therefore required to collect, store and process information for us. Such a system is a
computer. In addition to this, computer systems along with data transmission circuits
enhance its capability for data communication. In this process they can collect data from
remote locations and output processing results to remote locations. This system is
known as data communication.
A data communication system consists of data terminal equipment, a data
communication circuit, and an information-processing unit. A data communication circuit
transmits information input from the data terminal equipment to the remote information-
processing unit or transmits processing results to the data terminal equipment. The
information-processing unit processes the data. You can see this in Figure 1.3.
HOST SYSTEM
DTE
DCE DCE
(3) (1) (3) CC CPU
P
(4) (2) (2)
(5)
Transmission Control
Data Processing
Figure 1.3: Data Communication Systems

In data communication system, data is transmitted from terminals to the information-
processing unit through data communication circuits. Following are the two types of
data transmission methods that are used to carry data from its origin to the information-
processing unit.

 Offline: Computers are not connected by communication circuits. Data is
transmitted between a terminal and information-processing unit through a magnetic
Notes tape and magnetic disk packs.
 Online: Computers are connected by communication circuits. Data can be instantly
transmitted between a terminal and information-processing unit.
Communications can be classified in two categories- analog and digital. These are
discussed as below:
Analog
In the analog form of electronic communications, information is represented as a
continuous electromagnetic wave form. Analog is best explained by the transmission
signal such as sound or human speech, over an electrified copper wire.
Example: A good example of an analog signal is the loud-speaker of a stereo
system. When the volume is turned up, the sound increases slowly and constantly.
In its native form, human speech is an oscillatory disturbance in the air as shown in
Figure 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6, which varies in terms of its volume, or power (amplitude), and
its pitch or tone (frequency). Analogous variations in electrical or radio waves are
created in order to transmit the analog information signal for video or audio or both over
a network from a transmitter (TV station or CATV source) to a receiver (TV set,
computer connected with antenna). At the receiving end an approximation (analog) of
the original information is presented.
y
Figure 1.4: Waveform in the form of Sine Wave

y
Amplitude t
Figure 1.5: Amplitude
Figure 1.6: Frequency Representation

Information which is analog in its native form (audio and image) can vary
continuously in terms of intensity (volume or brightness) and frequency (tone or colour).
Those variations in the native information stream are translated in an analog electrical Notes
network into variations in the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal.
Notes: The carrier signal is modulated (varied) in order to create an analog of the
original information stream.
The electromagnetic sinusoidal wave form, or sine wave as shown in Figure 1.4,
can be varied in amplitude at a fixed frequency, using Amplitude Modulation (AM).
Alternatively, the frequency of the sine wave can be varied at constant amplitude, using
Frequency Modulation (FM). Additionally, both frequency and amplitude can be
modulated simultaneously.
 Voice: A voice grade channel is approximately 4,000 Hz, or 4 kHz. Approximately
3.3 kHz (200 Hz to 3,500 Hz) is used for the voice signal itself. The remaining
bandwidth is used for the purposes of network signalling and control in order to
maintain separation between information channels. While human speech
transmission and reception encompasses a much wider range of frequencies, 3.3
kHz is considered to be quite satisfactory and is cost-effective.
 Video: A CATV video channel is approximately 6 MHz. Approximately 4.5 MHz is
used for information transmission, while the balance is used for guard bands to
separate the various adjacent channels using the common, analog coaxial cable
system.
Advantages of Analog transmission are discussed below:

Analog transmission offers advantages in the transmission of analog information.
Additionally, it is more bandwidth-conservative and is widely available.
 Cost-effective: Analog has an inherent advantage as voice; image and video are
analog in nature. Therefore, the process of transmission of such information is
relatively straightforward in an analog format, whereas conversion to a digital bit
stream requires conversion equipment. Such equipment increases cost, is
susceptible to failure, and can negatively affect the quality of the signal through the
conversion process, itself.
 Bandwidth: A raw information stream consumes less bandwidth in analog form
than in digital form. This is particularly evident in CATV transmission, where 50 or
more analog channels routinely are provided over a single coaxial cable system.
 Presence: Finally, analog transmission systems are already in place, world-wide.
The interconnection of those systems is very common and all standards are well
established. As the majority of network traffic is voice and as the vast majority of
voice terminals are analog devices, therefore, voice communications largely depend
on analog networks. Conversion to digital networks would require expensive,
wholesale conversion of such terminal equipment.
Digital
Computers are digital in nature. Computers process, store, and communicate
information in binary form i.e. in the combination of 1s and 0s which has specific
meaning in computer language. A binary digit (bit) is an individual 1 or 0. Multiple bit
streams are used in a computer network.
Contemporary computer systems communicate in binary mode through variations in
electrical voltage. Digital signalling, in an electrical network, involves a signal which
varies in voltage to represent one of two discrete and well-defined states as depicted in
Figure 1.7 such as either a positive (+) voltage and a null or zero (0), voltage (unipolar)
or a positive (+) or a negative (-) voltage (bipolar).

1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Notes +5 1 0 0 0
V
-5V
Figure 1.7: Binary Representation Forming Digital Signal
Example
Modern electronic products like computers and mobile phones rely on digital signals.
However, Morse Code is a good example of a digital signal. The signal is sent as a
series of ‘on’ and ‘off’ pulses. The signal is either present or it is not. Morse code was
introduced in 1837 by Samuel Morse, as a method of communication.
Although analog voice and video can be converted into digital, and digital data can
be converted to analog, even then each format has its own advantages.
Advantages of Digital transmission are discussed below:
 Digital Data: Digital transmission certainly has the advantage where binary
computer data is being transmitted. The equipment requires converting digital data
to an analog format and sending the digital bit streams over an analog network can
be expensive, susceptible to failure, and can create errors in the information.
 Compression: Digital data can be compressed relatively easily, thereby increasing
the efficiency of transmission. As a result, substantial volumes of voice, data, video
and image information can be transmitted using relatively little raw bandwidth.
 Security: Digital systems offer better security. While analog systems offer some
measure of security through the scrambling, or intertwining of several frequencies,
scrambling is fairly simple to defeat. Digital information, on the other hand, can be
encrypted to create the appearance of a single, pseudo-random bit stream.
Thereby, the true meaning of individual bits, sets of bits, or the total bit stream
cannot be determined without having the key to unlock the encryption algorithm
employed.
 Quality: Digital transmission offers improved error performance (quality) as
compared to analog. This is due to the devices that boost the signal at periodic
intervals in the transmission system in order to overcome the effects of attenuation.
Additionally, digital networks deal more effectively with noise, which always is
present in transmission networks.
 Cost: The cost of the computer components required in digital conversion and
transmission has dropped considerably, while the ruggedness and reliability of
those components has increased over the years.
 Upgradability: Since digital networks are comprised of computer (digital)
components, they are relatively easy to upgrade. Such upgrades can increase
bandwidth, improve error performance, and enhance functionality. Some upgrades
can be effected remotely over a network, eliminating the need to dispatch
expensive technicians for that purpose.
 Management: Generally speaking digital networks can be managed much more
easily and effectively due to the fact that such networks consist of computerized
components. Such components can sense their own level of performance, isolate
and diagnose failures, initiate alarms, respond to queries, and respond to
commands to correct any failure. Further, the cost of so enabling these components
continues to drop.
1.12 Network Examples

Types of networks in operation:
 Public networks run by common carriers or PTTs.

 Research networks.
 Cooperative networks run by their users.
Notes
 Commercial or corporate networks.
Networks differ in the following aspects:
 History and administration – from well-planed and defined networks to ad hoc
collection of machines connected together over the years.
 Facilities – from arbitrary process-to-process communication to email, file transfer,
remote login and remote execution.
 Technical designs – transmission media, the naming and routing algorithms, the
number and contents of the layers and protocols.
 User community – from a single corporation to all the academic computer
scientists in the industrialized world.
We have discussed below some Computer Network Examples that will make you
understand the network concept in a much better manner.
1. The most common example of computer networks is "Internet" that is being used by
people in a wider way. It is defined as a network of computers across the world. In
today’s world, there is no need to have a conference room to attend a particular
meeting. Every participant can attend the meeting through video conferencing just
by sitting at their place in front of their desktop. Every file and folder or any kind of
presentation can be shared easily without any need to upload them.
2. Another example would be a building lan. Let us consider an office building. Here all
the computer systems are connected to each other through LAN and they can be
shared easily such as they could have a common printer that can be used by every
user.
Some other networking packages are discussed below:
1.12.1 Novell NetWare

It is the most popular commercial LAN networking package in the PC world.
IPX is an unreliable connectionless internetwork protocol, similar to IP, except that it
uses 12-byte addresses instead of 4-byte addresses.
NCP (Network Core Protocol) is a connection-oriented transport protocol, plus
various other services besides user data transport.
SPX and TCP are other options for providing transport only.
The client-server binding process:
1. About once a minute, each server broadcasts a packet giving its address and telling
what services it offer, using the SAP (Service Advertising Protocol).
2. The packets are seen and collected by special agent processes running on the
router machines. The agents use the information contained in them to construct
databases of which servers are running where.
3. When a client machine is booted, it broadcasts a request asking where the nearest
server is.
4. The agent on the local router machine sees this request, looks its database of
servers, and matches up the request with the best server. The choice of server to
use is then sent back to the client.
5. The client establishes an NCP connection with the server.
6. The client and server negotiate the maximum packet size.
7. From this point on, the client can access this service using this connection.

1.12.2 ARPANET
Notes It is the creation of ARPA (later DARPA, now ARPA), the (periodically Defense)
Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense.
Much of our present knowledge about networking is a direct result of the ARPANET
project.
ARPANET technologies:
1. IMP (Interface Message Processor): Originally Honeywell DDP-316 mini. with 12K
16-bit words memory. Replaced several times by more powerful machines.
Some IMPs allow direct terminal connection. They were called TIPs (Terminal
Interface Processors).
IMPs were connected by 56 kbps or 230.4 kbps leased lines. Each IMP could
originally handle only one to four hosts, and subsequently tens of hosts and
hundreds of terminals simultaneously.
2. Protocols: ARPANET did not follow the OSI model at all (it predates OSI by more
than a decade).
The first experimental system consisted of four nodes (Dec. 1969).
The TCP/IP model and protocols were specifically designed to handle the
interconnection of the vast number of WANs and LANs comprising the ARPA
internet.
TCP/IP protocols were then integrated in Berkeley UNIX by a convenient program
interface to the network (sockets), which makes TCP/IP very widespread.
To facilitate finding hosts in the ARPANET, DNS (Domain Naming System) was
created to organize machines into domains and map host names onto IP
addresses.
By 1990, the ARPANET had been overtaken by newer networks that it itself had
spawned, so it was shut down and dismantled.
1.12.3 NSFNET
By the late 1970s, the NSF (National Science Foundation, USA) set up CSNET to
provide networking facilities to the computer science community in USA as a whole
(particularly those without access to ARPANET).
CSNET was centered around a single machine (CSNET-RELAY) at BBN that
supports dial-up lines (PHONENET) and had connections to the ARPANET and other
networks (e.g., X.25, CYPRESS).
Its major services include – emails, file transfer and remote login.
By 1984, NSF began designing a high-speed network, called NSFNET, that would
be open to all university research groups.
NSFNET consists of a backbone network connecting six supercomputer centers,
and about 20 regional networks. Backbone speeds: 56 kbps, 448 kbps, 1.5 Mbps, 45
Mbps (ANSNET).
1.13 Summary
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites or infrared light beams. The primary purpose of a computer network is
to share resources. The main goal of networking is Resource sharing. A second goal
is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. Another goal is
saving money. Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as
the work load increases by just adding more processors. With central mainframes,
when the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense
and with even greater disruption to the users. Computer networks provide a powerful
communication medium. There are two important dimensions for classifying networks Notes
— transmission technology and scale.
Broadcast networks: These networks have a single communication channel
shared by all the machines on the network. Point-to-point networks consist of many
connections between individual pairs of machines. Multiple routes and intermediate
machines may exist between a pair of machines; so routing algorithms play an
important role here.
A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just Internet.
The Internet refers to a specific worldwide Internet that is widely used to connect
universities, government offices, companies and private individuals. A network topology
is the basic design of a computer network. It details how key network components such
as nodes and links are interconnected. There are three primary types of network
topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the Network cabling. They
are star, ring and bus topology.
1.14 Check Your Progress

Multiple Choice Questions
1. When collection of various computers seems a single coherent system to its client,
then it is called
(a) Computer network
(b) Distributed system
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the mentioned
2. Two devices are in network if
(a) A process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in
another device
(b) A process is running on both devices
(c) PIDs of the processes running of different devices are same
4. In computer network nodes are
(a) The computer that originates the data
(b) The computer that routes the data
(c) The computer that terminates the data
(d) All of the mentioned
5. Communication channel is shared by all the machines on the network in
(a) Broadcast network
(b) Unicast network
(c) Multicast network
6. Bluetooth is an example of
(a) Personal area network
(b) Local area network
(c) Virtual private network

7. Which one of the following extends a private network across public networks?
(a) Local area network
Notes
(b) Virtual private network
(c) Enterprise private network
(d) Storage area network
8. Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves ………………
transmission
(a) Automatic
(b) Half-duplex
(c) Full-duplex
(d) Simplex
9. The first Network
(a) CNNET
(b) NSFNET
(c) ASAPNET
(d) ARPANET
10. The ……………… is the physical path over which a message travels
(a) Ppath
(b) Medium
(c) Protocol
(d) Route
1.15 Questions and Exercises

1. What are Broadcast networks? Discuss.
2. Explain the concept of analog and digital form of electronic communications.
3. Classify computer networks on the basis of Transmission technology.
4. What are the various types of network?
5. Write difference between LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN.
6. What is computer network?
7. Why computer network is needed.
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of computer network.
1.16 Key Terms

 Binary Digit: A binary digit (bit) is an individual 1 or 0.
 Digital Signaling: Digital signaling, in an electrical network, involves a signal which
varies in voltage to represent one of two discrete and well-defined states
 Analog: In the analog form of electronic communications, information is
represented as a continuous electromagnetic wave form.
 Data Communication: Data Communication is defined as a process of exchanging
information or data.
 Broadcast Networks: These networks have a single communication channel
shared by all the machines on the network.
Check Your Progress: Answers

1. (b) Distributed system

2. (a) A process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in
another device
3. (a) The computer that originates the data
Notes
4. (a) Broadcast network
5. (a) Personal area network
6. (b) Virtual private network
7. (b) Medium
8. (d) ARPANET
9. (d) Simplex
10. (b) Medium
1.17 Further Readings

 Sanjay Sharma, Communication system; analog and digital, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
2012
 Sanjay Sharma, Digital communication, S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2010
 Anurag Kumar, D. Manjunath, Joy Kuri, Communication Networking: An Analytical
Approach, Academic Press,Copyright, 2004
nd
 Prakash C. Gupta, Data Communications And Computer Networks, 2 edition, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Copyright, 2014.
 By V.S.Bagad, I.A.Dhotre, Computer Networks – II, Technical Publications,
Copyright, 2009

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Introduction to Computer Networks 1

Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Networks

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1.2 History of Computer Networks

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1987: 1000th RFC and 10,000th host.

1998: 3,000,000th Domain name registered. US Postal authorities allow purchase

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1.3 Defining Network

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Figure 1.1: Computer Network

Advantages of Computer Network

Disadvantages of Computer Network

1.4 Characteristics of Computer Network

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1.5 Properties of Computer Network

1.6 Networking Goals

1.7 Why Computer Network Needed?

1.8.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

Allocation of the shared channel:

1.8.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

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A MAN standard - DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) IEEE 802.6.

1.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

1.8.4 Wireless Networks

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1.9.1 Network for Companies

1.9.2 Networks for People

Access to Remote Information

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1.9.3 Business Use

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1.9.4 Scientific Use: Computer Enhanced Collaborative Work (CECW)

Networks for Citizens

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1.9.5 Complexity in Network Systems

1.9.6 Computer Network Concept

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Following are the ways to achieve connection between different manufacturers:

OSI Basic Reference Model

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1.10 Data Communication

1.11 Communication Model

Figure 1.2: (a) Block Diagram of a Data Communication Model

1.11.1 Data Communications

Figure 1.3: Data Communication Systems

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Figure 1.4: Waveform in the form of Sine Wave

Figure 1.5: Amplitude

Figure 1.6: Frequency Representation

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Advantages of Analog transmission are discussed below:

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Figure 1.7: Binary Representation Forming Digital Signal

1.12 Network Examples

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1.12.1 Novell NetWare

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1.14 Check Your Progress

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1.15 Questions and Exercises

1.16 Key Terms

Check Your Progress: Answers