MESINA, MYSTICA LOFIA M.

CE-V

The Difference between Working Stress Design and Ultimate Stress Design method of Reinforced
Concrete Are ,,
USD(Ultimate Stress Design) Method WSD(Working Stress Design) Method

Its primarily based on strength concept of Its based on the linear theory or elastic
Concrete theory .

Its Consider to Design Critical Combination

of load Its Consider to Design carrying load

Its Designing to elastic behavior of materials Its Designing to plastic behavior of

. materials

Materials strength to be used for member

Design . Modular Ratio used for member Design

Stability of Structure is more then WSD Stability of Structure is less then USD

Low Cost Design Method High Cost Design Method

TYPES OF CEMENT
What is an Aggregate?
Aggregates are the important constituents of the concrete which give body to the concrete and also
reduce shrinkage. Aggregates occupy 70 to 80 % of total volume of concrete. So, we can say that one
should know definitely about the aggregates in depth to study more about concrete.
Classification of Aggregates as per Size and Shape
Aggregates are classified based on so many considerations, but here we are going to discuss about their
shape and size classifications in detail.
Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape
We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc., so, it is
difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect the workability of
concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This care is not only applicable to parent
rock but also to the crushing machine used.
Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types
Rounded aggregates
Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
Angular aggregates
Flaky aggregates
Elongated aggregates
Flaky and elongated aggregates
Rounded Aggregate
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore gravel.
Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives more workability.
They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for high strength concrete
because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.
Irregular Aggregates
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available in the
form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will give lesser
workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly higher than rounded
aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.

Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar surfaces
and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum percentage of voids
(38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more compressive strength due to development
of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.

Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it is said
to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than the 60% of its
mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

Elongated Aggregates
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated
aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.

Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it is said to
be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable for concrete mixing.
These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.

Classification of Aggregates Based on Size

Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be related to the mix
proportions, type of work etc. the size distribution of aggregates is called grading of aggregates.
Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:

Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size

Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Fine Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as fine
aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come under this
category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of the fine
aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.
Fine aggregate Size variation

Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm

Medium sand 0.5mm – 0.25mm

Fine sand 0.25mm – 0.06mm

 Silt 0.06mm – 0.002mm

Clay <0.002

Coarse Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse aggregate.
Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size aggregate used may be
dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal strengths and 20mm
size is used for high strength concrete. the size range of various coarse aggregates given below.
Coarse aggregate Size

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm

Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm

Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm

Cobbles 64mm – 256mm

Boulders >256mm

Effect of Usage of Admixture in Concrete

Mr. Hasan Rizvi, Asst. General Manager–Business Development, CICO Technologies Limited, New Delhi

Concrete consists of cement, sand, aggregate and water. Anything other than these if added in concrete
either before or during mixing to alter the properties to our desired requirement are termed as admixtures.
The use of admixtures offers certain beneficial effects to concrete like improved workability, acceleration
or retardation of setting time, reduce water cement ratio, and so on.

There are two basic types of admixtures available: chemical & mineral. Admixtures like flyash, silicate
fume, slag comes in the category of mineral admixtures. They are added to concrete to enhance the
workability, improve resistance to thermal cracking and alkali–aggregate reaction and to enable reduction
in cement content.

Flyash is fine residue left after combustion of ground or powdered coal. They are all generally finer than
cement and consist mainly of glassy–spherical particles as well as residues of hematite and magnetite,
char and some crystalline phases formed during cooling. The use of flyash in concrete makes the mix
economical, and improves the workability, reduces segregation, bleeding and reduced heat of hydration
but also provides ecological benefits.

Silica fume, which is also known as microsilica. It is obtained as a byproduct during the production of
silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. The particle size of silica fume is 100 times smaller than cement particles
i.e. its fine as cigarette smoke. Its a highly effective pozzolanic material, which improves the properties of
concrete such as improved compressive strength, bond strength, abrasion resistance, dense concrete
that results in protection of reinforcement against corrosion.

Chemical admixtures are added to concrete in very small amounts mainly for air entrainment, reduction of
water or cement content, plasticizing of fresh concrete mixtures or to control the setting time of concrete.
These admixtures can be broadly catagorised as superplasticizers, accelerators, retarders, water
reducers and air entraining admixtures.

Superplasticizers are added to reduce the water requirement by 15 to 20% without affecting the
workability leading to a high strength and dense concrete. Superplasticizers are liner polymers containing
sulfonic acid groups attached to the polymer at regular intervals. The commercial formulation can be
sulfonated melamine–formaldehyde conden- sates, sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates,
and modified lignosulfonates, polycar- boxylate derivatives. The main purpose of superplasticizers is to
produce a flowing concrete with very high slump 175 to 200 mm which can be used effectively in densely
reinforced structures, the increased slump of concrete depends upon dosage, type & time of super–
plasticizers (it's better to add it before concrete is placed.), water cement ratio, nature and amount of
cement.

Accelerators are added to reduce the setting time of concrete thus helping early removal of forms and are
also used in cold weather concreting. Calcium chloride is the most commonly used accelerator for
concreting. The use of calcium chloride in reinforced concrete can promote corrosion activity of steel
reinforcement. As people are getting aware so there is a growing interest in using chloride free
accelerator.

Retarders are added to increase the setting time by slowing down the hydration of cement. They are
preferred in places of high temperature concreting. Retarders consist of organic & inorganic agents.
Organic retarders include unrefined calcium, sodium & ammonia salts lignosulfonic acids, hydrocarboxylic
acids & carbohydrates. Inorganic retardants include oxides of lead, zinc, phosphate and magnesium salts.
Most retarders also act as water reducers. They are called water-reducing retarders. Thus resulting in
greater compressive strength due to low water cement ratio.

Water reducing admixtures are added to concrete to achieve certain workability (slump) at low water
cement ratio. A concrete with specified strength at lower cement content thus saving on the cement.
Water reducers are mostly used in hot weather concreting and to aid pumping. Water reducer plasticizers
are hygroscopic powder, which can entrain air into concrete.

Air entraining admixtures entrain small air bubbles in concrete. These air bubbles act as rollers thus
improving the workability and are also very effective in freeze-thaw cycles as they provide a cushioning
effect on the expanding water in the concreting in cold climate.

Air entraining admixtures are compatible with most admixtures, care should be taken to prevent them
from coming in contact during mixing.

Generally, the effectiveness of both the types of plasticisers are dependent on the ambient temperature
condition and thus in summer the amount of plasticiser to be used to cater for the same degree of
increase in plasticity can be more than the quantity to be used in winter.

Change in normal setting time within some fixed requirement also makes the production dependent on
others chemicals and as such plasticisers with different nomenclatures are available in the market.

CICO Technologies Limited, an Indian ISO 9001: 2000 Company with 75 years backing produces a range
of plasticising admixtures for concrete.
A number of RMC companies are using CICO admixtures. some modifications are required at the time of
trials. modification in the Plasticisers can fulfill the requirements of any particular client.

Conclusion

It can be seen that proper use of admixtures offers certain beneficial effects to concrete including
improved quality, acceleration or retardation of setting time, enhanced frost & sulphate resistance
improves workability.

Water in Concrete

KIM BASHAM, PHD PE FACI

APRIL 23, 2014

Water content is the single most important factor affecting workability or the ease of mixing and
placing concrete.

The amount of water in concrete controls many fresh and hardened properties in concrete including
workability, compressive strengths, permeability and watertightness, durability and weathering, drying
shrinkage and potential for cracking. For these reasons, limiting and controlling the amount of water in
concrete is important for both constructability and service life.

Water-cementitious materials ratio

The ratio of the amount of water, minus the amount of water absorbed by the aggregates, to the amount
of cementitious materials by weight in concrete is called the water-cementitious ratio and commonly
referred to as the w/cm ratio. The w/cm ratio is a modification of the historical water-cement ratio (w/c
ratio) that was used to describe the amount of water, excluding what was absorbed by the aggregates, to
the amount of the portland cement by weight in concrete. Because most concretes today contain
supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, slag cement, silica fume, or natural pozzolans, the
w/cm ratio is more appropriate. To avoid confusion between the w/cm and w/c ratios, use the w/cm
ratio for concretes with and without supplementary cementitious materials. The w/cm ratio equation is:
w/cm ratio = (weight of water – weight of water absorbed in the aggregates) divided by the weight of
cementitious materials.

Upon hardening, the paste or glue consisting of the cementitious materials and water binds the
aggregates together. Hardening occurs because of the chemical reaction, called hydration, between the
cementitious materials and water. Obviously, increasing the w/cm ratio or the amount of water in the
paste dilutes or weakens the hardened paste and decreases the strength of the concrete. As shown
Figure 1, concrete compressive strength increases as w/cm ratio decreases for both non-air-entrained
and air-entrained concrete.

Decreasing the w/cm ratio also improves other hardened concrete properties by increasing the density
of the paste which lowers the permeability and increases watertightness, improves durability and
resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, winter scaling and chemical attack.
In general, less water produces better concrete. However, concrete needs enough water to lubricate and
provide a workable mixture that can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished without problems.

Code requirements
Because w/cm ratio controls both strength and durability, building codes have set upper limits or
maximum w/cm ratios and corresponding minimum compressive strengths as shown in Table 1. For
example, concrete exposed to freezing and thawing in a moist condition or to deicing chemicals shall
have a maximum 0.45 w/cm ratio and a minimum 4,500 psi compressive strength to ensure durability.
Designers select maximum w/cm ratios and minimum strengths primarily based on exposure conditions
and durability concerns — not load-carrying capacity requirements. For different exposure conditions,
use the code required maximum w/cm ratios and minimum strengths to reduce the permeability of the
concrete. Doing so will increase the concrete’s resistance to weathering.

Water content and drying shrinkage

The most important factor affecting the amount of drying shrinkage and the subsequent potential for
cracking is the water content or the amount of water per cubic yard of concrete. Fundamentally,
concrete shrinkage increases with higher water contents. About half of the water in concrete is
consumed in the chemical reaction of hydration and the other half provides the concrete’s workability.
Except for the water lost to bleeding and absorbed by the base material or forms, the remaining water
that is not consumed by the hydration process contributes to drying shrinkage. By keeping the water
content as low as possible, drying shrinkage and the potential for cracking can be minimized.

Workability
The ease of mixing, placing, consolidating and finishing concrete is called workability. The water content
of the mixture is the single most important factor that affects workability. Other important factors that
affect workability include: mix proportions, characteristics of the coarse and fine aggregates, quantity
and characteristics of the cementitious materials, entrained air, admixtures, slump (consistency), time,
air and concrete temperatures. Adding more water to the concrete increases workability but more water
also increases the potential for segregation (settling of coarse aggregate particles), increased bleeding,
drying shrinkage and cracking in addition to decreasing the strength and durability.

Adding water onsite

If measured slumps are less than allowed by the specifications, slumps may be adjusted by a one-time
addition of water. However, there are requirements associated with adding water onsite:

 Do not exceed the maximum water content for the batch as established by the accepted
concrete mixture proportions.

 No concrete has been discharged from the mixer except for slump testing.

 All water additions shall be completed within 15 minutes from the start of the first water
addition.

 Water shall be injected into the mixer with such pressure and direction of flow to allow for
proper distribution within the mixer.
  The drum shall be turned an additional 30 revolutions or more at mixing speed to ensure a
homogenous mixture.

Before adding water onsite, the allowable amount of water that can be added must be known. This
amount should be printed on the delivery ticket or be determined during the pre-construction meeting
and be agreed upon by all parties.

Water is a key component in concrete. However, too much water can be detrimental to both the fresh
and hardened concrete properties, especially strength, long term durability and potential for cracking.
On your next job, be sure to know the water requirements for the concrete mixtures being used,
especially the allowable water that can be added for slump adjustments.

References
Kosmatka, S. H., and Wilson, M.L., Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 15th edition, Portland
Cement Association (PCA), www.concrete.org

Reducing Water Will …

o Increase compressive and flexural strengths

o Lower permeability and increase watertightness

o Increase durability and resistance to weathering including chemical attack and freezing-thawing
cycles including surface scaling

o Reduce concrete drying shrinkage and potential for cracking

Table 1. Strength versus W/CM Ratio (Ref.1)

W/CM Ratio
Compressive
Strength
(28 days, psi) Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
Concrete Concrete

7,000 0.33 -

6,000 0.41 0.32

 5,000 0.48 0.40

4,000 0.57 0.48

3,000 0.68 0.59

2,000 0.82 0.74

Table 2. Max. W/CM Ratio and Min. Strength Requirements1

Max. Min.
Exposure Condition
w/cm Strength (psi)

Concrete intended to have low permeability when exposed to

0.50 4,000
water
Concrete exposed to freezing & thawing in a moist condition or to
0.45 4,500
dicing chemicals
For corrosion protection of reinforcement in concrete exposed to
chlorides from de-icing chemicals, salt, salt water, brackish water, 0.40 5,000
seawater or spray from these sources

1
Adapted from ACI 318-11 Structural Concrete Building Code, www.concrete.org

Courtesy - Pixabay
Also Read:
Material Buying Guide for Steel Bars

Types of Steel Rebars:

There are two types of steel bars available in the market:

 Plain Steel bars – Mild steel and Medium tensile steel bars

 Deformed bars (Irregular Surface) – High Strength Deformed (HSD) bars

01. Plain Steel Bars:
It Should conform to IS 432 Part I specifications in India. These steel rebars are plain in surface and
round sections. Easy to cut and bend.
Mild Steel Bar Grades (as per IS: 432, part – I – 1982)

Mild Steel Bars Medium Tensile Steel Bars

Grades

Grade I designated as Fe 410-S or Grade Fe-540-w-ht or Grade 75

60

Grade II designated as Fe 410-O or Grade

40
02. Deformed Steel Bars:
Should conform to IS 1786 specifications. These are HYSD (High Yield Strength Deformed bars) bars
having lugs, ribs or deformation on their surface, reducing slippage in concrete and increasing the
bonding between concrete and steel. Deformed Steel bars have better properties than plain steel bars.
Ribbed or Tor Steel Bars TMT Bars

About

Cold twisted deformed bar Thermo Mechanically Treated bars

Cold treated bar Hot treated bar

The bars are twisted single or double i.e. two bars
twisted together spirally against each other.
The stresses developed during twisting, increases
the yield stress of bars.
Here, hot bars coming out of last
rolling mill stand are rapidly quenched by a
special water spray system, there by cooling
and hardening outer surface. The inner core
is allowed to cool naturally, forming a
composite material of ductile inner core and
tough outer surface

Rapid cooling of surface provides

unique combination of strength and ductility

Popular Grades of High Strength Steel Bars worldwide both Tor and TMT are listed below:
Popular Grades

American Standard Euro Standard British Standard

Indian Standard (IS: 1786)
(ASTM A 615) (DIN 488) BS4449: 1997
 Grade Fe – 415, Fe – 500, Fe –
Grade 75 (520) BST 500 S GR 460 A
500D

Grade 80 (550) BST 500 M GR 460 B Grade Fe – 550

In Fe – 500D, D stands for Ductility. These bars are more ductile than Fe – 500.
Size of Steel Rebars:
Rebars are supplied in U-bent or straight rods of 40ft in length.

Size Weight per Bundle Rods per Bundle

8 mm 1 Bundle 47.41 kg 10

10 mm 1 Bundle 51.85 kg 7

12 mm 1 Bundle 53.33 kg 5

16 mm 1 Bundle 56.89 kg 3

20 mm 1 Bundle 59.26 kg 2

25 mm 1 Bundle 46.30 kg 1

32 mm 1 Bundle 75.85 kg 1
 Weight Tolerance: As per IS: 1786-2008
8mm to 10mm ± 7%

12mm to 16mm ± 5%

20mm ± 3%
For E.g: 8mm bundle may vary from 44.09 to 50.73 kgs and still be safe
 Standard rod length: 12 meters (40 ft)

 Weight of 1 rod = {(Dia x Dia)/162} x 12 (in kg)

Dia = Diameter in mm
Most commonly used rebar these days is TMT bar. TMT process changes the structure of material to a
composite structure with tough surface rim and soft (ductile here) core providing an optimum combination
of high strength, ductility and bendability.
TMT saves steel consumption as well as cost. If a structure has 1000 tons of M.S reinforcement than
using TMT bars reduces the steel consumption to 400 tons saving 600 tons of steel with no compromise
in the strength of structure. Reduction in steel reduces the considerable cost of structure.