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T6497 KERINCI
PG I14314 Training
Caution
Note
This manual is part of the plant documentation.
Please refer to the document "Editorial
Recommendations" for information about the
handling of the various types of publications.
Work on machines and plant components may
be performed only by properly trained
personnel!
The reproduction, transmission or use of this document or its We have checked the contents of this manual for agreement
contents is not permitted without express written authority. with the hardware and software described. However,
Offenders will be liable for damages. deviations cannot be precluded entirely. Therefore we cannot
All rights, including rights created by patent grant or accept any guarantee for complete agreement. The data in
registration of a utility model or design, are reserved. this manual are reviewed regularly and any necessary
corrections included in subsequent editions.
Suggestions for improvement are welcome.
Table of contents
1 User notes 5
3 Emergency shutdown 27
4 Monitoring of operation 28
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Table of content Operation
1 Instructions for operation of the condenser
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Operation User notes
Instructions for operation of the condenser
1
1 User notes
Operating principle
The cooling water velocity and the properties of the cooling water are two
major factors that can have an effect on this.
The more aggressive the cooling water, the more closely new condenser
tubes have to be treated and checked in the first few months of operation,
during which the protective coating is formed. This so-called "protective
oxidation film forming process" should be run continuously for around two (2)
months where possible using the cooling water that will also be used for later
operation. The protective oxidation film forming process should, if at all
possible, be scheduled so as to avoid any interruptions during
commissioning of the overall unit.
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User notes Operation
1 Instructions for operation of the condenser
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Checks during plant standstill
2
refer also to
Checks during plant standstill [J 7]
Preparations for startup [J 10]
Start up the Turbine [J 16]
Testing during plant operation [J 22]
Uploading the Turbine [J 24]
Shutdown the Turbine [J 25]
The sections added in the section "Operation" for turbine startup and
shutdown with the driven machine provide only general information about
operation of the machine train. Only after initial commissioning on site has
been completed are these operating instructions to be adapted to specific
conditions on site and handed over to the owner/operator of the plant with an
accompanying commissioning data record.
Contents
Lubricating oil and control oil system
Lifting oil system
Hydrailic shaft turning gear
Leak-off and seal-steam control system
Evacuation and condensing system
NOTE
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Checks during plant standstill
Lube oil and control oil system (see instructions for driven machine)
Prerequisites
Prerequisites
Measures
Seal and Leak-off Steam Control System (Arca Controller), Item 7200
Seal-steam supply
Prerequisites
Measures
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Checks during plant standstill
2
The automatic drains trap drain for the seal-steam supply line from the
main steam system remains open.
Prerequisites
6400
6311 / 6321
6310 / 6320
The induction steam valves to the steam-jet air ejectors are closed.
The air extraction valves to the duty jet pumps, or to steam-jet air ejector
6400 are closed.
The motive steam line has been drained and the motive steam
superheated.
Circulating water
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Preparations for startup
Pumping of condensate
Contents
Startup of turning gear
Steam supply to the shaft glands and startup of leak-off steam extraction
system
Startup of the evacuation system
Startup of the condensing system
Heating of the turbine main steam line and the steam chest
1. Clear the turbine and driven machines for turning gear operation.
2. Switch the hydrailic turning gear 7121 from "Manual" to "AUTO".
3. Set the jacking oil pump to "AUTO".
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Preparations for startup
2
Should the jacking oil pressure exceed a value of p > 70 bar, the hydrailic
turning gear starts up and accelerates the machine train to the specified
speed.
Function test for hydrailic rotor turning gear "OK".
1. Measurement of overcurrent must be confirmed when excess current,
resulting from rubbing, for the turning gear motor lasts longer than 1 to 3
seconds.
2. The oil temperature to the bearings should be automatically regulated to
around 45 ±3 °C.
Steam supply to the shaft glands and, where required, startup of leak-off
steam extraction system
Prerequisites
NOTE
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Preparations for startup
Option
Should excess pressure (backpressure) build up in the exhaust end
section after startup of the turbine, the seal-steam inlet is closed via
valve 7200. Any excess steam (leak-off steam) that then accumulates is
NOTE drawn off into a gland steam condenser.
When the design vacuum is reached only one vacuum pump is required
for continuous operation.
NOTE
Option
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Preparations for startup
2
NOTE
Measures
the motive steam to the five (5) steam-jet air ejectors has been drained of
moisture and is superheated.
Hogging ejector
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Preparations for startup
DANGER
1. First open the motive steam valve for the second stage of the duty steam-
jet air ejector 6320 and then the motive steam valve for the first stage
6310.
1. Open the air extraction valve to the first stage of the duty steam-jet air
ejector group A 6310.
2. After that close the air extraction valve for the hogging ejector 6400 and
then the motive steam valve to the hogging ejector.
3. By analogy, steam-jet air ejector group B can also be started up instead
of steam-jet air ejector A.
When switch-over is made to one of the two duty steam-jet air ejector
groups, the temperature of the cooling condensate in the steam-jet air
ejector condenser definitively determines the vacuum level that can be
reached in the vacuum system.
Operation of the plant using all of the duty steam-jet air ejectors is not
NOTE economical, as the temperature of the cooling condensate increases.
The hogging ejector has not been designed for the design vacuum, i.e.
the vacuum that can be achieved is not optimal when the hogging
ejector is activated.
Heating of the Turbine Main Steam Lines and the Steam Chest
1. In the process control system select the process displays for Steam, Oil
system and Control system.
The main steam from the steam generator is initially heated via drain E...
up to the main steam valve upstream of the turbine and superheated to
at least 50 K (see also Seal-steam supply).
NOTE
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Preparations for startup
2
1. The following drain valves are opened manually at the location of the
valves:
All of the drains listed above are in regions with a vacuum during startup;
these drains are routed into the E header E198 and linked to the
vacuum system via the condenser drain collector; the drains with the
highest pressure should be located the farthest distance away from the
header inlet; continuously falling pressure ensures that all of the
NOTE pressurized regions are drained properly.
The two manual isolation valves to the automatic drains traps remain
open for the HP drains.
On a cold start, the main steam line is initially drained and heated to a
temperature of approximately 120°C (read at TE 001) in a first step by
slowly opening the bypass valve which circumnavigates the main steam
valve.
Build-up of pressure in the line, and in the steam chest, is effected in the
second state when the turbine stop valves are open.
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Start up the Turbine
NOTE
The turbine stop valves are opened if no trip criterion is present in the
process display for Control system.
Ö Build up the startup oil pressure for latching the turbine stop valves
locally on turbine trip block 2003 via valve 1839; after this latch the
turbine trip gear by actuating valve 2049 and allow trip oil to flow
below the disks of the turbine stop valves. Reset valve 1839; the trip
oil that is present will cause the turbine stop valves to open. (Refer to
the operating manual for information about the function/operation of
the items of the turbine trip block SSBE).
Initial heating of main steam line, second step, and initial heating of steam
chest
The requisite period for preheating the inlet chest (see information based
on startup curves, document 0-2040-TNo.-32) is determined by the
heating status of the turbine.
1. The information valid for pressure build-up in accordance with the startup
curve applies for a cold start (outage >1 day).
2. This is accomplished by further, gradual opening of the bypass valves
until the main steam pressure has built up fully in the required time.
3. Open the main steam valve and close the bypass valve.
4. Throttle the external line drain.
The turbine can now be started up with steam.
General
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Start up the Turbine
2
Oil Supply
The oil pump used for start-up was started previously during preparations for
start-up to allow check out of control systems and to warm the oil.
Where a jacking pump is provided, the isolation valve in the supply line to
this shall first be opened and this pump then started. It must be checked that
oil pressures at bearing journals stabilise at the values listed in the
commissioning data record.
Condenser Plant
Where start-up has to be performed with this isolation valve closed, the
closed isolation valve must be opened slowly and completely on reaching
pump-operating speed. The outlet lines are to be vented in the process of
this. Appropriate action is also to be taken to ensure that circulating water
can be supplied at the appropriate time to all other equipment to be cooled
by water.
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Start up the Turbine
Open suction valve fully. The minimum flow valve for the condenser is to be
opened far enough to allow continuous and adequate condensate circulation
but without causing any significant pressure drop in the condensate pressure
line.
The control system for water level in the condenser (implemented as a drain
controller or a level controller in most cases) is to be activated. Besides this,
it must be ensured that the condensate produced is passed to the feedwater
tank via the intermediate equipment such as feed heaters, deareators, etc.
The air extraction system is to be started (also see separate operating
instructions) to evacuate the condenser.
After thoroughly draining the line ahead of the main steam isolation valve,
open this valve and progressively pressurise and warm the main steam line
up to the turbine.
If a bypass line round the main steam isolation valve is fitted, open this first
to reduce the load on the main steam isolation valve.
Where a non-return valve is fitted between turbine and exhaust line isolation
valve, this valve should likewise be opened before the isolation valve.
Open air extraction valve 1 to 2 turns and open seal steam valve sufficiently
to give slight discharge at gland vapour stacks.
Latch turbine trip gear. Where further trip devices are fitted in the trip circuit,
these are likewise to be brought into their operating position.
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Start up the Turbine
2
When the main steam line has been adequately drained, turn handwheel of
start-up positioner in opening direction. This causes pressure to build up
behind the piston plate of turbine stop valve. Observe pressure gages to see
when trip oil pressure exceeds starting oil pressure acting behind the piston,
at which point turbine stop valve opens. As soon as the turbine stop valve
moves in the opening direction, do not move start-up positioner further, but
wait until oil pressure behind the piston has dropped. Now move start-up
positioner further to increase secondary oil pressure. The valves start to
open at the secondary oil pressure level listed in the commissioning data
record. Where no turning gear is provided, secondary oil pressure must be
increased somewhat further to overcome the breakaway torque of the
bearings. As soon as the turbine rotor starts to turn, decrease secondary oil
pressure slightly. Next run up turbine to minimum speed as specified in the
start-up and loading diagram (see 3-0210).
Oil supply to the hydraulic turning gear must be shut off as soon as the
turbine accelerates and expansion of steam in the blading provides sufficient
energy to turn the rotor.
The main steam drains can be throttled gradually and can then be closed as
soon as continuous steam flow is in force and can be expected to continue,
and so long as about 50 °C superheat has been achieved ahead of the
turbine.
For compressor, pump or fan drives, speed increases are not possible
independent of load increases. This means that start-up and shutdown here
are only possible in line with the start-up and loading diagram (3-0210).
The start-up and loading times are limited by the thermal stresses occurring
in the turbine during the start-up and loading sequence.
Reference values for rates of change for speed and load are specified in the
commissioning data record along with the required start-up times as a
function of the duration of time the turbine has been stopped. The times
specified do, however assume that the rotor is not bowed on admission of
steam to the turbine. This can be ruled out by the use of turbine turning gear.
Where turbine restart is required before this has cooled down and no
hydraulic turning gear is fitted, after shutdown the turbine rotor must then be
turned at regular intervals using the manual turning gear, where fitted. Here,
the turbine rotor should be turned by 180° every 3 to 4 minutes for the
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Start up the Turbine
Should bowing of the rotor nevertheless occur, the slow roll time required
and thereby turbine start-up time must be lengthened significantly to rectify
this bowing.
Turbine Run-up
Control oil and particulary bearing oil pressure are subject to a number of
small pressure drops during run up. This normal process is caused both by
changes in oil temperature as well as the increasing suction effect of the
bearing journals.
The speed controller takes over maintenance of constant speed from the
minimum speed set at commissioning with due allowance for control system
droop.
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Start up the Turbine
2
After the auxiliary oil pump has been stopped, it should be ensured that the
autocontrol for the oil pump is not deactivated. This ensures that the
auxiliary oil pumps will be started immediately in response to the fall in oil
pressure in event of failure of the main oil pump, thereby assuring oil supply.
Oil cooling
If oil temperature behind the oil cooler exceeds 40 °C, open the circulating
water inlet valve wide enough to give a constant temperature of 45 °C
(bearing inlet temperature).
The oil outlet temperatures at the turbine bearings vary, lying between 50
and 65°C for an inlet temperature of 45 °C. The values which result will be
noted in the commissioning data record on initial start-up by the supplier. It
must be ensured that temperatures do not exceed these levels, particularly
on turbine loading.
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Testing during plant operation
Contents
Manual part-lift testing of turbine stop valves
Manual testing for proper functioning of the solenoid valves for remote
turbine trip
All tests are conducted locally on turbine trip block SSB. The design of
the turbine trip block (diagram 0-0635-TNo.-00) and the connections to
the turbine stop valves and to the turbine trip gear are known.
NOTE
Part-lift testing possible only with turbine stop valves are open.
Part-lift testing may only be conducted when the turbine stop valves are
open. It is necessary to always conduct testing under the same general
conditions, such as operation of the main oil pump and at a normal main
NOTE steam pressure, in order to obtain comparable test oil pressures. These
conditions are met when the machine train is under load.
Test sequence
1. Push the lever for the test valve 1845 from the neutral middle position to
the right until it stops.
2. Move the test valve 1845 lever back to the center position.
3. If two (2) turbine stop valves are provided, move the test valve 1845 lever
to the left until it stops to test the second stop valve 2301; read PI 339 for
the test oil pressure.
The turbine stop valves function properly when the test oil pressures read
off at the test pressure gauges PI 338 and PI 339 essentially concur with
the values documented in the commissioning data record.
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Testing during plant operation
2
Manual testing for proper functioning of the solenoid valves for remote
turbine trip (option)
All items are shown in their de-energized state, i.e. solenoid valves de-
energized, in the SSB-B system diagram 0-0635-TNo.-00.
NOTE
Prerequisites:
The protective system has been activated, i.e. the solenoid valves are de-
energized and there is no trip criterion present.
Prerequisites:
The protective system has been activated.
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Uploading the Turbine
Prerequisites:
The protective system has been activated.
Regular unloading
Regular unloading of the turbine will be carried out in accordance with the
load chart given in the Test Report. However, there is no fundamental
objection against brusque unloading by taking the turbine directly back to
idling speed.
For unloading the turbine, decrease the reference value slowly. This should
result in a continuous decrease of secondary-oil pressure so that the control
valves are going to close. The possible effect of the unloading operation on
the boiler controls, on other auxiliary apparatus, and on the turbine-
dependent elements of the power plant in general, should be taken into
account as far as possible. Prior to unloading, all personnel involved has to
be contacted and mutual understanding be reached about the measures to
be taken.
In the event of a disturbance calling for immediate unloading and for taking
the turbine out of operation, the machine may be shut down by releasing the
automatic trip gear, regardless of its actual load.
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Operation Startup and shutdown operation
Shutdown the Turbine
2
When the reference setter has been turned to minimum speed the turbine
can be shut down by means of the starting device. An alternative method is
to effect an emergency trip. The emergency stop valve and control valves
must close. All pressure gauges in the trip oil circuit and secondary oil circuit
must be reading zero.
Monitor the coast-down time of the turbine. The value can very, however,
depending on the load on the driven machine. If the machine is equipped
with hydraulic turning gear is should be started up at approximately 300 min-
1. With hydraulic turning gear simply open the appropriate motive oil valve.
As the speed of the turbine falls so also does the pressure produced by the
turbine-driven main oil pump. Ensure that the electric auxiliary oil pump
starts up at the preset value. If the auxiliary oil pump does not start
automatically it must be switched on immediately by hand.
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Startup and shutdown operation Operation
2 Shutdown the Turbine
If the machine is equipped with a steam driven auxiliary oil pump open the
necessary is good time and start the pump.
As soon as the emergency stop valve and the control valves have closed,
closed the valve in the main steam line. Open the appropriate drain so that
the pressure in the line is reduced to zero. After shutdown, open all turbine
drains fully.
Shut down the condensing system. The fall in condenser vacuum should not
be too rapid and can be controlled by appropriate shutting-down of the
vacuum pumps. Do not turn off the shaft seal steam until the vacuum has
been reduced completely- The condensate pump can be shut down.
Therefore, the auxiliary oil pumps must be in operation that the temperature
of the babbit of the bearings does not exceed the preset limit values. The oil
coolers must be adjusted so that oil inlet temperature at the bearings is
approximately 35 °C.
When it is certain that not distortion of the rotor can occur, turning-gear
operation can be discontinued. When the rotor has come to a standstill the
oil pumps can be shut down.
All other auxiliaries, valves, etc. should be restored to their initial positions.
refer also to
Start up the Turbine [J 16]
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Steam turbine Alfasel Emergency shutdown
Operation
3
3 Emergency shutdown
In the event of risk to the plant or operating personnel the machine train can
be shut down at any load by trip initiation either using manually-operated
valve 2274 on the turbine trip block, or via solenoid valve 2225 for remote
turbine trip.
Load can also be removed from the plant by reducing the speed setpoint at
the turbine controller in cases of less risk to the machine train.
The degree of risk posed to the machine train determines whether the
turbine must be shut down directly after trip initiation, or after having the load
removed previously. If in doubt, you should always opt for immediate trip
initiation.
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Overview of operational monitoring
4 Monitoring of operation
refer also to
Salt and Silica deposits [J 46]
Introduction
Types of damage
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Overview of operational monitoring
4
indicating instruments,
recording instruments,
audible and/or optical signals,
position and operational status indicators.
Inspection rounds
In particular the oil, steam and water tightness of the plant should be
checked locally during such rounds in addition to the operational behaviour
of the auxiliary drives (pumps, motors, etc.)
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Limit value monitoring
Introduction
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Limit value monitoring
4
The temperatures at the radial bearings and the axial bearing are measured
immediately below the babbitt lining of the bearing shell and of the axial
bearing segment respectively. The temperature of the exhausted oil
downstream of the bearings is measured in exceptional cases only.
The normal values and maximum values associated with large changes,
which occurred during initial commissioning, form the basis for evaluation of
the bearing temperatures, which must be evaluated analogously when the oil
temperature deviates from the normal oil inlet temperature 45 °C ±3 K (in
special cases max. 60 °C). A sensible measure is to document these values
in tabular or graphic form from the very start of initial commissioning,
especially where these values are subject to load-dependent changes, in
order to be always in a position to compare them with the actual values.
Such documentation facilitates deduction of wear or damage.
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Limit value monitoring
value, as a very minimum, the oil sieve in the oil tank should be examined in
order to determine whether white-metal tailings are present, which could
originate from bearing damage. However, it is explicitly recommended that
the affected bearing be checked, even when no white-metal tailings are
discovered, since this is only one indication for severe damage. Lubrication
damage cannot be ascertained in this manner.
Vibrations
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Limit value monitoring
4
If, on the other hand, vibrations of unknown origin occur suddenly on loading
or during a starting-up phase, in which on the basis of operational
experience unusual permanent or transitory vibration is not to be expected, it
can be safely concluded that damage or an irregularity has occurred, even if
the limit values have not been exceeded. In this case the specified limit
values are no longer relevant and the turbine plant must be shut down. An
exception is permissible, when the cause of the vibration is known and it can
thus be concluded that continued operation is justified. In all such cases, we
recommend that the service department of the turbine supplier be consulted.
Relative expansion gives an overview of the axial position of the rotor with
respect to the turbine casing. Where necessary, a measuring device is
installed by the turbine manufacturer at the rear turbine bearing housing for
monitoring of the relative rotor position. In this case, the maximum
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Limit value monitoring
permissible relative expansion in the plus and minus directions are given in
the "Commissioning report". Under no circumstances may these values be
exceeded, since otherwise axial rubbing of the rotating parts against the
stationary parts could occur. The turboset must always be shutdown, when a
limit value is reached or it is anticipated that it will be exceeded.
The sliding casing should not assume a new position with a sudden jerk
either during start-up and shutdown or during load changes.
The permissible values for the temperature difference are dependent on the
type of construction of the turbine. These are determined separately for each
turbine and are documented in the "Commissioning report".
When the temperature of the live steam is too low, the exhaust wetness of
the steam increases, which leads to cavitation (erosion) at the last stage and
may also result in uneconomic operation of the turbine.
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Limit value monitoring
4
Temperature differences between the inner wall and the outer wall at a
specific point of the housing can be taken as a measure for thermal stress in
the casing and may also be applied indirectly to the rotor. Such stresses can
also be caused by an excessively high rate of change of the live steam
temperature or by excessively large load changes.
Steam pressures
The live steam pressure is reduced in the turbine in stages to the exhaust
steam pressure. The turbine can be endangered by exceeding of the upper
or lower limit values for live steam pressure, wheel chamber pressure, bleed
pressure, back pressure, condenser or shaft sealing steam pressure. The
key operational pressures of the turbine must therefore be continuously
monitored by means of the pressure measurements provided. If limit values
are reached, the operating personnel must take immediate action and clear
the fault.
If the pressure characteristic inside the turbine alters, this generally causes a
change in the horizontal thrust and thus of the load on the axial bearing.
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Limit value monitoring
The safety valves of the steam generator or of the steam network provide
protection against excessively high live steam pressure and blow-off the
excess steam as soon as the permissible pressure is exceeded.
In the case of severe salt deposits or when the flow-passing ability of the
turbine is much larger than the steam flow which passes through the turbine
at rated output, the wheel chamber pressure can increase to such an extent
that the casing and blading are endangered. At the same time an
impermissibly high axial thrust can occur. On exceeding the limit values,
specified in the "Design data", the steam flow through the turbine should be
limited to such an extent that normal values are once more obtained.
Speed
The following limit values for deviations from the rated speed apply to steam
turbines for driving generators without endangering the steam turbine plant:
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Monitoring of live steam pressure
4
Introduction
The live steam pressure must be monitored during start-up and operation.
The purpose of monitoring is to maintain the live steam pressure:
within the permissible deviation limits, in oder to ensure that the yearly
average value (refer to the Section "Design data") is not exceeded;
constant, in so far as this is possible, during steady-state operation;
so that it is matched to the requirements for power output;
so that matching and changes are effected as a function of the casing
temperature during start-up, so far as this is possible.
The design value and the permissible deviations of the live steam pressure
are given in the "Technical data".
The turbine may be operated at any steam pressure which lies below the
design value, provided this can be tolerated by the plant as a whole.
This description does not deal with any such interlocking logic.
During operation of the turbine with fully open control valves, the turbine
output is dependent exclusively on the live steam pressure. Changes in
power output can be effected only by changing the live steam pressure, so
that in this case the task of controlling the power output is assumed by the
steam generator.
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Temperature monitoring
The live steam pressure is limited by an upper limit value imposed by the
limiting devices of the steam generator. These open and blow-off steam, as
soon as the pressure exceeds a defined preset limit value.
On sharp fall of the live steam pressure, it can be assumed that a fault has
occurred in operation of the steam generator. Among other possible causes,
leakage can have occurred within the steam generator, in which case
operation must be ceased immediately.
Faults in the controller of the steam generator can likewise result in strong
pressure changes. In this case it is adviseable to unload the turbine to such
an extent that the pressure is maintained until the cause of the fault has
been ascertained and the fault has been rectified. Since a severe drop in
pressure also causes a severe drop in temperature, endangerment of the
turbine can thus be held within limits.
By virtue of the relationship between the live steam pressure and the
corresponding saturated steam temperature, the increase in pressure in the
main steam line must be controlled so that impermissible stress of the
components does not occur, especially during a cold start.
Introduction
The functional integrity and the service life of the turbine components are
dependent to a high degree on the absolute temperature of the live steam
and on its rate of change.
to keep the live steam temperature at the values given in the "Design
data" and to make use of the permissible deviations in such a way that
the specified yearly average is not exceeded;
to keep the live steam temperature constant;
to match the live steam temperature during start-up to the casing
temperatures in the best possible manner;
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Temperature monitoring
4
to hold the necessary live steam temperature changes within the limits
specified in the Section "Start-up and loading curves".
Simultaneous increase or decrease of both the power output and the live
steam temperature should be avoided, since such action results in increased
stress, of which no account has been taken in the limit values specified in
the "Start-up and loading curves".
The times given in the Section "Start-up and loading curves" are limit values,
which should be extended as far as possible in order to reduce stressing of
the material. On the other hand, a turbine plant can be started up with the
desired economic efficiency, when the warm-up period is kept as short as
possible. Short warm-up times are possible, where the live steam
temperature is optimally adapted to the casing temperatures.
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Monitoring of operation Operation
4 Monitoring of casing expansion
transient cooling down and excessively high stresses and extended starting-
up times are avoided.
During start-up and in steady-state operation, neither the limit values for the
casing temperature differences at different wall depths nor those for casing
expansion should be exceeded as a result of changes in the steam
temperature. If such limit values are reached, the steam temperature should
be changed in the opposite sense in order to suppress a dangerous
condition for the turbine.
General
During erection, the fixed and moving parts are aligned with respect to one
another, when in a cold condition and after having previously carried out
zero-point calibration of all the measuring devices. Starting on the basis of
this zero position all parts of the turbine, which are subjected to the
operating temperature, such as the casing, the bearing housings and rotor,
expand axially and radially. The expansion of the various parts may differ
due to different temperatures and material characteristics.
Radial expansion
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generation of temperature differences at the upper part and lower part of the
outer casing, form an exception. The rotor, the inner casing and the guide
blade carrier are exposed to approximately the same temperatures at a
certain level, so that only the different coefficients of expansion of the
materials come into play. Different expansions between the outer casing and
the internal components, which are installed so as to be capable of sliding,
do not result in changes of the clearance.
Axial expansion
Changes in length in the axial direction have a more marked effect than
expansion in the radial direction. The turbine casing is supported at a casing
anchor point in the axial direction and expands with the front bearing
housing on the pedestal under the influence of the temperature. The bolted
connections of the front casing brackets have been tightened, however, they
are designed so that free movement of the brackets is ensured at all times.
Especially during start-up and shutdown, particular attention should be paid
to ascertaining that the rings at the bolted connections of the casing brackets
are always capable of being moved by hand.
Relative expansion
The differential expansion between the turbine rotor and the casing is known
as "relative expansion". The relative expansion ± 0 designates the condition
as erected. It becomes positive (+), when the turbine rotor is longer than the
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turbine casing and negative (-), when the expansion of the turbine rotor is
less than that of the turbine casing.
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In some cases (dependent on the live steam temperature and the casing
length), a measuring device for monitoring of the relative expansion is
attached to the rear bearing housing.
In such cases, the limit values for relative expansion are documented in the
"Commissioning report" and in the "Technical data".
Introduction Blade deposits have considerable influence on the power output of the
turbine. These also affect operational safety and must therefore be either
removed or avoided.
The following leaflets, which describe how blade deposits are formed, the
consequence of blade deposits (blade damage) and measures to prevent
and remove blade deposits, are to be found as an appendix to the operating
instructions:
Blade damage
Steam quality
Removal of blade deposits
Flushing of industrial-type turbines
Deposits form in particular on the guide and rotating blades. As a result, the
steam paths are narrowed and the blade surfaces are roughened. Possible
consequences are:
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In addition, deposits may form on valve spindles and thus cause jamming of
the control valves, especially where the load is kept constant over a long
period of operation.
Pressure monitoring The simplest form of pressure monitoring is measurement of the steam
pressures inside the turbine commencing at the wheel chamber. Additional
measurements are made at specific points of the blading, e.g. at bleed and
extraction points, that is at the beginning and end of blading sections. These
pressures are dependent on the steam mass flow rate. They can be
depicted for various measuring points, as shown in the Figure below.
These recorded values should be compared with the setpoints, or better still,
with the values recorded during initial commissioning. If pressure rises are
detected, nozzle and blade channels have been narrowed and measures
must be taken to remove the deposits.
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Pressure characteristic code Exact monitoring of the pressures in the turbine is possible by determination
number and comparison of the pressure characteristic code number, since in this
case the influence of the current backpressure on the pressure characteristic
inside the turbine is taken into consideration.
The pressure in a turbine stage changes with the steam flow rate in
accordance with the "Stodola steam cone".
The slope of the cone side of the steam cone or the asymptote on a cone
section is a constant (C). When these relationships are applied to the
conditions in the drum section of the turbine, the equation for these
constants is as follows:
where:
NOTE
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Internal efficiency A further possibility is monitoring of the internal efficiency and determination
of the steam consumption. However, this is too inaccurate when using the
operational instrumentation and, moreover, is not possible in the condensing
section of the turbine and is therefore not to be recommended.
Inspection intervals The inspection time intervals should be adapted to the operational
conditions. At the beginning, when no operational experience is available,
we recommend:
When field values are available, the inspection intervals can be extended.
Deposits of salt and silica are justly feared because they can have a very
serious effect indeed on the running of the turbine. The deposits constrict the
passages in the fixed and moving blades, thereby causing a noticeable drop
in efficiency and power output. In addition to reducing the power output,
however, the deposits can also cause mechanical disturbances such as an
increase in the axial thrust, which can overload the turbine thrust bearing,
and seizing in control devices and the emergency stop valves. There are
also chemical effects which can result in corrosion of the blade materials [1].
Types of Deposit In order to achieve a better understanding of the mechanisms by which salt
and silica deposits occur in steam turbines it is necessary to trace the path
of the steam from the superheater outlet to the condenser inlet. In all steam
boilers, regardless of type, a small quantity of water in the form of a very
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small droplets is carried over from the drum or evaporating section into the
superheater. There it heated to a temperature considerably above that of the
boiling water. This causes most of the water to be evaporeted, leaving a
highly concentrated salt solution.
There is still much controversy over the manner in which salt deposits occur
in the turbines. There are four main theories:
When the steam leaves the boiler superheater and is admitted to the turbine
it contains salts in crystalline form as atomized salt, fused salt in droplet form
and also a small quantity of salts dissolved in the steam. This mixture of
salts and steam enters the turbine and, depending on the pressure and type
of turbine, is accelerated in the nozzles to a velocity of several hundred
metres per second, at which it passes through the various turbine stages.
The very fine droplets of liquid fused salt suspended in the flow of steam are
very sticky and adhere to the turbine blades (see Flow of salts through the
turbine in the following figure). Then, they either remain liquid, if they have a
predominantly NaOH content, or solidify, if they are a composite salt mixture
in the undercooled state. Separation of the latter is promoted if the
temperature of the fused salt droplets in the steam flow is always higher than
the relevant turbine stage. In this process, salt particles are caught by the
sticky layer in the manner of flypaper and are incorporated into the growing
mass of the deposit.
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The following turbine deposits are dealt with individually in this description:
distribution and composition. The two principal substances are NaCl and
SiO2; as NaCl decreases, SiO2 increases in the same proportion.
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Specific Salt Concentration in An investigation of numerous turbines has shown that deposits are found
Turbine Steam more often in turbines fed from drum-type boilers than those fed from once-
through boilers. The reason is thought to be that the total salt content in the
feed water of once-through boilers is very low. The study of the deposits has
also shown that the turbines remain almost completely free from any
deposits provided a certain value of salt concentration is not exceeded – the
value is known as the specific salt concentration.
Operators of steam turbine plants will normally always follow the instructions
given by the boiler manufacturer concerning the required purity of feed water
and steam. However, in order to provide some terms of reference for actual
operation, some average values have been assembled in tabular form (see
the following figure: Specific salt concentration in turbine steam).
Finally, for the sake of completeness, there is a salt limit value c from which
salt deposits in the turbine occur most quickly. Of course, the values given
should not be regarded as absolute values but as varying within certain
limits, with additional fluctuations caused by the steam pressure, steam
temperature and type of turbine involved. However, this effect is not as great
as between the individual groups a, b and c. In fact, the table in the following
figure: Specific salt concentration in turbine steam provides very useful
information for steam turbine operation.
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NaCl As can be seen from the table, the permanent specific salt concentration is
0.4 mg/l. Up to this value the turbine can run safely for 8,000 h. The
temperature range and quantity of NaCl deposit depend chiefly on the life
steam conditions. With very high-pressure turbines (120 bar and above) the
deposits occur at a higher rate, beginning at a high temperature (approx.
450°C) and falling sharply as the temperature decreases. In medium-
pressure turbines (40 to 60 bar) the deposits begin at a lower temperature
and the rate is also lower. The difference is due to the maximum salt content
of saturated steam in relation to the pressure, i.e. steam at a higher pressure
can support a higher concentration of salt.
Na2SO4 In cases where the boiling temperature of the steam generator is appreciably
above 250 °C (50 bar), nearly all of the Na2SO4 dissolved in the water
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Due to the evaporation of the water, however, the salt concentration in the
water increases at the same time. As this does not occur at as high a rate as
that at which the water evaporates, only small amounts of salt can reach the
turbine. This applies particularly to a high value of NaCl. Only at boiler
pressures below 40 bar when he superheated steam temperatures are
usually low does the increased salt concentration become effective earlier
than the increased temperature of the salt solution. Less Na2SO4 is
deposited the superheater, with the result that most of the salt reaches the
turbine.
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NaOH As there is nearly always NaOH in the boiler water it is logical that this too
must be present in the water droplets. Due to the continuous heat absorption
in the superheater, not only does the concentration of the salt solution rise,
but also its boiling point, until the steam has left the superheater and entered
the turbine. Where the boiler water to contain on NaOH, any salt whose
solubility limit was exceeded would come out of solution and either deposit in
the superheater or be carried into the turbine as salt dust in the steam flow.
Na3PO4 The chemical, physical nature of this salt lies between that of NaCl and
NaOH in its tendency towards the formation of deposits. It is added to the
feed water of all drum-type boilers to provide protection against temporary
increases in hardness.
Summary The composition of the blade deposit in LP turbine stages varies widely but
is mainly a combination of water-soluble salts, scale-forming agents (Ca and
Mg compounds) and erosion and corrosion products. At very high pressures
the principal soluble salt in the blade deposits is NaCl with smaller quantities
of NaOH and silicates. Na2SO4 is deposited in the superheater of the boiler.
The insoluble compounds consist mainly of SiO2.
The deposits of the various salts on the turbine blades depend on the
temperature of each stage of the turbine. Numerous studies have shown the
series to be: sodium silicate, sodium cloride and silica with its subgroups:
quartz, cristobalite and amorphous silica. However, the specific
temperatures of the various compounds overlap considerably.
The salts found in the blade deposits have only a slight relationship to
pressure. In general, however, the water-soluble silicates only occur in large
quantities at low pressures whereas quartz and amorphous silica only
predominate at high and very high pressures. The reason for this is the
NaOH content in the boiler water which is substantial at low pressures but
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In once-through boilers the salt content of the steam depends on the care of
operation of the evaporators and demineralizing equipment. Leak-tightness
of the condensers is also an important factor. With this type of boiler the salt
content of the feed water is usually lower than the specific salt concentration
for the turbine, which means that turbine deposits other than silica occur only
rarely.
When there are traces of salts in the steam, fouling of the turbine will nearly
always occur if it is run for long enough. However, provided sufficient care is
taken with boiler operation and water treatment it can be kept to a minimum,
with minimal outage time for operation. However, as mentioned before, it will
always be necessary to remove deposits of silica and salt from the turbine
regularly.
References [1] Dr. Ing. Th. Geissler, Stuttgart: Salzablagerungen in Dampfturbinen und
Kesselanlagen, Parts 1 to 3, ”Energie”, Vols. 7 and 8
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condenser vacuum, the position of this endangered zone varies over several
blade rows. Most broken blades exhibit fatigue fractures (refer to figure
“Fatigue fracture in a LP rotor blade”). Sometimes the fatigue fracture is
initiated by a non-deformed fissured crack (refer to figure “Non-defined
fissured crack”). Deposits from the steam are almost always found on the
blades and when examined are found to contain small quantities of
chlorides.
Blade material All turbine manufacturers use blade steels with 11 to 14% Cr. Siemens
select their steels from the table “Chemical composition and mechanical
properties of 11 - 14 % Cr steels for turbine blades” (below) depending on
the stresses and temperatures involved.
Steam quality and blade It has been shown that the steam quality and the related blade deposits
deposits have a considerable influence on the life of the turbine blades [2 to 5]. The
view was often expressed in the past that such deposits were quite normal
and could not be prevented. Since then, however, developments in the
steam boiler field have led to the necessity for feed treatment which has
made a great contribution towards the elimination of blade deposits. With
once-through boilers the same purity is demanded of the boiler feedwater as
of the initial steam, since practically all salts pass straight through the boiler
and will otherwise be deposited in the turbine. With natural circulation boilers
on the other hand, the salts are separated in the boiler drum and
concentrate there. Of course there is the danger that the salts will be carried
into the turbine with the steam if the boiler should prime and, if the density of
the boiler water becomes excessive, there is the possibility of some salts,
mainly silica, becoming fully dissolved and being carried over with the
steam.
The VGB have issued recommendations for feedwater, boiler water and
turbine steam [6].
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Material C SI Mn Cr Mo Ni V
X20Cr13 0.20 <0.30 0.45 13.5 – – –
X20CrMo13 0.20 <0.30 0.45 12.5 0.8 – –
X22CrMoV121 0.21 <0.30 0.50 12.5 0.8 0.40 0.30
Experience has shown that blade breakages will seldom occur if these
values are adhered to closely. There are also target values for steam quality
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[3], which will result in practically a complete absence of deposits if they are
attained (refer to table “Recommended values for turbine steam”).
The VGB recommendations are usually maintained only by the large power
stations. Smaller stations, particularly the industrial power stations which
require a large amount of make-up water, often ignore these values for
economic reasons. However, it must be remembered that the factors which
lead to blade damage are only dependent on the steam quality and not on
the size of the station.
The substances deposited on the blades from the steam (refer to figure
“Deposits on turbine blades”) restrict the blade channels and roughen the
blade surfaces which causes a reduction in efficiency, an increase in stress
and interference with the thrust. The blades are particularly susceptible to
corrosion when the deposits contain chlorides. At the beginning of the
condensation zone, and at places of moderate steam wetness, silicic acid is
most commonly found, usually in amorphous form but also as crystals and
as silicates. It is assumed that the amorphous silicic acid absorbs, amongst
other substances, chloride ions [3].
The first droplets of condensate formed, although very small, are sufficient to
dampen the salt deposits on the blades. Sufficient quantities of condensate
to wash away the deposits only occur in the later rows of blades, so that the
chloride salt solutions of a concentration perfectly suited to corrosion attack
are formed on the blades in that zone of the turbine in which condensation
begins to occur.
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Target values
There are also other reasons why this zone is particularly liable to corrosion
attack [3 to 10]. It is common practice in modern boiler plant to absorb any
residual oxygen in the boiler water with hydrazine. The excess hydrazine
also acts as an alkalinization agent, but only up to approx. 350°C. Above this
temperature the hydrazine in the boiler breaks down into ammonia and
nitrogen and only traces of hydrazine are found in the turbine condensate.
Ammonia is an effective alkalinization agent avobe 350 C. Because of its
very high partition coefficient, ammonia remains largely in the gas phase so
that the first small droplets of condensation are not alkalized. Also, if calcium
chloride and magnesium chloride are present in the circuit, they break down
and form hydrogen chloride. The partition coefficient of hydrogen chloride is
less than unity which means that it tends towards the liquid phase as
condensation begins and hence forms hydrochloric acid which, to begin with,
cannot be neutralized by the ammonia. This results in the first droplets of
condensation having a low pH value and hence they are corrosive.
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Blade corrosion Corrosion in turbine blades takes various forms. Depending on the corrosive
agent, the resistance of the material to corrosion and the stress conditions,
the attack can take the form of:
pitting
corrosion fatigue
stress corrosion
Pitting The resistance to corrosion of the Cr steels results from their passive surface
film of chromium oxide. This film can be destroyed by halide ions, in
particular the chloride ions. The attack which occurs under the deposit on
the blades concentrates at a large number of small areas so that very small
anodic areas are opposed by very large cathodic areas. The small areas
quickly reach a considerable depth. Because of the mechanism of the
attack, this form of pitting corrosion is also called chloride ion corrosion.
Pitting is most frequently found under blade deposits in the wet steam range
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In the wet steam region, cracks are often found which clearly originate from
the pitting (refer to figure “Cracks originating from pitting corrosion”). The
notch effect of the small pits assists the formation of these cracks. The
possible higher concentration of the chloride ions in the pitting also plays a
role but, in fact, the pitting and cracks must be considered separately. Pitting
is clearly related to corrosion alone whereas the cracks arise as a result of
corrosion fatigue.
Corrosion fatigue When a component is subjected to stress reversals without the presence of
corrosion, a definite value of stress will be withstood indefinitely without a
fracture occurring, this is called the endurance limit (the horizontal leg of
curve a in figure “S-N diagram in air and subject to corrosion”). If the stress
reversals are accompanied by corrosion attack, however, not only will the
fatigue strength be reduced but the curve will also continue at a slight angle
to the horizontal axis.
The result is simply a fatigue strength of finite life depending on the number
of stress reversals (curves b and c, figure “S-N diagram in air and subject to
corrosion”). All metals are subject to corrosion fatigue, even the stainless
blade steels. The occurrence fo corrosion fatigue is not necessarily
combined with the appearance of corrosion on the outside surface of the
metal.
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The stress reversal fatigue strength is not at all so sharply reduced (curve b,
figure “S-N diagram in air and subject to corrosion”) by condensate droplets
free of chlorides (pH value: 6.5 to 8, conductivity: 2 to 5 µS/cm) as with
droplets containing chlorides (curve c). The effect of the chloride ion
concentration on a carbon steel has been examined by Glinkman [11]. The
results show that even a NaCl content of 0.0025% has a considerable effect.
The corrosion fatigue strength becomes greater as the NaCl content
becomes less. This means if the very slight slope of the curve in the S-N
diagram is taken into account, that by reducing the NaCl content of the
steam the possibility of a blade breakage can be delayed by a considerable
time. All sources quoted on this problem are generally of the opinion that all
NaCl concentrations over 1% have a strong damaging effect.
For many years we have been studying the various factors involved in these
processes by means of tests of both flat bar test pieces and actual blades.
Some results had already been published and these were subsequently
confirmed [12 to 21]. Only the most important results have been selected
from the extensive research programme and for the sake of simplicity they
are presented in diagrammatic form.
The results obtained with flat bar pieces of X20Cr13 steel are shown in
Figure 10. The determination of the corrosion fatigue strength is based on 5
x 107 stress cycles. The following conclusions can be drawn from the test
results:
The stress reversal fatigue strength of X20Cr13 with the surface ground
in the same direction as the stress application is, in air, ±390 N/mm2, i.e.
approx. 0.5 x tensile strength.
If the surface is ground at right angels to the direction of stress
application, the stress reversal fatigue strength falls only slightly to ±330
to ±350 N/mm2.
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Stress corrosion Three conditions must be fulfilled before stress corrosion can occur:
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In spite of this, however, blade damage has occurred in isolated cases which
was most probably the result of stress corrosion. Figure 12 shows cracks
found in a blade at the beginning of the condensation zone.
Characteristically, a high proportion of iron (III)chloride was contained in the
deposit found on the blades. It can be concluded that there was a reaction
between the hydrochloric acid and the blade material (see ”Steam quality
and blade deposits”).
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Summary and conclusions Pitting is easily recognizable. More difficulty is experienced in distinguishing
between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion. However, it is not so
important to determine whether the fracture has been caused by corrosion
fatigue or by stress corrosion as to recognize the cause of the corrosion and
to take appropriate corrective action.
Without doubt, the best solution to the problem would be to operate with
steam completely free of salts so that no deposits form on the blades.
Referring to corrosion fatigue, this would correspond to curve b in figure “S-
N diagram in air and subject to corrosion”. In actual fact, a low salts content
and occasional heavy carryovers must be reckoned with so that the result
will be a corrosion fatigue strength lying between curves b and c. Thus it can
be seen that every successful attempt made to improve the purity of the
steam/water in the system results in an increase in the corrosion fatigue
strength. The test durations are plotted on a logarithmic base which means
that even a very small increase results in a substantial gain in time, and
hence a considerable increase in the life of the turbine blades. The operator
is, therefore, in a position to exert a considerable influence on the life of the
blades by the manner in which he operates the turbine. The costs of
feedwater treatment must be weighed against those incurred in the event of
blade damage, including damage, to other components and the reduced
availability.
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detected. If salts should gain access to the turbine, flushing with saturated
steam according to our special instructions should be carried out
immediately in order to remove any chlorides which may have deposited
themselves on the blades. if such measures are not taken, there is a danger
that the fatigue strength of the blades will be reduced by more than half and
the possibility of a fracture is correspondingly greater.
References [1] Bericht der 15. Sitzung des Arbeitskreises "Turbine" der Vereinigung
deutscher Elektrizitätswerke am 11. November 1960 in Leverkusen.
[8] Held, H.-D. und Bujak, W.: Mitteilungen der VGB, H. 89 (1964), S. 89-
99.
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[17] Rjabchenkow, A. V.: Korrosion und Verschleiß von Stählen und ihre
Bekämpfung in Dampferzeugungsanlagen sowie im Maschinen- und
Fahrzeugbau, VEB-Verlag Technik, Berlin (1956).
[20] Fuller, T. S.: Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treat 19 (1931), S. 17.
[22] Lahiri. A. K., Banerjee, T. und Nijhawan, B. R.: NML Technical Journal,
May 1965, S. 20-24.
[23] Truman, J. E., Perry, R. and Chapman, G. N.: Journal of The Iron and
Steel Institute, Sept. 1964, S. 745-756.
Introduction
The turbine drives the generator and thus generates electric power. The
measure for the power generated is the active power in MW measured at the
generator terminals. A limiting definition of the term "output power" is given
below as a supplement to the power values given in the "Design data". The
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Definitions
The "maximum economic rating" is the power output at the lowest specific
heat or steam consumption.
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Reverse power
For this reason reverse power protection is provided, which opens the
generator circuit-breaker as soon as the generator operates as a motor. The
reverse power protection can also be used for checking tightness of the
emergency stop and control valves. For this reason the reverse power
protection should be allowed to open the generator circuit-breaker to isolate
the generator from the power system on shutting down the turbo-set.
Load change
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The limit values are depicted in the form of curves in the Section "Start-up
and loading curves", by means of which the turbine can be effectively
protected against material overstressing.
Load shedding
On isolation of the generator from the power system, the turbine controller
prevents the speed reaching the tripping speed of the overspeed trip device.
The controller of the turbo-set is designed in such a manner that a turbo-set
can be operated at the station service load after tripping of the generator
circuit-breaker, provided that the tripping procedure had no effect on
additional disturbance parameters.
If the steam supply to the turbine is interrupted first, the generator will act as
a motor and will be isolated from the power system by the reverse power
protection. This case arises, when protection devices of the turbine act on
the turbine trip or this is operated manually.
Introduction
The following description applies to turbines for driving generators fitted with
an electronic speed controller.
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The same applies to the monitoring devices provided. In most cases these
include a calibrated hand speed measuring device, stroboscope or
comparison with the power system frequency.
It is a basic rule that a steam turbine, which is not operated in parallel with a
power system, can only remain in operation for a short time in the absence
of speed measurement, even where there is no concern about the
operational safety of the speed controller.
The speed of the turbine plant is monitored from activation up to the rated
speed by means of electrical speed measurement. The arrangement and
function of the transmitters of the electrical speed measurement are
described in the Section "Description of the turbine plant".
If, at the moment of isolation of a power system section from the overall
network, the power consumed exceeds the power generated, the frequency
falls until the power generated once more corresponds to the power
consumed as a result of the proportional characteristic of the controller. If the
power consumed is less than the power generated, the frequency rises and
the power output is reduced.
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If the turbine is isolated from the power system and operated at the station
service load, care should be taken to ensure that the speed corresponds to
the nominal speed. After interruptions, power system faults and similar
incidents, the speed setpoint should be set to the nominal speed.
Maximum speed
Incidents, which result in a speed change, generally occur with a high rate of
change. Human response is inadequate in such cases.
Perfect setting and functioning of the speed controlling devices and the
freedom of movement and tightness of the valves are important
prerequisites for correct operation on occurrence of faults. For this reason,
tests in accordance with the instructions for testing must be carried out at
regular intervals.
The overspeed trip device together with the tripping devices and the
automatic trip gear form part of those protection devices, which protect the
turboset by closure of all the emergency stop valves, the control valves and
the extraction and bleed valves, as soon as a defined speed value is
exceeded.
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The setpoint is defined in the "Technical data". The actual setting of the
overspeed trip device and the valve unseating pressures of the automatic
trip gear and of the emergency stop valve are to be found in the
"Commissioning report".
For this reason, the function of the overspeed trip device must be checked at
regular intervals in accordance with the "Maintenance and inspection list".
The turboset may not be operated with an overspeed trip device, which has
either been set to a higher value or which is not functioning, or with other
tripping devices.
A check must be carried out to ensure that the main oil pump correctly takes
over oil supply within the previously set speed range.
As soon as the speed controller takes over control during start-up, a check
should be carried out to ensure that the speed controller increases the
speed or maintains it constant without hunting.
Coast-down time
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Turning-gear operation
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Vibration measuring system The turbine is equipped with bearing and/or shaft vibration measuring
systems which can measure the absolute velocity of vibration transverse to
the shafting system at the bearing housings and/or at the shafts adjacent to
the bearings. The displayed value is deflection and its variation with respect
to time is recorded.
Shaft and bearing vibration The relationship between shaft vibration and vibration of the associated
bearing housing depends on:
the ratio of the stiffness of the oil film to the foundation spring constants
the mass ratio of the foundation to the shaft
the ratio of the damping effect of the oil film to the spring force of the
shaft
the relationship between the operating speed and the critical speed and
the arrangement of the measuring systems.
These factors are primarily dependent on the design of the turbine and the
foundation. The ratio of shaft vibration to bearing vibration can vary from 3:1
to 1:1 as a result.
However, shaft vibration should not be the sole basis for an assessment of
the running qualities but, wherever possible, should be used in conjunction
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Normal and limit values of As a basis for the assessment of running qualities, we recommend the two
vibration DIN ISO standards
Both of these standards classify the measured vibration levels into four
evaluation zones. These evaluation zones are defined on the basis of
international experience, permit a qualitative assessment of the vibration of a
machine and provide information about possible measures that may be
required.
Zone A:
Vibration levels of newly commissioned machines are within this zone.
Zone B:
Machines with vibration levels in this zone are generally considered to be
suitable for continuous operation without any restrictions.
Zone C:
Machines with vibration levels in this zone are generally considered not
suitable for continuous operation. The machine can, however, generally be
operated for a limited time in the continuous operating mode until a
convenient opportunity arises for implementing remedial measures.
Zone D:
Vibration level values within this zone are generally considered to be so
severe as to pose a risk of damage to the machine.
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Bearing housing vibration Two criteria are given for evaluation of bearing housing vibration in DIN ISO
10816-3 for assessing the vibration intensity of various groups of machines.
The one criterion is concerned with the magnitude of wideband vibration in
the radial direction, measured using orthogonally arranged sensors; the
other with the change in the vibration quantity, regardless of whether the
change represents a rise or fall in the vibration level.
This criterion deals with defining the limits for the quantity of vibration with
regard to permissible dynamic loading on the bearing and the permissible
transfer of vibration to the surroundings via the lower sub-structures and the
foundation. The maximum value for the vibration quantity measured at each
bearing or bearing support is classified in the evaluation zone for each
subassembly. Industrial turbines and industrial turbine-generators are
assigned to Group 1. The installation configuration for this equipment is
usually flexible.
This criterion serves to assess the change in the vibration quantity with
regard to a previously defined reference value. A considerable increase or
drop in wideband measured vibration may occur which calls for appropriate
measures, even if Zone C as per Criterion I has not been reached. Such
changes can occur suddenly, or over time, and can be an indication of the
onset of damage or other irregularities. Criterion II is based on changes in
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Shaft vibration Vibration measurement directly on the turbine rotor is the best monitoring
method that has proven itself under actual conditions. Here, relative shaft
vibration is measured by a pickup attached securely to the bearing, the
bearing housing or the turbine casing. DIN ISO 10816-3 describes two
criteria for assessing relative shaft vibration for coupled industrial machines.
The one criterion is concerned with the magnitude of wideband shaft
vibration that is measured; the other with the change in vibration quantity,
regardless of whether the change represents a rise or fall in the vibration
level.
This criterion deals with defining the limits for the quantity of shaft vibration
with regard to permissible dynamic loading on the bearing, acceptable
values for the clearance to the machine casing and the transfer of vibration
to the installation structures and the foundation.
The maximum value for the shaft vibration measured at each bearing is
classified into one of the four evaluation zones A-D, as explained previously.
In line with the experience gained to date with shaft vibration measurement
in this sector, the recommended values for the zone boundaries are
proportional to the reciprocal value of the square root of the shaft speed n (in
rpm). The recommended values shown in Figure 1 result from the following
equations:
Zone boundary:
Zone boundary:
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Zone boundary:
This criterion serves to assess the change in the vibration quantity with
regard to a previously defined reference value. A considerable increase or
drop in shaft vibration quantity may occur, which calls for appropriate
measures to be taken, even if Zone C as per Criterion I has not been
reached. Such changes can occur suddenly, or over time, and may be an
indication of the onset of damage or other irregularities. These changes
warn of an impending failure or other irregularities. Criterion II is based on
changes in the shaft vibration quantity measured under steady-state
operating conditions. The reference value for this criterion is derived from
typical, reproducible, standard vibration levels, based on previous
measurements made under specified operating conditions. If a significant
change occurs with respect to this reference value, in particular if this
change exceeds the high limit for Zone B by more than 25%, regardless of
whether this represents an increase or a drop in the vibration quantity,
appropriate measures must then be taken to establish the cause of the
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If vibration increases above the normal level but does not exceed the limit
value, it is nevertheless possible that some other change has occurred.
Such increases in vibration usually permit the cause of the changed
oscillatory characteristics to be examined. The character of the vibration and
its severity should be ascertained first, if possible using different instruments
from those permanently mounted on the machine.
the frequencies
the vibration severity horizontal, vertical and axial to the turbine rotor and
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Monitoring of turbine radial bearings
4
Introduction
The radial bearings keep the turbine rotor at a central position with respect
to the fixed guide blade carrier and the outer casing. Bearing damage can
trigger substantial consequential damage as a result of bridging of
clearances and thus give rise to repair and outage costs.
During standstill, the rotor, as a result of its weight, rests on the bearing
shell. Immediately on commencement of rotary movement the lubricating oil
is pressed under pressure into the wedge-shaped gap and lifts the rotor. As
a result of balance between the lubricant viscosity, the rotor circumferential
speed and the wedge-shaped gap, the carrying capacity and the friction
vary. Where the pressure development in the oil wedge is no longer capable
of bearing the load and only partial bearing is possible, unavoidable contact
between the solid bodies occurs with friction (wear). Continuous operation
under such conditions must be avoided at all costs.
Critical speed
The speed, at which the transition from partial carrying capacity to full
carrying capacity occurs during start-up and in the reverse case during
shutdown from full carrying capacity to partial carrying capacity is important
(in particular in plants with turning gear but without a lifting-oil system).
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This critical or transition speed must always lie below the operating speed, if
wear is to be avoided under all operational conditions, even with turning
gear.
The critical speed is dependent on the bearing load, the bearing dimensions
and the viscosity of the oil type employed as a lubricant. It is determined
separately for both bearings of the turbine rotor.
The thus determined speed is the lowest speed. at which a rotor should be
operated, in order to avoid bearing damage. Turbines with a jacking oil pump
are an exception. With their aid, the rotor can be lifted from the lower bearing
shell even at standstill, so that metallic contact can be effectively avoided
during start-up and shutdown.
Turning-gear operation
The turbine plant should be operated only in conjunction with the
lifting.oil system.
ATTENTION The turbine radial bearings can be damaged on operation with hydraulic
turning gear but without a lifting-oil system.
Hydrodynamic lubrication
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Important requirements for the plant components and the mode of operation
can be adduced from the above.
The bearing ability of the lubricating oil film is dependent mainly on the
viscosity of the oil employed. This again is strongly dependent on the
temperature of the oil film. For this reason it is possible that, although the
lubricating oil quantity is adequate, the carrying capacity at the sleeve can
fall to such a degree, that the load can no longer be supported. This is then
the case, when the temperature, which results from balance of the heat
generated, the heat input and the heat dissipated, is too high.
In this case, the lubrication film becomes so thin that it breaks down. Partial
carrying occurs and, in consequence, increased wear at the bearing. In the
worst case, this can lead to destruction of the sleeve components.
This process is influenced to a high degree by the oil temperature and the oil
throughput. For this reason, in addition to the lubricating oil quantity required
for formation of a oil bearing wedge, a corresponding additional quantity
must be pumped through the bearing parts for dissipation of the friction
losses and the heat input through the rotor journal end, in order to prevent
the temperature in the oil bearing wedge rising above the desired average
value. However, for a given geometric design and oil type, this is possible
only when the oil inlet temperature does not exceed a defined value.
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The lubricating oil pressure is set to approx.2.5 bar by means of variable oil
throttles during initial commissioning.
This does not apply to turbines with gearing not manufactured by Siemens.
In such cases, the required oil pressure can be considerably higher. If the oil
pressure falls to approx. 75 %, the auxiliary oil pump should be switched on
automatically for support or takeover of the oil supply. Emergency tripping is
initiated at approx. 50 % of the normal oil pressure.
Under all circumstances, it must be ensured that the sleeve bearings are
supplied with lubricating oil on emergency tripping until the turbine rotor
comes to a standstill.
The settings of the oil throttles should not be altered in the absence of
compelling reasons. If the pressure deviates from the commissioning value,
the cause should be ascertained immediately.
For this reason an oil filter, through which the oil flows continuously, is
provided in the lubricating oil circuit. The indicating instrument provided at
the oil filter should therefore be monitored at regular intervals.
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1. Remove contamination from the oil tank and check for any condensate.
2. Clean the oil filter before the max. permissible pressure difference limit
value is reached.
3. Analyse the oil at the specified intervals, however, at least once a year, in
a laboratory (in-house or in that of the oil supplier). Precise records
should be kept about consumption, initial filling and subsequent topping-
up quantities including additives and regenerating agents.
4. Daily inspection should be carried out to check for possible leakage or
movements in the oil system; the oil pressures, oil temperatures and the
oil levels should be compared.
5. Analysis should be carried out on foreign matter trapped in the filter and
oil tank deposits to detect any bearing metal wear.
6. Functional checks should be carried out at the specified intervals by
switching on the main and the emergency oil pumps.
7. Listen for bearing noise at the pumps.
The following conclusions can be drawn form the results of oil analysis:
In all the cases listed above, immediate measures must be taken to rectify
the faults and prevent consequential damage.
Temperature measurement
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Operation Monitoring of operation
Monitoring the turbine's axial bearing
4
Introduction
The turbine's axial bearing absorbs the residual thrust of the turbine rotor. At
the same time, the axial bearing fixes the turbine's rotor in place with respect
to the turbine case in the axial direction.
With regard to the axial bearing, when it comes to ensuring long-term fault-
free operation the same notes and monitoring criteria fundamentally apply as
in the case of the turbine's radial bearing (see also the section entitled
"Monitoring the turbine's radial bearing").
Temperature measurement
On each side of the axial bearing, the temperatures of the bearing's white
metal surfaces is measured in two tilt segment blocks. With little delay, the
temperatures of the bearing's white metal surfaces follow all bearing load
and bearing condition changes.
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Limits
On the basis of an oil inlet temperature of 45 °C, you are advised not to
exceed the limits stated in the function list 0-2020-TNR-16.
The turbine must be shut down and the bearings must be checked if the
temperatures of the bearing's white metal surfaces increase to the
switch-off value and thus the "damage limit" (see function list 0-2020-
TNR-00). In the event of axial bearing damage with extreme wear of the
bearing's white metal surface, clear changes occur in the axial position of
the turbine's rotor. Continued operation of the turbine may lead to severe
damage of the blading resulting from radial scraping of the rotor on the
fixed casing.
The bearings should be checked if one or several bearing white metal
temperature(s) should increase to the response value of the "Bearing
white metal temperature too high" signal or by more than 15 to 20 °C
above the highest bearing white metal temperatures previously measured
on a bearing. In most cases, this phenomenon is an indication of partial
damage of the bearing that does not fully influence the temperature
measuring point.
A drop in the bearing white metal temperatures to normal values after a
temporarily extreme rise is frequently typical of bearing damage and must
not deceive users into believing that operation of the turbo-generator can
be continued.
If there are any doubts as to the reliability of measurement, it is often
difficult and time-consuming to obtain evidence of an incorrect
measurement. Valuable time is lost and, during this time, follow-up
damage sets in. You are therefore advised to shut down the turbine if the
correctness of the measured temperature is questionable. Incorrect
measurement can certainly be ruled out if the temperatures at several
points on the axial bearing increase considerably.
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Oil pressure and oil temperature monitoring
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General
Turbine oil is an important operating material for the turbine plant. This oil is
called upon to perform lubricating and control functions. The oil pressures
and temperatures required for performance of these functions must be
monitored during normal operation, during starting up and shutting down and
possibly also during turning-gear operation.
The nominal pressures and temperatures of the oil system are documented
in the "Commissioning report".
During normal operation the oil is drawn from the oil tank and brought to a
pressure of 6 to 9 bar. In compressor or pump operation, the operational
speed of the turbine lies within a defined speed range. If, in this case, the oil
pump is driven directly by the turbine rotor, the oil pressure, can lie between
6 and 13 bar, depending on the speed range.
The capacity of the oil tank and the circulating oil flow are therefore matched
to one another so that the time, during which the oil remains in the oil tank, is
normally long enough for achievement of good separation of the air from the
oil.
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other factors, e.g. by the oil temperature. Air separation is improved when
the temperature in the oil tank increases. The oil temperature should not sink
to such an extent that air separation is impeded.
The air separation characteristics of the oil can be influenced not only by the
oil temperature, but also as a result of alteration of the oil characteristics due
to foreign matter, such as dust, tailings of sealing agents, and also by oil
additives. Presence of substances containing silicon in the oil is particularly
disadvantageous. Fir this reason it is strongly recommended that silicone
fluid should not be added to the oil as a "foam remover" where there is a
tendency to foam formation without having previously carried out special
investigations.
The oil pressure can fall considerably through the influence of the air
content, especially during turning-gear operation by means of an oil turbine
shaft rotation equipment, and to a greater extent than would be expected
from the pump and system characteristic.
Moreover, excessively high air content of the oil can also lead to controller
faults, since control processes are based on the assumption that the oil is
incompressible.
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The oil mass flow rate, which is nearly constant during operation of the main
oil pump, has an additional influence on the oil pressures.
Wher an oil turbine is employed for shaft turning, the oil pressures during
operation with the auxiliary oil pump can be strongly influenced by opening
the hydraulic turning gear oil valve. The oil pressure change is not only
transitory during shifting of the operating point in accordance with the pump
and system characteristics, but is also dependent on the now increased
circulation factor of the oil. As a result the lingering period in the oil tank is
shorter, so that the air separation deteriorates. It is therefore possible that
the oil pressure continues to sink slowly for some minutes after opening the
hydraulic turning gear valve.
Oil temperatures
The most important oil temperature is the temperature downstream of the oil
cooler; it is normally 45 °C.
If the oil mass flow rate and the oil pressures were set correctly during initial
commissioning, the correct temperatures are necessarily obtained in the oil
tank and in the oil return lines.
The oil temperatures, normally obtained during operation of the turbine, are
documented in the "Commissioning report".
The lubricating oil supplied to the bearings is heated up by the friction heat
losses and by heat emission from the rotor, which is heated by the steam,
and flows back through the return oil lines to the oil tank. The calculated
temperature rise of the oil in a bearing during operation at rated speed is
approx. 20 °K and is dependent on the heat dissipated by the bearing and by
the oil mass flow rate through the bearing. In the case of the radial bearings,
the heat to be dissipated is independent of the load and is constant. In the
case of the axial bearing, it varies to a slight extent only with the axial thrust.
The oil mass flow rate through the bearings is set by means of throttles
during initial commissioning and should normally not be altered.
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The oil for regulating, limiting and protection devices is taken from the
pressure oil system immediately downstream of the pumps. The temperature
of the oil for regulating, limiting and protection devices thus corresponds
approximately to the oil tank temperature.
refer also to
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General
During startup, the hot steam entering the system condenses on the cold
surfaces of the piping and casing. If large amounts of this condensate
accumulate, or if water is routed into the turbine, it is not possible for the
turbine to heat up uniformly. The result is temperature differences in the
casing walls, leading to unwanted thermal stress and casing deformation
with considerable consequential damage.
Main steam lines, the turbine casing and all interconnecting piping must be
drained prior to and during turbine startup until it can be assumed that no
further condensation will form on the surfaces concerned. The drains for
piping in which steam is stationary must remain open until an adequate
steam flow rate is present. This applies in particular to automatic extraction
lines between the turbine and the automatic extraction stop valves, until
these valves are open. All lines leading from the automatic extraction stop
valves must also be drained adequately in advance to prevent water
hammer.
The drains must be closed in accordance with the "Startup and Shutdown
Instructions" specified by the commissioning engineer.
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The drains must be opened in accordance with the "Startup and Shutdown
Instructions" specified by the commissioning engineer.
With regard to soiling, the internal condition of the steam turbine must be
monitored constantly during operation. Such close and constant monitoring
is only indirectly possible using steam data.
Pressure Monitoring The simplest method of monitoring the pressure is measuring the steam
pressures through the turbine, both in the wheel chamber and at defined
points in the remaining blading, e.g. at the beginning or end of the blade
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sections. These pressures are a function of the steam mass flow and can be
displayed for different measuring points (see pressure profile diagram).
If elevated pressure is established, this indicates that the nozzle and blade
channels have been constricted as a result of fouling.
The inclination of the cone side of the mach cone, or the asymptotic curve
for the cone section is a constant. When applied to the relationships within
turbine drum sections of the turbine concerned, the equation for these
constants is as follows:
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with
The operator measures the pressure values at the steam flow rate for that
turbine for monitoring pressure during turbine operation. The constant (C) is
then calculated from this and compared to the specified values for C. Setting
of the control equipment should be made in a similar manner. Steam flow
rate variances of ±5% are permissible. Progression of soiling over a defined
period can be shown by entering the C values measured at different times in
a diagram over time.
The intervals for checking these conditions must be adapted to the operating
conditions present at each plant. The following is recommended:
Mineral deposits in the turbine can be prevented when the alkalinity number
and density are adapted to the current operating conditions.
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Separation of water and steam must be complete. In the event that droplets,
or even large amounts of water ar entrained in the saturated steam, the
mineral content of the steam will increase considerably. These processes
can be controlled by monitoring the saturated steam samples continuously
using the conductivity instrumentation.
Sodium hydroxide solution and phosphate aid foaming. Sodium sulfate and
sodium chloride counteract foaming.
Minerals can also ingress into the turbine as a result of boiler spitting. In
contrast to foaming, spitting is caused by abrupt "bubbling" of the water as a
result of delayed boiling. Spitting can not be rectified using chemical means.
Traces of hardness that ingress into the boiler react with silicic acid with
formation of calcium and/or magnesium silicate if there is not an ample
amount of trisodium phosphate present. Trisodium phosphate tends to
counteract the formation of hardened silicate, meaning that calcium and/or
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Saturated steam washing The steam cooler and the requisite piping, with the exception of the flushing
steam connection on the main steam line, can be prepared for wet steam
washing during turbine operation. When the turbine has been shut down,
two to three hours will be required for preparatory work. This does not
include cooling of the casing with main steam for around two hours, the
actual washing process itself, which depends on the type of deposits that are
present, lasting around a half to one whole day. A well prepared washing
process hence requires an outage time of around 12 to 24 hours.
Condensate rinsing Condensate rinsing involves filling the turbine with condensate and turning
the turbine rotor.
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Rinsing using sodium Rinsing with a sodium hydroxide solution must only be used in exceptional
hydroxide solution cases and after consultation with the turbine manufacturer. More detailed
information can be obtained about this process on an individual case basis
when required.
Wet cleaning Wet cleaning is performed using solvents, where required. Application of
both procedures - dry and wet cleaning - can save time.
Monitoring the rinsing Water must be analyzed and monitored during any turbine rinsing/washing
process process. This provides information about the amount of impurities that have
been flushed out and, hence, about the remaining duration of the cleaning
process.
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It suffices to measure the conductivity of the drained water when rinsing with
pure condensate or saturated steam to establish when the rinsing procedure
can be ceased. The quantity of anions is established in the samples taken,
either as a mixed sample from each turbine filling, or at set intervals during
continuous rinsing, to gain information about the type and degree of soiling
in the turbine. Only the sodium ion should be detected in the cations for
excellent water quality. If other cations are present, such as calcium or
magnesium ions, these must also be determined. The effect of rinsing when
using sodium hydroxide is determined by the residual content of silicic acid.
After washing, the steam turbine should be dried, or started up again at the
earliest possible time (standby corrosion). The success of washing becomes
apparent when the stage pressures are measured and when the key data
are calculated.
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