NPTEL – Mechanical Engineering – Continuum Mechanics

Module-2: Tensor Calculus

Lecture-16: The Time Derivative and
Some Integral Theorems

In continuum mechanics, scalar, vector and tensor functions are dependent not only on
space but also on time. Therefore, we need to define the time derivative of scalar, vector
and tensor functions. Since the time t ∈ <+ , the definition of time derivative is easier
than the spatial derivatives that are discussed earlier.
Time derivative of scalar-, vector- and tensor-valued functions:
Let φ : < → <, g : < → V and G : < → V 2 be scalar, vector and tensor functions of time
t, respectively. Then the time derivatives of these functions, denoted as φ̇, ġ and Ġ, are
defined by
dφ φ(t + ) − φ(t)
φ̇ = = lim
dt →0 
dg g(t + ) − g(t)
ġ = = lim
dt →0 
dG G(t + ) − G(t)
Ġ = = lim .
dt →0 
The product rule and the chain rule can be extended the time derivative. We present an
example to understand these rules.
Example 1. Show that time derivative of function tr(T )det(T ) is
! !
dT dT
tr(T ) (cof T ) : + tr det(T ).
dt dt

Solution: Given function φ(T ) = tr(T )det(T ). Then we can apply product rule to get
the derivative. We now calculate derivative of tr(T ) and det(T ).
d(tr T ) tr(T (t + )) − tr(T (t)) tr(T (t + ) − T (t))
= lim = lim
dt →0  !
→0
! 
T (t + ) − T (t) dT
= tr lim = tr ,
→0  dt
alternatively, using chain rule
" # !
d(tr T ) dT dT dT
= Dtr(T ) =I: = tr .
dt dt dt dt
Using chain rule, we can get time derivative of det(T ) as
" #
d(det T ) dT dT
= D(detT ) = (cof T ) : (see Example-10 in Lecture-14)
dt dt dt

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Using product rule, we get

! !
dφ d(tr T ) d(det T )
= det(T ) + (tr T )
dt dt dt
! !
dT dT
= tr(T ) (cof T ) : + tr det(T ).
dt dt

As discussed in Lecture-9, the exponential of a skewsymmetric tensor is rotation tensor.

Here we define the exponential tensor as a solution of initial value problem.
Exponential of tensor:
The exponential of a tensor can be defined in two ways: (i) in terms of series representation
as discussed earlier,
1
eT t = I + T t + T 2 t2 + · · · ,
2!
(ii) in terms of a solution of the initial value problem

Ẋ(t) = T X(t) t > 0

X(0) = I,

where X(t) is a tensor function, 0 ≤ t < ∞. The existence theorem for linear differential
equations guarantees a unique solution to the initial value problem, which we write in the
form
X(t) = eT t .
It is easy to see from the series expansion that
Tt
 T
eT = eT t ∀T ∈ V 2 ,

and if A is an invertible second-order tensor then

−1 BA)t
e(A = A−1 eBt A ∀B ∈ V 2 .
 
Problem 1. Let T be a second-order tensor. Then for each t ≥ 0, det eT t > 0 and
 
det eT t = e(tr T )t
.

Proof. Let X(t) = eT t and X(0) = I then we want to show that det X(t) > 0 for every
t ∈ [0, ∞).
Suppose that det X(τ ) = 0 for some finite time τ . Since X is continuous and
det X(0) = 1, there is some nonempty interval [0, τ ) such that det X(t) > 0 for every
t ∈ [0, τ ). Consequently, X(t) is invertible in nonempty interval and we get

T = Ẋ(t) (X(t))−1 (Since Ẋ(t) = T X(t))

T !
(cof X(t))
=⇒ T = Ẋ(t)
det X(t)
1  
=⇒ tr(T ) = tr Ẋ(t) (cof X(t))T
det X(t)
!
1 d
=⇒ tr(T ) = (det X(t))
det X(t) dt

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Using initial condition det X(0) = 1, we have the following unique solution
T )t
det X(t) = e(tr ,

for 0 ≤ t < τ . The equation shows that det X(t) > 0 for every finite t ≥ 0 because X(t) is
continuous. Therefore, this is contradicting the initial assumption that τ is finite. Thus,
there is no finite τ such that det X(τ ) = 0 and hence, det X(t) > 0 for every t ∈ [0, ∞).
Furthermore,  
det eT t = e(tr T )t (Since X(t) = eT t ).

Problem 2. Let A and be B are two second-order tensors. Then e(A+B)t = eAt eBt if and
only if A and B are commuting tensors.

Proof. Let XA = eAt , XB = eBt , and XA+B = e(A+B)t . Then we get

d (XA XB ) dXA dXB
= XB + XA = AXA XB + XA BXB
dt dt dt
If A commutes with B, i.e., AB = BA, then we get XA B = BXA since XA is
polynomial of A. Therefore, preceding equation can be written as
d (XA XB )
= (A + B)XA XB .
dt
Since initial condition (XA XB )(0) = XA (0)XB (0) = eO eO = I, the differential equation
has the following unique solution.

XA XB = e(A+B)t .

Therefore, commutativity of A and B implies XA XB = XA+B .

Conversely, XA XB = XA+B then we get
dXA+B d (XA XB )
=
dt dt
dXA dXB
=⇒ (A + B)XA+B = XB + X A
dt dt
=⇒ AXA+B + BXA+B = AXA XB + XA BXB
=⇒ BXA+B = XA BXB (Since XA+B = XA XB )
=⇒ BXA XB = XA BXB
=⇒ BXA = XA B (Since det XB > 0)

Differentiating the above equation with respect to time, we get

d (BXA ) d (XA B)
=
dt dt
=⇒ BAXA = AXA B
=⇒ BAXA = ABXA (Since XA B = BXA )
=⇒ BA = AB (Since det XA > 0)

Thus, e(A+B)t = eAt eBt if and only if A and B are commuting tensors.

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Using series definition of exponential (see Problem-2 in Lecture-9), we showed that

Wt
e is a rotation tensor when W is skew-symmetric tensor. We now show the same result
using initial value problem.
Problem 3. If W is skew-symmetric tensor then eW t is a rotation tensor for every t ≥ 0.

Proof. Let X(t) = eW t for t ≥ 0 then, by definition of previously stated initial value
problem, we have
Ẋ = W X, X(0) = I.
Let Z = XX T . Then we get
Ż = ẊX T + X Ẋ T = W XX T + XX T W T .
Since W is skew-symmetric tensor, we can write
Ż = W XX T − XX T W .
Therefore, Z satisfies
Ż = W Z − ZW , Z(0) = I.
This initial value problem has unique solution, Z(t) = I, ∀t ≥ 0. Thus, X(t)X(t)T = I
implies X(t) is an orthogonal tensor. Furthermore, det X(t) > 0 and hence, X(t) is a
rotation tensor.
Problem 4. If Q(t) is an orthogonal tensor then show that Q̇QT is a skew-symmetric
tensor.

Proof. If Q is an orthogonal tensor then we have

QQT = I.
Differentiating above equation with respect to time, we get
Q̇QT + QQ̇T = 0
=⇒ Q̇QT = −QQ̇T
 T
=⇒ Q̇QT = − Q̇QT

Thus, Q̇QT is a skew-symmetric tensor.

The integral theorems play an important role in the balance laws. We now discuss
some integral theorems that are useful for our discussion in continuum mechanics.
Integral theorems:
Here we discuss divergence, Stokes’ and localization theorems.
Divergence theorem or Gauss divergence theorem:
Let Γ be a boundary of regular domain Ω in three-dimensional Euclidean space <3 . Let
φ : <3 → <, v : <3 → V, S : <3 → V 2 be scalar, vector, tensor fields, respectively. Then
Z Z
∇φ ∂Ω = φn ∂Γ (1)
Z Ω ZΓ
∇ · v ∂Ω = v · n ∂Γ (2)
ZΩ ZΓ
∇ · S ∂Ω = Sn ∂Γ (3)
Ω Γ

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where n is the outward unit normal to Γ.

Equations (1) and (2) are well known classical results in vector calculus. Here, we
prove the divergence theorem for tensor fields.

Proof. Let u be an arbitrary constant vector. Then

Z Z Z
u· Sn ∂Γ = u · Sn ∂Γ = S T u · n ∂Γ
Γ Γ Γ

Since S T u is a vector field, using Eq. (2), we get

Z Z   Z Z
S T u · n ∂Γ = ∇ · S T u ∂Ω = u · (∇ · S) ∂Ω = u · ∇ · S ∂Ω.
Γ Ω Ω Ω

Arbitrariness of u implies Eq. (3).

We note that the divergence theorem is an extension of fundamental theorem of calculus

to higher dimensions. Furthermore, physical meaning of divergence theorem for the vector
field represents the flux (for example fluid) that is leaving normal to the bounded surface
Γ (i.e., flowing into or out-of the boundary) is equal to the flux generated or disappeared
inside the domain Ω. Physically, it can be observed that the flux that is moving along
tangential direction to the boundary does not leave the domain.
Problem 5. Show that Ω ∇ × v ∂Ω = Γ n × v ∂Γ, where Ω is a regular domain, Γ is
R R

boundary of the domain, and n is outward unit normal to Γ.

Proof. Let u be an arbitrary constant vector. Then

Z Z Z Z
u· ∇ × v ∂Ω = u · ∇ × v ∂Ω = ∇ · (v × u) ∂Ω = (v × u) · n ∂Γ
Ω ZΩ Ω Z Γ

= u · (n × v) ∂Γ = u · (n × v) ∂Γ.
Γ Γ

∇ × v ∂Ω = n × v ∂Γ.
R R
Arbitrariness of u implies Ω Γ

Problem 6. Show that Ω ∇v ∂Ω = Γ v ⊗ n ∂Γ, where Ω is a regular domain, Γ is

R R

boundary of the domain, and n is outward unit normal to Γ.

Proof. Let u be an arbitrary constant vector. Then

Z  Z Z Z
∇v ∂Ω u = (∇v) u ∂Ω = ∇ · (v ⊗ u) ∂Ω = (v ⊗ u) n ∂Γ
Ω
ZΩ ZΩ Z Γ

= (u · n)v ∂Γ = (n · u)v ∂Γ = (v ⊗ n) u ∂Γ
Γ Γ Γ
Z 
= v ⊗ n ∂Γ u
Γ

∇v ∂Ω = v ⊗ n ∂Γ.
R R
arbitrariness of u implies Ω Γ

Stokes’ theorem:
Let Γ be a surface in three-dimensional Euclidean space <3 with piecewise smooth bound-
ary curve C and v be a vector field. Then
Z I
(∇ × v) · n ∂Γ = v · dx (4)
Γ C

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where n is unit normal field on Γ and dx is infinitesimal segment of the curve C.

This is also a classical result in vector calculus. Any standard book on vector calculus
can be referred for the proof.
R  
Problem 7. Show that Γ (∇ · v)n − (∇v)T n ∂Γ = C v × dx, where Γ is a surface
H

with boundary contour C, n is unit normal field to Γ, and dx is infinitesimal segment of

the curve C.

Proof. Let u be an arbitrary constant vector. Then

I  I
u· v × dx = u · (v × dx)
C
IC
= (u × v) · dx
ZC
= (∇ × (u × v)) · n ∂Γ (Using Stokes’ theorem)
ZΓ
= ((∇ · v)u − (∇v)u) · n ∂Γ
ZΓ  
= u · (∇ · v)n − u · (∇v)T n ∂Γ
Γ
Z   
T
= u· (∇ · v)n − (∇v) n ∂Γ .
Γ

R  
(∇ · v)n − (∇v)T n ∂Γ = v × dx.
H
Arbitrariness of u implies Γ C

Potential theorem:
Let Ω be a simply-connected region, and u = ∇φ be a vector field over Ω. Then

∇ × u = 0.

Conversely, if ∇ × u = 0, then there exists a scalar potential φ such that u = ∇φ.

Proof. Let u = ∇φ where φ is a scalar function. Then,

(∇ × u)i = (∇ × (∇φ))i
!
∂ ∂φ
= ijk
∂xj ∂xk
∂ 2φ
= ijk
∂xj ∂xk
∂ 2φ
= ikj (interchanging indices j and k)
∂xk ∂xj
∂ 2φ
= −ijk
∂xj ∂xk

It is clear that
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
(∇ × u)i = ijk = −ijk = −(∇ × u)i .
∂xj ∂xk ∂xj ∂xk

Thus, ∇ × u = ∇ × (∇φ) = 0.

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Conversely, we want to show that if ∇ × u = 0 then there is a function φ such that

u = ∇φ. Let C be a closed curve in Ω and Γ be a surface in Ω with C as its boundary.
Then, using stokes theorem, we get
I Z
u · dx = ∇ × u ∂Γ.
C Γ

The condition ∇ × u = 0 implies

I
u · dx = 0.
C

Thus, the value of integral xx0 u(y) · dy along any curve in Ω depends only on x if we
R

assume x0 to be a fixed point. Therefore, we can define a function φ(x) as

Z x
φ(x) = u(y) · dy.
x0

Taking the gradient, we get

u = ∇φ.
Thus, ∇ × u = 0 if and only if there is a function φ such that u = ∇φ.

Localization theorem:
Let φ be a continuous scalar, vector or tensor field, and B be an arbitrary open subset of
domain Ω. If Z
φ(x) ∂Ω = 0, ∀B ⊆ Ω,
B
Then
φ(x) = 0, ∀x ∈ Ω.

Proof. Let x0 be an arbitrary point in the domain Ω and B be a -neighborhood of x0 ,

i.e., B is set of all y ∈ |Ω such that |y − x0 | < . Then
 
1 Z 1 Z
   

φ(x0 ) − lim φ(x) ∂Ω =  (φ(x0 ) − φ(x)) ∂Ω
  
 →0 vol(B) B  vol(B) B
1 Z
≤ |φ(x0 ) − φ(x)| ∂Ω
vol(B) B
≤ sup |φ(x0 ) − φ(x)| ,
x∈B

which tends to zero as  → 0, since φ is continuous.

We refer the localization theorem in continuum mechanics to obtain the differential

form of governing equations from the integral form.

References

1. C. S. Jog, Continuum Mechanics: Foundations and Applications of Mechanics, Vol-

ume I, Third edition, 2015, Cambridge University Press.

2. M. E. Gurtin, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, 1981, Academic Press,

New York.

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