Data,

Information
Systems,
Users and
Connectivity
Study Aid for CISB 12
 Data Organization

In Machine Language, data and instructions are represented electronically with a binary, or two state,
numbering system. This is the Binary System which consists of only two digits – 1 and 0.
o 1 = on
o 0 = off

Capacity of Memory
Commonly used units of measurement
 Kilobyte – abbreviated K, KB or K-Byte; 1,024 bytes
 Megabyte – abbreviated MB or M-Byte; 1 million bytes
 Gigabyte – abbreviated GB or G-Byte; 1 billion bytes
 Terabyte – abbreviated TB or T-Byte; 1 trillion bytes
 Petabyte – 1,000 Tb
 Exabyte - 1,000 Pb
 Zettabyte – 1,000 Eb
 Yottabyte – 1,000 Zb

Binary Coding Schemes

How are characters represented as 0s and 1s in the computer? The answer is in the use of BINARY
CODING SCHEMES.
 ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 Also called the Universal Product Code (UPC)
 The most widely used binary code for microcomputers
 EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
 Developed by IBM
 Industry standard for large computers
 UNICODE
 16-bit code designed to support international languages like Chinese and
Japanese

Data Hierarchy

DATABASE – a collection of relation fields

FILE – is a collection of related records

RECORD – a collection of related fields

FIELD – contains a set of related characters

CHARACTER – a single letter, number or special character

 Information Systems

 Collection of hardware, software, people, procedures and data

 All work together to provide information essential to running an organization

Information systems literacy is knowledge of how and why data, information, knowledge, computer,
and information technology are used by organizations and individuals. It includes not only knowledge of
computer technology but also aspects of the broader range of information technology. Information
systems literacy can involve knowledge of how and why people use information technology; knowledge
of organizations, decision-making approaches, management levels, and information needs; and
knowledge of how organizations can use information systems to achieve their goals.

Thus, the key aspect of information systems literacy is knowing how to deploy information technology
to help an organization achieve its business goals and to gain a competitive advantage. In general,
knowing about various types of hardware and software is an example of computer literacy. Knowing
how to use hardware and software to increase profits, cut costs, improve productivity, increase
customer satisfaction, and improve management decision-making is an example of information systems
literacy.

The value of information might be measured in following three dimensions:

 Content -- information should be accurate, relevant, and complete

 Time -- information should be timely and current
 Form -- information should be provided at the appropriate level of detail and in the most
appropriate form.

Information should have certain characteristics to make it valuable. The characteristics of valuable
information include being accurate, verifiable, timely, organized, meaningful, useful, and cost
effective.
• Accurate information is correct information. Inaccurate information often is worse than no
information, because inaccurate information can lead to incorrect decisions. For example, you
assume that your transcript correctly list your grades. If your transcript incorrectly reports low
grades in your major courses, a potential employer might deny you an interview.
• Verifiable information means that the information can be confirm by the user. For example, before
relying on thecumulative GPA on your transcript, a potential employer might want to check that
the GPA is calculated correctly. The potential employer can verify the accuracy of the
accumulated GPA by calculating it from the individual semester GPA values.
• Timely information has an age suited to its use. Your transcript, for example, has value for a potential
employer only if the employer receives it in time to make a hiring decision. Although most
information loses its value with time, some information, such as information on trends, gains
value as time passes and more information is obtained. Your transcript, for example, gains value
as you complete more coursework because it reflects your work ethic and dedication over a
time period.
• Meaningful information is relevant to the person who receives it. Because certain information is
meaningful only to specific individuals or groups, unnecessary information should be eliminated.
• Cost-effective information costs less to produce than the value of the resulting information. Most
organizations periodically review the information they produce in reports to determine if the
 reports provide valuable information. Based on that review, the companies can determine
whether to continue, scale back, or even eliminate these reports.

The need for timely information can change for each business decision. Some decisions require weekly
or monthly information while other decisions require daily information. Timeliness is an aspect
of information that depends on the situation.
.
Real-time information means immediate, up-to-date information. Real-time systems provide real-time
information in response to query requests. Realtime systems provide valuable information for
supporting corporate strategies such as customer relationship management. The growing
demand for real-time information stems from organizations’ need to make faster and more
effective decisions, keep smaller inventories, operate more efficiently, and track performance
more carefully. Nevertheless, timeliness is relative.

Components of Information System

1. Hardware consists of physical computer equipment and associated devices used to perform
input, processing, and output activities
2. Software the instructions that direct the operation of the hardware
3. Database contains all data utilized by application software
4. Telecommunications is the electronic transmission of signals for communications and enables
organizations to link computer systems into effective networks.
5. Information systems personnel include all the people who develop, program, operate, manage,
use and maintain the information systems.
6. Protocols are standards and guidelines used for designing and deploying information systems
7. Procedures include strategies, policies, methods, and rules for developing, managing and using
the information systems

Connectivity

o Capability of the microcomputer to use information from the world beyond your desk
o Ability of the computer to communicate with other computers and information sources

MODEM
 Short for MODULATOR/DEMODULATOR
 Modulation – convert electronic signals to analog
 Demodulation – convert analog to electronic signals
 Speed of data transmission varies but it is often measured at BAUD RATE
 BAUD RATE – represents number of changes in electrical state per second
 Unfortunately, this measure can be misleading. At low speeds, baud rate is equal to bits
per second (bps). However, at higher speeds, baud rate is not equal to bits per second.
For this reason, most communications professionals prefer to measure modem speed in
bits per second.
 Types of Modem
 External Modem
 Internal Modem
 Wireless Modem
 Fax Modem
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
The two major ways of connecting microcomputers with each other and with other equipment
are through: cable and air.
 Telephone Lines – strung on poles consist of cables made of copper wire
 Considered as twisted pairs
 Coaxial Cable – high frequency transmission cable, replaces multiple wires of telephone
lines with a single solid copper core
o 80 times transmission capacity of twisted pair
 Fiber-optic Cable – data is transmitted as pulses of light through tubes of glass
o 26,000 times transmission capacity of twisted pair
 Microwaves – high-frequency radio waves that travel in straight lines through the air
 Satellites – also used as microwave relay stations; orbiting 22,000 miles above the earth

DATA TRANSMISSION
The bits per second capability of a channel is called BANDWIDTH
 VOICEBAND – bandwidth of standard telephone line
 MEDIUMBAND – bandwidth of special leased lines
 BROADBAND –bandwidth that includes microwave, satellite, coaxial cable and fiber-
optic cable

NETWORK
 A collection of computers and devices connected together via communications devices and
transmission media.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network Topology refers to layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are connected to
each other and how they communicate.
1. MESH TOPOLOGY: In a mesh network, devices are connected with many
redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh topology every
node has a connection to every other node in the network.
2. STAR TOPOLOGY: In a star network devices are connected to a central computer,
called a hub. Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the
hub.
 Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't
affect the rest of the network.
 Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network
becomes unusable.
3. BUS TOPOLOGY: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all devices
on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to describe the main
network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to
install for small networks. Ethernet systems use a bus topology.
 Main Advantage: It’s easy to connect a computer or device and typically it requires less cable
than a star topology.
 Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and it
can be difficult to identify the problem if the network shuts down.
4. RING TOPOLOGY: A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all
of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with
each node reading those messages addressed to it. One main advantage to a ring
network is that it can span larger distances than other types of networks, such as bus
networks, because each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.
5. TREE TOPOLOGY: This is a "hybrid" topology that combines
characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. In a tree network,
groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
 Main Advantage: A Tree topology is a good choice for large
computer networks as the tree topology "divides" the whole
network into parts that are more easily manageable.
 Main Disadvantage: The entire network depends on a central
hub and a failure of the central hub can cripple the whole
network.

NETWORK TYPES
 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS – networks with computers and peripheral devices in close physical
proximity
 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS – these networks are used as links between office buildings
in a city
 WIDE AREA NETWORKS – countrywide and worldwide networks

End Users and Computer Competency

 End Users – people who use microcomputers or have access to larger computers
 Computer Literate – people who know how to use the computer, although not necessarily in a
productive way
 Computer Competent – those who know how to use the computer to meet your information
needs

Workplace Issues

 Ergonomics
 Ethics
 Security
 Environment

ERGONOMICS
 Study of human factors relating to computers. It is concerned with fitting the job to the worker
rather than forcing the worker to contort to fit the job.
o PHYSICAL HEALTH MATTERS
o MENTAL HEALTH MATTERS
ETHICS
 Standards of moral conduct.
 Computer Ethics are guidelines for the morally acceptable use of computers in our society.
 Four primary computer ethics issues:
 o PRIVACY concerns the collection and use of data about individuals
o ACCURACY relates to the responsibility of those who collect data to ensure that the data
is correct
o PROPERTY relates to who owns data and rights to software
o ACCESS relates to the responsibility of those who have data to control who is able to
use the data

SECURITY
A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss of or damage to computer
hardware, software, data, information or processing capability. An intentional breach of computer
security often involves a deliberate act that is against the law. Any illegal act involving a computer
generally is referred to as a computer crime. The term cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based
illegal acts. Perpetrators of cybercrime and other intrusions fall into seven basic categories: hacker,
cracker, script kiddie, corporate spy, unethical employee, cyberextortionist, and cyberterrorist.
a. The term hacker, although originally a complimentary word for a computer enthusiast, now has
a derogatory meaning and refers to someone who accesses a computer or network illegally.
b. A cracker also is someone who accesses a computer or network illegally but has the intent of
destroying data, stealing information, or other malicious action. Both hackers and crackers have
advanced computer and network skills.
c. A script kiddie has the same intent as a cracker but does not have the technical skills and
knowledge. Script kiddies often use prewritten hacking and cracking programs to break into
computers.
d. Corporate spies are hired to break into a specific computer and steal its proprietary data and
information, or help identify security risks in their own organization.
e. Unethical employees may break into their employers’ computers for a variety of reasons. Some
simply want to exploit a security weakness. Others seek financial gains from selling confidential
information. Disgruntled employees may want revenge.
f. A cyberextortionist is someone who uses e-mail as a vehicle for extortion.
g. A cyberterrorist is someone who uses the Internet or network to destroy or damage computers
for political reasons. The term, cyberwarfare, describes an attack whose goal ranges from
disabling a government’s computer network to crippling a country.

MEASURES TO PROTECT COMPUTER SECURITY

 Restricting access through passwords and biometrics
 Anticipating disasters by providing physical security for hardware and data security for software
and data
 Backing up data frequently and storing it in safe locations; and
 Providing security for microcomputers by avoiding extreme conditions and guarding the
computer, software and data

ENVIRONMENT
Microcomputers are the greatest users of electricity in the workplace.
The Green PC:
 Systems units that use energy-saving microprocessors, have sleep mode capability, are more
energy-efficient, and eliminate cooling fans.
 Display units that are efficient by replacing CRT Displays with flat panels, using special power-
down monitors, and using screen-saver software.
  Manufacturing eliminates or reduces the use of harmful chemicals such as CFCs, nickel, and
other heavy metals.

YOUR PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY

 Conserving energy by turning off computer systems at the end of the workday and using
screensaver software to blank computer screens after 3 to 5 minutes of inactivity
 Recycling paper, computer boxes, packaging materials, printer cartridges and floppy disks
 Educating yourself and others about ecological dangers of all types