See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/288395526

Development of deformable protective system for underground infrastructure

using cellular grouts

Article  in  Aci Materials Journal · September 2002

CITATIONS READS

7 35

3 authors, including:

Moncef L. Nehdi
The University of Western Ontario
335 PUBLICATIONS   3,653 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Development of Design Guidelines for Grouted in-conduit connections View project

Currently working on various projects in the areas of smart bio-inspired self-healing materials & structures, sustainability, cement & concrete, durability & repair of civil
infrastructure. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Moncef L. Nehdi on 25 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 99-M50
Development of Deformable Protective System for
Underground Infrastructure Using Cellular Grouts
by M. Nehdi, Ashfaq Khan, and K. Y. Lo
With population growth and urban congestion, there is a growing
need to use underground structures simply because available
economical space is increasingly scarce at the surface. Under-
ground structures and tunnels are employed in a growing range of
applications encompassing transportation and storage facilities;
military bases; hydroelectric, nuclear, and thermal generating
stations; and processing and disposal facilities for radioactive and
chemical waste. Many of these underground structures and tunnels,
however, will have to be constructed in soft soil, rocks with
time-dependent deformations, and other situations in which tunnel
lining segments will be exposed to excessive deformations of the
surrounding rock/soil that may lead to their failure. This study
aims to develop a cost-effective grouting system that can serve as a
deformable buffer layer between tunnel lining segments and the
excavation line and therefore accommodate excessive rock/soil
deformations. The effects of water-cement ratio (w/c), foam
content, and sand addition on the mechanical properties of cellular
grouts were studied using uniaxial and triaxial compression tests.
Brittleness index and shear strength parameters of these grouts
were also determined. The findings of this study suggest that low-
density nonsanded cellular grouts have superior plastic behavior
under triaxial states of stress and may be used to accommodate
excessive deformations around tunnel linings, pipelines, and other
buried infrastructure.
Keywords: grout; strain; stress.
INTRODUCTION
The growing use of underground space has profited from
rapid developments in rock excavation techniques. This
traditionally laborious and dangerous work has now been
taken over by elaborate and powerful machines (tunnel
boring machines [TBMs]) that combine high productivity
with precision and quality of execution.
The tunneling industry has, in recent years, been moving
worldwide towards the use of single-pass, precast concrete
segmental linings. More traditional tunneling methods
involve separate installation of primary and final lining
systems whereby the contractor designs and installs a primary
support compatible with the excavation system used while
an owner-specified secondary lining is installed sometime
after excavation is completed. In general, both systems are
designed to independently resist the anticipated rock/soil
stresses for the service life of the structure, resulting in
considerable redundancy. In contrast, the modern approach
uses a single-pass system consisting of precast concrete
segments forming a circular ring installed within the TBM
during the excavation cycle as a combined primary/final
support for the tunnel.
The benefits of this single-pass system include reduced
excavation costs due to smaller mined diameters, significantly
faster project implementation, increased quality control using
factory-made components, and increased structural efficiency.
490
TECHNICAL PAPER
Such a system, however, may encounter great difficulty in
large-diameter tunnels in rock/soil exhibiting time-dependent
deformational behavior and high in-place stresses. Because of
the potential benefits, however, various researchers in tunnel
engineering are focusing on the feasibility of mining large-
diameter tunnels in such conditions and supporting the exca-
vation line with single-pass segmental concrete lining systems.
Tunnel excavation using fully shielded TBMs is accomplished
by a repetitive sequence of short advances. At the end of
each tunnel excavation advance or shove, a ring consisting of
precast concrete segments is erected within the TBM tail
shield. The next excavation advance is accomplished by
thrusting or pushing off the recently erected ring while
concurrently injecting grout into the annular space between
the ring and the excavation line. This process results in the
installation of a relatively rigid lining within several hours of
excavation and relatively close to the advancing tunnel face.
A rigid lining installed tightly against the excavation line will be
subjected to stress buildup due to the restraint it creates.
Analyses have shown that under such conditions, the
resulting time-dependent rock loading and corresponding
lining stresses can exceed tolerable levels (Lo and Yeun
1981; Lo and Hefny 1996). Consequently, to be technically
feasible, the design of single-pass systems requires the
development of a deformable grout layer between the lining
and the rock mass to reduce and control the rock/soil-induced
lateral pressures and stresses in the lining system.
This paper investigates the development of a deformable
interface cellular grouting system for tunnel linings that will
act as a crushable layer between the rock surface and the
permanent lining (Fig. 1) so that the maximum applied
stresses to the lining are limited to the crushing strength of
the interface material. The stress-strain behavior under
uniaxial and triaxial compression, brittleness index, and
shear strength parameters of various batches of cellular grout
were investigated to develop a material that is adequate for
this application.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
To satisfy the rapidly growing infrastructure demand in
increasingly more congested urban centers, more structures
will have to be constructed underground in soft soils, in soils with
high-overburden pressure, and in rocks with time-dependent
behavior. Thus, excessive deformations of the surrounding
soil/rock can jeopardize the structural integrity of such
ACI Materials Journal, V. 99, No. 5, September-October 2002.
MS No. 02-029 received January 15, 2002, and reviewed under Institute publication
policies. Copyright © 2002, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including
the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Pertinent discussion will be published in the July-August 2003 ACI Materials Journal
if received by April 1, 2003.
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002
ACI member M. Nehdi is an assistant professor in the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the University of Western Ontario (UWO). He is a
member of ACI Committees 225, Hydraulic Cements; 236, Material Science of
Concrete; and E 803, Faculty Network Coordinating Committee. His research interests
include modeling the behavior of cement-based materials, use of special concretes in
geotechnical engineering, and durability and repair of concrete infrastructure and
recycling by-products in construction applications.
Ashfaq Khan is a consulting engineer at O’Connor & Associates, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada. He received his MESc from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engi-
neering at UWO. His research interests include applications of cellular concrete tech-
nology in tunneling projects and development of deformable cement-based materials.
K. Y. Lo is a professor emeritus in the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering at UWO. His research interests include rock mechanics, tunnelling, soil
mechanics, and expansive rock behavior.
buried structures, which often include high-risk facilities
such as nuclear and thermal generating stations, military
bases, and disposal facilities for radioactive and chemical
waste. It is believed that developing a cost-effective grouting
material that can serve as a deformable interfacial space
between lining segments of underground structures and the
surrounding rock/soil can accommodate rock/soil deformations
and substantially enhance the safety and reliability of buried
infrastructure. This research demonstrates that carefully
designed cellular grouts offer a highly promising alternative
for such applications.
STRESS BUILDUP IN LINED CIRCULAR TUNNELS
Excavation for underground structures in rock/soil relieves
the in-place state of stresses, providing an initiating
mechanism for time-dependent deformations to occur.
Deformation of the rock/soil mass will continue with time,
causing stress buildup in the permanent lining (Lo et al.
1987). For long-term conditions, the initiation of time-
dependent deformation in rocks such as shales and shaly
limestone may cause severe cracking of the lining that leads,
in some cases, to its failure (Lo 1989).
In-place measurements on underground structures built in
rock formations in Southern Ontario have shown that a state
of high horizontal stresses is prevalent in such rock formations
(Lo 1978). Similar conditions exist in some parts of the U.S.
(Quentin and Flanagan 1979). Distress in underground
structures built in rocks exhibiting time-dependent deformation
and subject to high horizontal stresses is well known. Lo and
Yeun (1981) showed in many case records that for lined
circular tunnels, the distress is manifested in the form of
sub-horizontal cracking at the springline. About 30 cm of
invert heave over 30 years was measured in tunnels in
Switzerland (Berk and Grob 1972; Einstein and Bischoff
1975). In Germany, floor heave of about 45 cm over 3 years
was reported by Wittke and Pierau (1979).
In Southern Ontario, this problem, known as rock squeeze,
has been identified since 1903 when engineers started
measuring the closure of the wheel pit walls at the Canadian
Niagara and Toronto power plants at Niagara Falls (Morison
1957). Concern was again expressed in the 1950s when the
Sir Adam Beck Niagara Generating Station No. 2 was under
construction (Morison 1957; Hogg 1959). A storm sewer
tunnel through the Georgian Bay formation located in
Mississauga, Ontario, suffered such severe distress from
rock squeeze that entire sections of the tunnel had to be
replaced (Lo, Devata, and Yeun 1979).
In rock/soil exhibiting time-dependent deformational
characteristics, the timing of lining installation relative to
excavation is an important factor in the development of rock/
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002
Fig. 1—Stresses of excavated rock acting on deformable
grout and rigid lining segments.
soil-induced stresses in the lining. The closer and sooner that
the lining is installed to the recently excavated tunnel face,
the greater the stresses are that will develop against and in
the lining. To guard the lining against damage due to time-
dependent deformation, three alternatives may be considered
(Lo and Lukajic 1984). First, the excavation may be made
and sufficient time allowed to elapse before the permanent
lining is installed, so that the potential time-dependent
deformation may dissipate as much as possible. Thus, the
stress built up with time following the lining installation is
reduced. When construction schedules permit and the rate of
rock deformation is relatively fast, this method is practical
and feasible. A second method is to provide a crushable
material between the rock surface and the lining, so that the
applied stresses to the lining are limited to the crushing
strength of the interface material. The interface material
should then possess strength and deformation properties
compatible with other design loads such as hydrostatic pressure.
The third method is to employ stress relief slots that provide
space for the expansion of the rock at certain strategic locations.
In the present study, the development of a deformable
grouting system that will act as a crushable interface material
(second method) is explored. This method is feasible in
situations where the excavated rock/soil exhibits time-dependent
deformation and the boring is done using TBMs.
MATERIALS AND TEST METHODS
Cellular grout mixtures
Cellular grout is made of a pregenerated aqueous foam
blended into a cement grout to form a multitude of macro-
scopic, noninterconnected air cells uniformly distributed
throughout the mass (Cellufoam Concrete Systems 1999).
The air cells may account for up to 94% of the total grout
volume. Required physical properties are attained by adjusting
the volume of foam, water, and cement. The introduction of
aggregates in the mixture can either increase density at low
cost or result in compressive strengths as high as 27 MPa
(4000 psi). Preformed foam cellular grout is usually produced
on site. The quality of the installed product is largely dependent
on the materials used, the production equipment, and the
method of placement. The amount of air in the mixture is
critical and, because air will be lost with time, quick
placement of the mixture is highly recommended. The
stability of foam in time and the ability to maintain individual
nonconnected air cells until final setting is very critical
in mixture proportioning.
491
Table 1—Mixture proportions, density, and for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in Laboratory.”
compressive strength of sanded and nonsanded The molded specimens were stored in a curing chamber at
cellular grouts 100% relative humidity and temperature of 23 ± 2 °C.
Batch no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 After demolding, each test specimen was capped with a
Cement, kg/m3 465 530 340 255 300 580 sulfur solution according to ASTM C 617-94 guideline
“Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens”
Water, kg/m3 220 280 215 210 165 290
before being subjected to a uniaxial or a triaxial compression
3 25.0 21.5 14.5 9.5 28.5 18.0
Foam, kg/m test. Although this practice may not be necessary for cellular
Sand, kg/m3 0 0 895 1086 0 0 concrete, it was done to ensure that both ends of the test
w/c 0.47 0.53 0.63 0.81 0.55 0.50 specimen are smooth and parallel to each other, and to avoid
any eccentric loading due to a nonuniform contact between
Foam density, kg/m3 43.0 42.50 43.0 42.50 42.50 37.75
the ends of the test specimen and the loading plate of the
3 710 830 1465 1560 495 888
Unit weight, kg/m MTS machine.
Average 1 day fc′, MPa 0.30 0.48 0.65 0.90 0.08 2.17
Average 28 day fc′, MPa 1.54 2.38 3.35 4.60 0.55 3.97 Uniaxial compression test
For each batch, three 75 x 150 mm test specimens were
tested under uniaxial compression (ASTM C 39-96, “Standard
Mixture proportions and specimen preparation Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Six cellular grout mixtures (two sanded and four without Concrete Specimens”) at 1 day. The remaining three specimens
sand) were prepared according to ASTM C 305-82 guide- were stored in the curing chamber until testing for uniaxial
lines (practice for mechanical mixing of hydraulic cement compression at 28 days. An MTS machine with a maximum
pastes and mortars of plastic consistency). Portland cement loading capacity of 245 kN was employed for the test. The
(ASTM Type 1), standard Ottawa sand, tap water, and a test was performed under deformation control at a rate of
foam admixture were used for making the batches. A 1 mm/min. For each specimen, load versus deformation data
commercial foaming agent, water, and compressed air were was recorded using an automatic data logger.
blended in a foam generator to make the foam. The dilution
ratio used, that is, the ratio of water to foam concentrate by Triaxial compression test
weight, was 39 parts water to one part foam concentrate In principal, the triaxial compression test covers a wider
(2.5% foam concentrate). A laboratory-size portable foam stress range than the uniaxial compression test. Therefore, it
generator was used for foam production. can better simulate three-dimensional stress conditions and
Foam density was carefully monitored and was found to anisotropic behavior of rock/soil mass around tunnels and
be within the manufacturer’s defined density range of 2.35 to underground structures. In reality, the proposed deformable
2.75 lb/ft3 (37.5 to 44 kg/m3). Variation in foam density not buffer layer of cellular grout will be under a state of triaxial
only affects foam stability but can also change the output of stress due to the surrounding rock/soil mass. A triaxial
the foam generator and affect the density, fluidity, and compression test (ASTM C 801-91, “Standard Test Method
physical properties of the cellular grout. Care should be taken for Determining the Mechanical Properties of Hardened
to avoid the formation of small transparent bubbles, called Concrete under Triaxial Loads”) was therefore conducted on
fish eyes, in the foam, which are an indication that the foam 50 x 100 mm test specimens from each batch at 1 and 28 days.
generation is nonuniform and therefore the foam density is The test was performed under undrained conditions. First, a
not appropriate. The volume of foam should also be carefully test specimen was placed in the triaxial cell and then enclosed in
monitored to maintain uniformity of compressive strength. It a rubber membrane sealed with O-rings to the base and
has been estimated that the compressive strength of a cellular loading cap. The pressure cell was then filled with the
grout can decrease by 5 to 10 psi (35 to 69 kPa) for every 1% confining fluid (distilled water). The rubber membrane
increase in foam volume (Cellufoam Concrete Systems prevents the confining fluid from entering the pores of the
1999). The foam concentrate used is a true surfactant; it test specimen. Thus, each specimen was tested with full
disperses in water and stays in suspension. Not all commercial confining pressure on the boundaries but with nominally
foam concentrates are true surfactants; some require the zero pressure in the pores of the specimen. The MTS machine
solution to be stored in a pressurized vessel to keep it in mentioned previously was used to apply the axial stress or
suspension. major principal stress (σ1). The test assembly is shown in
Cement and water were first mixed in a high shear horizontal Fig. 2. The confining pressure was laterally applied on each
mortar mixer for 1-1/2 min and then the preformed foam was test specimen and considered as the minor principal stress (σ3).
added into the mixer. The ingredients were then mixed for an In the initial phase of the experimental program, three
additional minute, and a cellular grout of uniform composition specimens from each of the four batches (Batches 1 to 4) were
was obtained. For sanded batches, cement, sand, and water tested at a constant confining pressure of 0.3 MPa at 28 days. In
were first mixed in the horizontal mortar mixer for 1-1/2 min the final phase of the experimental program, however,
before the preformed foam was added. All ingredients were specimens of two batches (Batches 5 and 6) were tested at
mixed for an additional minute thereafter. variable confining pressures of 0 (uniaxial compression),
Density of the fresh cellular grout was determined for each 0.1, 0.25, and 0.45 MPa to determine the failure envelopes of the
batch according to ASTM C 567-91 (standard test method materials. At each confining pressure, three specimens were
for unit weight of structural lightweight insulating concrete). tested at 1 day and three specimens were tested at 28 days,
Table 1 summarizes the mixture proportions of the six batches. comprising a total of 24 specimens for each batch. This was
For each batch, 50 x 100 mm (2 x 4 in.) plastic molds were done to define a failure envelope to the Mohr stress circles.
filled in two layers and 75 x 150 mm (3 x 6 in.) plastic molds For each batch, the test results were divided into three series.
were filled in three layers according to ASTM C 192, “Practice Each series represents test results of eight specimens at

492 ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002

confining pressures of 0, 0.1, 0.25, and 0.45 MPa for 1
and 28 days, respectively.
A small vertical load was first applied to properly seat
the bearing parts of the apparatus before applying the
confining pressure. The confining pressure was then
brought to the desired level using the confining pressure
application assembly. At this time the axial stress on the
specimen was equal to the lateral confining pressure. Additional
axial load was then applied on the specimen at a constant
compressive displacement control rate of 1 mm of vertical
displacement every 1 min. The test was continued until the
postpeak stress (stress at 20% strain) was reached. Axial load
and axial strain were simultaneously monitored and recorded
by an automatic data acquisition system. Axial strain was
measured using an internal displacement transducer. The
data were utilized in the development of stress-strain curves
for each specimen.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Behavior under uniaxial compression
The uniaxial compression test results for the various cellular Fig. 2—Cellular grout specimen under triaxial compression.
grout mixtures at 1 and 28 days are given in Table 1. It was
observed that the compressive strength of cellular grouts
increased with an increase in water-cement ratio (w/c). Such
a behavior appears as a discrepancy (compared with that of
traditional cement-based materials) but was also observed by
Tam, Lim, and Lee (1987). For ordinary cement-based
materials, the predominant factor for strength is the w/c. For
cellular concrete, this predominance can shift to the air/cement
ratio (a/c). Thus, strength can increase when the w/c increases
as long as there is a more significant reduction in the a/c ratio
(overall porosity decreases). For example, Batch No. 4 has
the highest w/c but the lowest foam content of all batches.
Therefore, it exhibits the highest compressive strength. On
the other hand, Batch No. 5 has the highest foam content and
is consequently the batch with the lowest compressive
strength. The sanded batches showed higher strength and (a)
density than the nonsanded batches except the nonsanded
Batch No. 6 that showed considerable density and strength
because of its low foam content.
The uniaxial stress-strain behavior of Batch No. 5 (contains
approximately twice the amount of foam of Batch No. 6, and
is therefore a weaker material) is shown in Fig. 3(a). The
elastic modulus Ey was determined from the slope of the
initial linear portion of the stress-strain curves. A 300%
increase in Ey was observed between 1 and 28 days for
specimens of Batch No. 5. The axial strain at 28-day peak
stress was, however, found to be significantly higher than
that at 1 day. Due to the high foam content, the specimens
demonstrated significant plastic behavior at 1 day even with
zero confining pressure. At 28 days, however, the specimens
exhibited a somewhat more brittle behavior. The effect of (b)
confining pressure on the stress-strain behavior will be
discussed in a following section in more detail. Typically, Fig. 3—Stress-strain curves under uniaxial compression
under uniaxial compression, specimens from all batches did for: (a) Batch No. 5; and (b) Batch No. 6.
not separate into pieces and exhibited a progressive failure of
a shearing cone mode (Fig. 4(a)). 1 and 28 days was found to be almost the same (6%) and the
Figure 3(b) illustrates typical stress-strain curves of specimens demonstrated a rather brittle behavior compared
specimens from Batch No. 6 at 1 and 28 days. For this batch, with specimens from Batch No. 5.
Ey at 28 days was found to be slightly higher than that at
1 day, thus indicating a slightly more rigid behavior. The axial Behavior under triaxial compression
strain for the 28 day peak stress, however, was also significantly In the following discussion, the meaning of maximum
higher than the axial strain at 1 day peak stress. The maximum strain is twofold: when the value of maximum strain is much
strain (strain at which the MTS load dropped to zero) at both lower than 20%, the term refers to the strain at which, during

ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002 493


(a)
(b)
Fig. 4—Mode of failure of cellular grout specimens after: (a)
uniaxial compression test; and (b) triaxial compression test.
Fig. 5—Comparison of stress-strain curves of sanded and
nonsanded cellular grout specimens under triaxial compres-
sion at 28 days.
the triaxial test, the deviator stress dropped so that σ1 – σ3 ≈
0. When the value is in the neighborhood of 20 to 23%, it
refers to the value of the strain at which the test was halted
so as not to damage the triaxial cell because the setup cannot
accommodate higher deformations.
494
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6—Stress-strain behavior for specimens of Batch No. 5
at different confining pressures under triaxial compression
at: (a) 1 day; and (b) 28 days.
Figure 5 shows typical 28-day stress-strain curves for
specimens of Batches 1 to 4 under undrained triaxial
compression at confining pressure of 0.3 MPa. Stress-strain
curves for cellular grout mixtures under triaxial compression
indicated increased plastic deformation compared with their
behavior under uniaxial compression. Moreover, cellular
grout mixtures without sand showed higher plastic deformation
compared with mixtures containing sand. It was also observed
that high-density mixtures demonstrated less plastic deformation
compared with lower density mixtures. The mixture with the
highest density showed a maximum strain of 6.5% while the
mixture with lowest density showed a maximum strain of
19%. This indicates an increase in strain of at least 200%.
Figure 6 compares the 1 and 28 day stress-strain curves for
specimens of Batch No. 5 subjected to triaxial compression
under varying confining pressure. It was found that as the
confining pressure was increased, the behavior of the material
became increasingly more plastic both at 1 and 28 days. It
was also observed that the peak stress (σ1 − σ3) and maximum
strain were increased with an increase in confining pressure.
At 1 day (Fig. 6(a)), an increase of 70% in peak stress and at
least 90% in maximum strain were observed when the
confining pressure was increased from 0 to 0.45 MPa.
Similarly, at 28 days (Fig. 6(b)), an increase of 25% in peak
stress and at least 175% in maximum strain were observed
when the confining pressure was increased from 0 to 0.45 MPa.
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002
 (a)
(b)
Fig. 7—Stress-strain behavior for specimens of Batch No. 6
at different confining pressures under triaxial compression
at: (a) 1 day; and (b) 28 days.
It should also be mentioned that the residual postpeak stresses
were higher the higher the confining pressure. Moreover,
the elastic modulus was not significantly affected by the
confining pressure.
Figure 7 illustrates the stress-strain behavior for specimens
of Batch No. 6 at different confining pressures under 1 and
28 days of triaxial compression. An increase of 32% in 1 day
peak stress, 17% in 28 day peak stress, at least 265% in 1 day
maximum strain, and 280% in 28 day maximum strain were
measured when the confining pressure was increased from 0
to 0.45 MPa. The results show that the effect of the confining
pressure on the plastic behavior of cellular grout specimens
is more dominant compared with its effect on the peak stress.
It was again observed that variation in confining pressure did
not affect the elastic modulus of cellular grout specimens
and that the residual postpeak stress was higher the higher
the confining pressure.
Figure 4(b) shows the typical failure mode of cellular grout
specimens tested under triaxial compression. The specimens
maintained their integrity after large deformations. Their
failure appeared as a gradual shear and did not result in a
brittle fracture of specimens. The specimens continued to
sustain load after initial failure and demonstrated a progressive
crushing associated with large deformations. This type of
behavior has a potential to be utilized in overcoming such
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8—Brittleness index versus confining pressure for: (a)
Batch No. 5; and (b) Batch No. 6.
diverse engineering situations as blast attenuation, shock
absorption, and rock squeeze.
Brittleness index
The experimental results of triaxial compression tests on
cellular grout specimens showed that as the confining pressure
was increased from 0 to 0.45 MPa, the behavior of the material
became more plastic. The plastic behavior of cellular grout
specimens might be due to the fact that the lateral deformation
(Poisson’s effect) of the specimens was restricted by the
lateral confining pressure. As the confining pressure was
increased, the lateral deformation of the specimens was more
restricted and the plastic behavior of the material increased.
Figure 8 shows a graphical representation of the effect of the
confining pressure on the brittleness index IB of the cellular
grouts. IB is defined as the ratio of the postpeak decrease in
strength to the peak strength (Bishop 1967). For a confining
pressure of 0 MPa, the postpeak strength was found to be zero.
Mathematically, IB can be expressed as follows
( σ 1 – σ 3 ) f – ( σ 1 – σ 3 )pp
I B = --------------------------------------------------------- (1)
( σ 1 – σ 3 )f
495
Table 2—Computation of brittleness index
(Batches 5 and 6)
(σ1 − σ3)f, (σ1 − σ3)pp,
Batch no. Age σ3, MPa MPa MPa IB , %
0.00 0.08 0.00 100
0.10 0.10 0.07 32
1 day
0.25 0.12 0.09 27
0.45 0.15 0.12 20
5
0.00 0.60 0.00 100
0.10 0.65 0.42 36
28 days
0.25 0.71 0.52 27
0.45 0.75 0.60 20
0.00 2.00 0.00 100
0.10 2.13 0.90 58
1 day
0.25 2.30 1.28 44
Fig. 9—Example of Mohr circles drawn to get a Mohr-
0.45 2.65 1.55 42
6 Coulomb failure envelope (Batch No. 6).
0.00 3.50 0.00 100
0.10 3.60 1.45 60
28 days Shear strength parameters
0.25 3.90 2.15 45
After studying the compressive strength and deformation
0.45 4.10 2.40 42
properties of the two cellular grout batches (Batches No. 5
and 6) under uniaxial and triaxial compression, it is also of ut-
most importance to determine the shear strength of these
batches because it is required for stability analysis of tunnels
Table 3—Summary of strength parameters and other underground structures that are subjected to both
obtained from Mohr-Colomb failure envelopes normal and shear stresses. The shear strengths of these mix-
(Batches 5 and 6) tures can be obtained using the Mohr-Coulomb failure law
Strength parameters given by the following straight-line equation
Peak values Postpeak values
Batch Series
no. no. Age φ, degree c, MPa φ, degree c, MPa τ = c + σ tan φ (2)
1 day 2 0.04 2 0.03
1
28 days 4 0.26 4 0.19 where τ = shear strength of the material; c = cohesion intercept;
5 2
1 day 4 0.04 4 0.03 φ = friction angle or angle of shearing resistance; and σ =
28 days 7 0.28 7 0.20 normal stress acting on the failure plane of the material.
1 day 3 0.03 3 0.02 For finding the two important shear strength parameters φ
3
28 days 7 0.22 7 0.19 and c, three series of undrained triaxial compression tests
1 day 20 0.79 20 0.38 were carried out on specimens of Batches 5 and 6 at confining
1 pressures of 0 (uniaxial compression), 0.1, 0.25, and 0.45
28 days 22 1.50 22 0.55
1 day 23 0.70 23 0.35 MPa, respectively. For each series of tests, Mohr-Coulomb
6 2 failure envelopes were obtained for the peak strength as well
28 days 24 1.15 24 0.50
as for the postpeak strength both at 1 and 28 days. Each series
1 day 20 0.90 20 0.46
3 consisted of four triaxial tests; thus, four Mohr circles were
28 days 23 1.50 23 0.60
plotted to get the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope (for example,
Fig. 9). The values of shear strength parameters (φ and c) for
Batches 5 and 6 are summarized in Table 3. For each batch,
where σ1 = major principal stress; σ3 = minor principal the results of all series of triaxial tests were plotted together
stress; (σ1 – σ3)f = peak strength; and (σ1 – σ3)pp = postpeak in p-q plots (p = (σ1 + σ3)/2; q = (σ1 − σ3)/2) for both peak
strength (strength at 20% strain). strength and postpeak strength values at 1 and 28 days,
For computation of IB, respective values of the parameters respectively (for example, Fig. 10). From the p-q plots, α
used in Eq. (1) are summarized in Table 2 for both Batches (slope of Kf -line) and a (y-intercept on p-q plots) were
5 and 6. For Batch No. 5, Fig. 8(a) shows a decrease of 80% calculated from which φ and c were computed (Lambe and
in IB both for 1 and 28 day test results with an increase in Whitman 1979). Kf -line is a line that joins the data points of
confining pressure from 0 to 0.45 MPa. For Batch No. 6 a p-q plot. The correlations used for computation of φ and c
(containing approximately half of the foam of Batch No. 5), are given as follows
a 60% decrease in IB was observed both for 1 and 28 day test
results when the confining pressure was increased from 0 to
0.45 MPa (Fig. 8(b)). These results support findings of this φ = sin–1tan(α) (3)
experimental program discussed previously that the behavior
of cellular grouts became more plastic with an increase in c = a/cosφ (4)
confining pressure. This behavior would be very advantageous
in tunnel applications in which as the rock squeeze increases, The shear strength parameters obtained from the p-q plots
a buffer cellular grout layer becomes more ductile to confirm the values obtained from failure envelopes of the
accommodate rock deformations. individual series of tests. The peak strength and postpeak

496 ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002

 Fig. 10—p-q plots for specimens of Batch No. 6 after triaxial compression tests for: (a) 1-day
peak strength; (b) 1-day postpeak strength; (c) 28-day peak strength; and (d) 28-day post-
peak strength.

shear strength parameters for both batches were obtained Table 4—Summary of strength parameters
using Eq. (3) and (4) and are given in Table 4. The results obtained from p-q plots (Batches 5 and 6)
show that for both batches, the postpeak angle of friction φ is Strength parameters
similar to the corresponding value of the peak friction angle. Peak values Postpeak values
The drop in shear strength seems therefore to be due to a Batch no. Age φ, degree c, MPa φ, degree c, MPa
decrease in cohesion c after the peak. 1 day 4 0.05 4 0.04
For Batch No. 5, φ and c were found to be much lower than 5
28 days 6 0.28 6 0.19
corresponding values for Batch No. 6. This shows that in 1 day 22 0.60 22 0.30
accordance with its lower compressive strength, Batch No. 5 6
28 days 22 1.05 22 0.40
also has lower shear strength compared with Batch No. 6. For
both batches, an increase in c was observed at 28 days. For
Batch No. 5, increases in c of 460% for peak strength values obtained. From the results of these investigations, the following
and 430% for postpeak strength values were measured at 28 conclusions can be drawn:
days. For Batch No. 6, increases in c of approximately 75% 1. Mixtures of cellular grout containing sand exhibited
for peak strength values and 33% for postpeak strength values lower plastic deformation and higher compressive strength
were found at 28 days. These results indicate that, as expected, than that of mixtures without sand;
the shear strength of both batches increased with time. 2. The compressive strength of cellular grouts depended
on the foam content irrespective of the w/c;
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 3. Increasing the confining pressure resulted in changing
Specimens of six different cellular grout batches, two the behavior of cellular grout specimens from quasi-brittle to
containing sand and four without sand, were tested under plastic;
uniaxial compression and undrained triaxial compression. 4. The shear strength of cellular grout specimens decreased
For each test, stress-strain curves were obtained and studied after compressive peak load was reached. The postpeak
in detail. Undrained triaxial compression tests were performed friction angle φ was found to be the same as the peak shear
at 1 and 28 days on test specimens of two nonsanded batches angle φ. The drop in strength may therefore be attributed to
of cellular grout (Batches 5 and 6) at confining pressures of a decrease in cohesion c after peak load;
0, 0.1, 0.25, and 0.45 MPa. Brittleness index and shear 5. The brittle behavior of a material can be represented by
strength parameters using the Mohr-Coulomb method were the brittleness index IB. It is shown that, for cellular grouts,

ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002 497

IB decreased with an increase in confining pressure both at 1
and 28 days. Such behavior is advantageous in field applications
since increasing pressures from rock squeeze improve the
postpeak mechanical behavior of this material when used as
an interfacial buffer material in tunnel applications;
6. For specimens tested under uniaxial compression, a
failure mode of a shear cone with splitting above was observed.
For specimens tested under triaxial compression, however,
the failure observed was of a gradual shear mode.
7. Low-density cellular grouts showed adequate properties
that could allow them to be used as a crushable annulus layer
around tunnel linings and other underground structures to protect
them from rock-squeeze and time-dependent stresses; and
8. It is important that cellular grouts be carefully designed
and comprehensively tested with special attention to the
stresses and geological conditions of a specific project before
they are used as a crushable interface material. This should
include drained triaxial tests to account for possible saturated
conditions along with durability tests specific for the site and
application.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Natural Science and Engineering
Research Council of Canada Grant No. 227778-00 (M. Nehdi) and Grant
No. 7745-99 (K. Y. Lo). Cellufoam Concrete Systems of Scarborough,
Ontario, is kindly acknowledged for providing valuable support to this
project.
REFERENCES
Berk, A., and Grob, H., 1972, “Swelling Pressure Illustrated with the
Example of the Belchen Tunnel,” International Symposium of Underground
Opening, Lucerne, pp. 99-119.
Bishop, A. W., 1967, “Progressive Failure—With Special Reference to
the Mechanism Causing It,” Proceedings of Geotechnical Conference,
Oslo, V. 2, pp. 29-37.
498
View publication stats
Cellufoam Concrete Systems, 1999, “Preformed Foam Cellular Concrete—
A Guide to Equipment, Chemistry and Technology,” Ontario, Canada, 19 pp.
Einstein, H. H., and Bischoff, N., 1975, “Design of Tunnels in Swelling
Rocks,” 16th Symposium on Rock Mechanics, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minn., pp. 185-195.
Hogg, A. D., 1959, “Some Engineering Studies of Rock Movements in
the Niagara Area,” Engineering Geology Case History No. 3, Geological
Society of America, pp. 1-12.
Lambe, T. W., and Whitman, R. V., 1979, Soil Mechanics (SI Version),
John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., pp. 137-145.
Lo, K. Y., 1978, “Regional Distribution of In-Situ Horizontal Stresses in
Rocks of Southern Ontario,” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, V. 15, No. 3,
pp. 371-381.
Lo, K. Y., 1989, “Recent Advances in Design and Evaluation of Perfor-
mance of Underground Structures in Rocks,” Tunneling and Underground
Space Technology, V. 4, No. 2, pp. 171-183.
Lo, K. Y.; Cooke, B. H.; and Dunbar, D. D., 1987, “Design of Buried
Structures in Squeezing Rock in Toronto, Canada,” Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, V. 4, No. 2, pp. 232-241.
Lo, K. Y.; Devata, M.; and Yeun, C. M. K., 1979, “Performance of a Shallow
Tunnel in a Shaly Rock with High Horizontal Stresses,” Tunneling, pp. 1-12.
Lo, K. Y., and Hefny, A., 1996, “Design of Tunnels in Rock with Long-
Term Time-Dependent and Nonlinearly Stress-Dependent Deformation,”
Canadian Tunneling, pp. 179-214.
Lo, K. Y., and Lukajic, B., 1984, “Predicted and Measured Stresses and
Displacements around the Darlington Intake Tunnel,” Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, V. 21, No. 1, pp. 147-165.
Lo, K. Y., and Yeun, C. M. K., 1981, “Design of Tunnel Lining in Rock
for Long-Term Time Effects,” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, V. 18, No.
1, pp. 24-39.
Morison, W. G., 1957, “Rock Squeezing Investigation,” Ontario Hydro
Research Division Report No. 57-13,Toronto Power Generating Station.
Quentin, J. D., Jr., and Flanagan, R. F., 1979, “Construction Behavior of
Shallow Tunnel in Highly Stressed Sedimentary Rock,” Proceedings of the
4th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Montreux, V. 2, pp. 181-188.
Tam, C. T.; Lim, T. Y.; and Lee, S. L., 1987, “Relationship between
Strength and Volumetric Composition of Moist-Cured Cellular Concrete,”
Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 39, No. 138, Mar., pp. 12-18.
Wittke, W., and Pierau, B., 1979, “Fundamentals for the Design and
Construction of Tunnels in Swelling Rock,” Proceedings of the 4th International
Congress on Rock Mechanics, Montreux, V. 2, pp. 719-729.
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2002