Chapter 5.

CDMA Technologies

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1. Diversity Handover
Diversity handovers, an integral part of CDMA, involve the use of two or more cell sites or
sectors handling the same conversation at the same time. The determination of which pilots
will be used in the diversity handover process will give a direct impact to the quality of the call
and the capacity of the system.

1.1. Soft Handover

Handover is accomplished without momentary interruptions as mobiles travel between cells
with an identical frequency, as the paths are concurrently maintained with multiple cells.

1.2. Softer Handover

Handover between sectors within one base station coverage is termed Softer Handover.

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 Diversity Hand-over
Soft Hand-over
Mobiles can travel among cells on the same frequency
CELL A
CELL B
f1
C
C

A
A

B
CELL A
CELL B

C
f1 f1 C

A
A

Same Frequency B

B
CELL A CELL B

C
f1 C

A
No call
A

Interruption B

Fig. 5.1 Diversity Hand-over

Diversity Hand-over
Softer Hand-over
CELL A
Traveling between Sectors within one cell
C
f1
A

CELL A

f1
A
f1
Same Frequency B

CELL A

C
f1
No call
A
Interruption
B

Fig. 5.2 Diversity Hand-over

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1.3. Hard Handover
In traveling to an adjoining cell, the mobile may not be assigned the same frequency in the new
cell as that in the original cell, when the new cell operates on a different frequency, or when its
channel capacity does not have room for new assignment of subscriber even if the cell is on the
same frequency.
Such Handover is not capable of interruption-free Soft or softer Handover, and the
communication path experiences momentary interruptions (though the call is maintained)
when the frequency is switched.
Such handover is referred to as Hard Handover.

- 29 -
 Hard Hand-over
Switching to different frequencies from one sector/cell to another
another
CELL A CELL A
f1 C
f1 C

A A
f2
B B

CH CH
CH CH
CH CH
CH CH
CH CH CH CH

f1 f2 f1 f2

Fig. 5.3 Hard Hand-over

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1.4. Power Control
In CDMA, multiple subscribers share the same radio frequency.
Therefore, in receiving signals, those intended for other subscribers (coming in on the same
frequency) are processed as noises.
As the number of subscribers increases, noises also increase and degrade the quality of
communication.
In order that signals for all subscribers may be received with equal quality, Base Station needs
to be adjusted so that the levels of signals received from all subscribers are the same. A higher
level of signals from one subscriber would act as larger noises for others.
CDMA’s principal feature of sharing the same frequency goes hand in glove with the technical
issue of having to control interference noises. For that reason, power control is an important
issue with CDMA.
The signal level will go down as the mobile travels away from Base Station. Base Station,
therefore, controls output power by, for example, signaling mobiles to raise its power.
Accordingly, the output power of the mobile is dynamically controlled and changes from
moment to moment.

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 Power Control
Near-Far Problem

Full Transmi ssi on Loss = 1/d4

Power 1/16

1
Full User-A
Power C/I = User-B = 1/16

User-A Transmit Power Control

of User -B is needed

User-B Radio Station LBB

Power down LAA

f
Distance = d/2 Wideband

Distance = d
C/I: Carrier to interference ratio

Fig. 5.4 Power Control

- 32 -
2. Direct Sequence
2.1. Principle of Direct sequence (DS)
This figure explains the general idea of Direct Sequence technology.
Subscriber data are spread and modulated in different sets of codes referred to as PN codes.
Multiplexing signals are orthogonal each other and subscribers cannot be identified when the
codes are multiplexed (or mixed and bundled), but by de-spreading them at the receive side
with the same set of codes as used in spreading, signals carried together over a band are
separated from other interfering signals (which is the main feature of PN codes) and singled
out.
2.1.1. Spreading
Signals are converted into digital data (bits), then coded and interleaved to prevent errors
and deterioration in transmission.
The coded signal wave form is referred to as symbol.
Signal waveform after spreading and modulation is referred to as chip.

- 33 -
 Principle of Direct Sequence
Spreading Wide Band Despreading
Narrow Band Narrow Band
Signal Signal Signal
(Multiple Signal)
Code 1 Code 1
(Receiver A)
A A
C
B
User-A A User-A
Code 2 Code 2
(Receiver B)
B B
De-spreading
Code
User-B User-B
Code 3 Code 3
(Receiver C)

C C

User-C User-C

Fig. 5.5 Direct Sequence

Spreading
Transmitter Side WIDEBAND
DATA SPECTRUM

f0
0 Transmitter Code
Spread Multiplexing

Σ
Coding & 5MHz TX
Input Signal
Interleave Signal
(Channel Data)

Code

Bit Symbol Chip

Fig. 5.6 Spreading

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2.1.2. Concept of Spreading
The chart illustrates spreading of coded signals.
On the top, symbol signal after coding and interleave is shown.
A pattern of spread code (1001 in this example) is applied to the symbol.
The signal waveform after spreading is shown at the bottom.
This chart shows a spread pattern in 4 chips per symbol for easy understanding. Actually
1.23Mcps spreading codes are used for each symbol in cdmaOne, and 3.84Mcps codes in
W-CDMA.

2.1.3. De-spreading
Applying the same code used in spreading at the receive end, the signals are decoded and the
desired signals can be isolated.
In CDMA, orthogonal spreading codes are assigned for each mobile. As many mobiles are on an
identical frequency, all other communication signals in process are perceived by a mobile in
communication as interfering noise. A subscriber’s own code can be isolated from among
interfering waves by taking advantage of the orthogonality of spreading codes. This
technology termed “relative detection” focuses on “mutual relativity among signals”, and,
therefore, a full performance may not be achieved without low correlation among signals, i.e., in
the event signals are not orthogonal.

- 35 -
 Concept of Spreading
Example of Orthogonal Spreading
Transmitter
Coding &
Interleave
1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
Code

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Fig. 5.7 Concept of Spreading

De-spreading
Receiving Side
Receiver
Finger Circuit
De-spread
5MHz
Decoding & Output Signal
RX Signal De-interleave (Original Data)

Code

f0 0

Fig. 5.8 De-spreading

- 36 -
2.1.4. Concept of De-spreading
Spread signals are decoded to pre-spread codes (symbols) by multiplying the received signal
with the codes identical with those used in spreading.

Undesired signals spread by other codes, if multiplied with the codes used in spreading the
desired signals, are not de-spread but remain (randomly) spread over wideband, which are the
characteristics of orthogonal codes. Thus, only the desired data are isolated.

- 37 -
 Concept of De-spreading
Example of De-spreading-1
Receiver
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
Code

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Decoding &
De-Interleave
1 0 1 0

Fig. 5.9 Concept of De-spreading

Concept of De-spreading
Example of De-spreading-2
Desired
Desired Signal
Signal Undesired Signal
1001011010010110 1011010011001110

1001100110011001 1001100110011001

1111000011110000 1101001010101000

1 0 1 0

Fig. 5.10 Concept of De-spreading

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3. Spreading code
3.1. Spreading code in W CDMA
In W-CDMA, spreading codes are added in two steps, one channelization codes with repeated
cycles of symbol lengths, and the other scrambling codes with cycles much longer than the
symbol lengths.

- 39 -
 Spreading Code
2 Step Spreading of W-CDMA
1st Step: Channelization Code
Variable Rate Spreading (4 chips-512 chips; According to
data rate)
2nd Step: Scrambling Code
Fixed Rate Spreading (3,840 Kchips)

Transmitter
3,840 Kcps
Coding &
Interleave Σ
Channelization Scrambling
Code Code

Fig. 5.11 Spreading Code

- 40 -
3.1.1. Function of Spreading Codes (Down Link)
In Down-links, scrambling codes are used to identify cells, and channelization codes to
identify mobiles.

3.1.2. Function of Spreading Code (Up link)

In up-links, scrambling codes are used to identify mobiles, and channelization codes to
identify channels within the mobiles. For example, in concurrent voice and data
communication within a mobile, channelization codes are used to identify and capture
respective channels.

- 41 -
 Spreading Code Function
Down Link (Radio Station to User )
Scrambling Code: Identifies cell (sector).
Channelization Code: Identifies user channels in cell
(Sector).
Scrambling Code A

Scrambling Code B
Channelization
Code 2 Channelization
Channelization
Code 3
Code 1
Channelization
Code 1 Channelization
Code 2
Channelization
Code 1 Channelization
Code 2 Scrambling Code C

Fig. 5.12 Spreading Code Function

Spreading Code Function

Up Link (User to Radio Station )
Scrambling Code: Identifies user terminal.
Channelization Code: Identifies channels in user terminal.

Channelization
Code 2 Scrambling Code A
Scrambling Code B
Channelization
Channelization
Code 1
Code 1

Channelization
Code 1

Scrambling Code C

Fig. 5.13 Spreading Code Function

- 42 -
3.2. Spreading Code in cdma2000
Code-multiplexing applies to both the forward and the reverse cannels. The orthogonal codes
used in cdma2000 correspond to Walsh functions. Walsh functions form a closed set of normal
orthogonal functions.
The assignment of Walsh function to the code channel is either predetermined or controlled by
upper layers. The F-PICH is always assigned W064. The F-SYNCH, if present, is always
assigned W3264. The F-PCH, if one or more are present, it assigned W164 up to W764 consecutively.
The remaining Walsh function can be assigned to traffic channels.
The assignment is done by base station.

The spreading code is used at SR-3 mode, multiplexed with three SR-1 mode codes which are
1.2288Mchips.

- 43 -
 cdma2000 Forward code channel

W 02 W 02

W 04 W 24 W 04 W 24

W 08 W 48 W 28 W 68 W 48 W 28 W 68

W 016 W 816 W 1216 W 216 W 1416 W 816 W 1216 W 216 W 1416

W 032 W 232 W 3032 W 232 W 3032

W 064 W 3264 W 264 W 6264 W 364 W 6364

Fig. 5.14 Channel Codes

Cdma2000 3R PN

PN Generator
(1.2288Mcps)
Out
(3.6864Mcps)
1/1.2288µs Multiplex
delay +
1/1.2288µs
delay +

Fig. 5.15 Code for R3

- 44 -
4. Rake Receiver
Desired signals are isolated by de-spreading processes from among overlapping signals carried
on multiple waves delayed by multi-path transmission (i.e. same signals with different phases
due to the different lengths of transmission paths), and dispersed signals are “raked” together
through a maximal ratio integration diversity technology.

Rake receivers realign the timing and phases of dispersed signals for each path by means of the
time disjointing effects of de-spreading with DS-SS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum), and
reintegrate them.
Through Rake receiving, desired signals which are dispersed in time are effectively
reintegrated, and diversity effects are acquired among low relativity paths, thus improving
reception quality. In this manner, the desired transmission quality can be achieved with low
power, and it makes it possible to expand the capacity of DS-CDMA systems.
The number of paths integrated in rake receivers is referred to finger.

- 45 -
 Rake Receiver 1

C B A

A B C

Rake A B C

Fig. 5.16 Rake Receiver 1

Rake Receiver 2

RAKE Receiver
Finger Circuit
RX Finger Circuit Combiner
Combined
Signal
Finger Circuit
Calculation
Searcher

Electric Electric Power Output Power

Power
Multiple Signal 1
Multiple Signal 2
Multiple Signal 3

Delay Time
Delay Time
Delay Profile

Fig. 5.17 Rake Receiver 2

- 46 -
4.1. Feature of W-CDMA RAKE Receiver
The higher chip rates, the easier multi-path isolation, therefore, the better the data quality.
Field tests finds that, with the chip rate at approx. 4 Mbps, the required transmission power
can be reduced by 3dB as compared with 1Mbps chip rate.

- 47 -
 Rake Receiver 3
Delay Profile
A
B

Power Level
C

CB A Chip Timing

5MHz Sampling
(W-CDMA)

1MHz Sampling
(cdmaOne)

High-speed
High-speed transmission
transmission (High
(High chip
chip rate)
rate) has
has high
high decomposition
decomposition
of
ofmulti-path.
multi-path.
-Up
-Upthe
thereceived
receivedpower
powerlevel,
level,reduce
reducethe
thelevel
levelalteration
alteration

Merit
Merit of
of W-CDMA
W-CDMA
Fig. 5.18 Rake Receiver

- 48 -
4.2. Advanced Base Station
AAA: Reduces interference with an antenna capable of dynamically shifting its directionality.
Adaptive Array Antenna: A technology which adaptively shifts directionality of array antennas
with multiple elements arrayed, and transmits and receives focused beams with desired base
stations.
IC: In demodulating signals from certain mobiles, those for other mobiles included in the
received signals are perceived as interference noises. Base stations recognize de-spreading
signals of all their mobiles to be served. Base stations, first, demodulate all incoming signals,
develop replicas of interfering signals, and extract those interfering replicas from received
signals to suppress the interfering noises. After suppressing interference in this manner,
received signals are demodulated for the second time and desired signals are restored.
Interference suppression is improved by repeating these processes, but this operation leads to
larger scales of circuits.

- 49 -
 Advanced Base Station
First Stage:
* Adaptive Array Antenna (AAA)
* Interference Canceller (IC) Array
Antenna
Second Stage:
* Multi-user Space-Time Receiver
= AAA + IC
Cell C
apaci
ty
Current Base
Station (=1.0) Advanced Base Station Canceller

Canceller: Capacity
Capacity Increased
Increased
1.5
Adaptive
Array Antenna:
Hybrid
3.0 (Canceller + AAA):
4.0 – 5.0
Fig. 5.19 W-CDMA Advanced Base Station

- 50 -
4.3. Adaptive Array Antenna
In radio environments for mobile communication, the quality of communication tends to be
degraded due to interfering noises and multi-path propagation. This requires isolation of
desired signals as undesired signals are eliminated. (The interfering noises discussed here
include interfering signals on the same channel, those on adjoining channels and delayed
signals.) One solution under study is elimination of interference by means of multiple antennas.
With multiple antenna elements, received signals are appropriately weighted (multiplying the
output of each antenna by amplitude and phase shit) and reintegrated, thus to control
directionality. At this point, the antenna points to the desired signals, and by eliminating
undesired signals, receive desired signals effectively. Antennas with the capability to control
directionality pattern by received signals in this manner are referred to as adaptive array
antennas. W-CDMA system uses this technology.

- 51 -
 Adaptive Array Antenna
Enables Higher Capacity / Lower Transmission Power
for both Reverse and Forward Link
by Automatic Beam Foaming and Directional Finding (Tracing)

Suppress Undesired Signal

Base Station Base Station

Increase Desired Signal

Beam Foaming Directional Finding (Tracing)

Fig. 5.20 Adaptive Array Antenna

- 52 -
4.4. Interference Canceller
Elimination of multi-mobile interference and multi-path interference increases the link
capacity. For technologies to reduce multi-mobile interference and multi-path, interference in
up-link signal reception at base stations, Interference Canceller and Multi-mobile Finder are
effective.
Multi-stage Canceller is being proposed to improve the reception characteristic. In the
reception of multi-mobile signals, it develops multi-mobile and multi-path interference
replicas based on anticipated reception phasing reference data, extract them from received
signals, thereby to improve SIR (Signal-to-Interference noise ratio) and the quality of
reception.
Multi-Stage canceller successively reduces interference coming from other mobiles in
multiple stages.

- 53 -
 Interference Canceller
Multi Stage Interference Canceller
Without Canceller Capacity; 1.5 – 2 times

<
Other User Signal #N
Other User Signal #2 Lo Eb/N0
Other User Signal #1 Hi Eb/N0
Desired Signal De-spreading
Received Signal

With Canceller
De-spreading

Cancel Interference
of Other Users Cancel Interference
Other User Signal #N Cancel Interference
of Other Users
of Other Users
Other User Signal #2
Other User Signal #1

Desired Signal
Received Signal Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage N

Fig. 5.21 Interference Canceller

- 54 -