Primary Recovery Mechanism

Where does the natural energy of a

reservoir come from?
 Liberation and expansion of solution gas

 Influx of aquifer water

 Contraction of reservoir rock skeleton

 Expansion of original reservoir fluids
- Free gas, if present
- Interstitial water
- Oil, if present
 Gravitational forces
Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
 Solution gas drive
 Gas-cap drive
 Water drive
 Gravity-drainage drive
 Combination drive

Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

• Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)
• Water drive

Ultimate oil and gas recoveries vary depending on the drive

mechanism. For oil; water drive is most effective. Typical primary
recoveries are in the 25-40% range (maximum 75%).

For gas; water drive will lower than gas expansion drive
 Solution gas Drive
 The principle of solution gas drive is the expansion of
dissolved gas and liquid oil in response to a pressure
drop.

The change in fluid volume results in production.

 Above the bubble point, only liquid oil expansion

occurs.

 Below the bubble point, both liquid oil expansion and

gas expansion contribute to volume change.
 Solution gas drive mechanism

Pi Oil producing wells

A
Pb Oil
B CP

A. Original Conditions
C
LIQUID

P
X

80% 60% Oil producing wells

40% 20% GAS

B-C. Partially depleted

Oil recovery in solution gas drive
reservoirs

Initial reservoir
pressure

Bubblepoint
pressure

0 5 10 15
Oil recovery, % of OOIP

Dissolved gas reservoirs typically recover between 5 and 25% OIIP

SOLUTION GAS
DRIVE HISTORY GOR (R)
pressure

OIL
PRODUCTON
Rsi watercut

Pb tim
e
Rapid and continuous pressure drop, rate of decline falls at bubble point pressure.
R (producing gas oil ratio) low until p = pb, then increases to maximum and declines.
Absent or minimal water influx (watercut).
Gravity drainage is a special case in steeply dipping reservoirs where gas drives out
more oil.
Well production declines rapidly; early pumping often required.
 Gas Cap Drive Mechanism
 The principle of gas cap drive is the
expansion of free gas in response to
a pressure drop.
Oil producing well

 The change in fluid volume results in Oil Oil

production. zone Gas cap zone

 Gas cap expansion maintains the

pressure in the oil leg. Cross Section

 Gas cap drive reservoirs typically

recover 20 to 40% OIIP, sometimes
as high as 60%.
GAS CAP DRIVE
HISTORY

pressure drops continuously, but slowly.

R (producing gas oil ratio) increases continuously.
water influx (watercut) absent or minimal
gas cap cannot be allowed to shrink or oil encroachment will occur
resulting in reduced recovery.
oil leg wells can eventually produce gas.
Wells have long flowing life (depending on the size of the gas cap).
 Natural Water Drive Mechanism
 The principle of natural water drive is that an aquifer provides
the energy for hydrocarbon production.

 Both water expansion, as a result of pressure reduction, and

inflow are involved.

Natural water drive is associated with high recovery rates; oil

from 35-75% OIIP; gas from 60-80% GIIP.

When a pressure drop occurs,

both the oil and water liquid
phases expand resulting in
production.
 Hydrocarbon
Water

Cross-section view

Plane view

The Upper Devonian Leduc pools are driven by inflow from the Cooking Lake
Aquifer.
 Different Water Drive Mechansims
Both bottom water drive, where the water leg underlies the entire
reservoir, and edge water drive, where only part of the areal extent is
contacted by water, are recognized.

Edge Water Drive Bottom Water Drive

Oil producing well Oil producing well

Oil Zone Oil Zone

Water Water Water

Cross Section Cross Section

NATURAL WATER
DRIVE HISTORY

Pressure remains high; small drop.

R (producing gas oil ratio) remains low.

Water influx starts early and increases to appreciable levels.

Residual oil may be trapped behind the advancing water.

Wells flow freely until water production (watercut) becomes excessive.

COMPACTION DRIVE

 In compaction drive, the energy for oil production is provided by

the collapse of the porous medium skeleton and expansion of the
pore fluids when the reservoir pressure drops.
 The increase in the "grain pressure" or effective stress causes
pore “collapse” and “compaction” (consolidation) of the reservoir.

This drive mechanism is common in highly compressible,

unconsolidated reservoirs such as those found in California,
Venezuela, and the heavy oil deposits of western Canada.
Gravity-drainage Drive
Mechanism
 Within reservoirs with high dip angles and having high permeability,
gas tends to migrate updip while oil migrates downdip towards the
well.

 This mechanism traps gas energy in the reservoir naturally.

 This mechanism contains a high recovery efficiency similar to water
drive
Formation of a Secondary Gas Cap during gas
solution liberation
COMBINATION DRIVE

In combination-drive reservoirs, at least two of the basic drive

mechanisms are active in expelling oil:

1. Solution gas exsolution

2. Gas cap expansion
3. Natural water influx
4. Pore “collapse”

The example shows a combination

of natural water influx and gas cap
drive.
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA (1)

Pressure trends in reservoirs under various drive mechanisms are

distinctive.
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA (2)

Producing GOR is also strongly diagnostic of drive mechanism.

Recovery Factors for Oil Reservoirs

Average Oil Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive

Recovery factor is defined as the fraction (or percentage) of the

volume of hydrocarbon produced (recovered) from the amount of
volume initially in place.
Recovery Factors for Gas Reservoirs

Average Gas Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir 70 - 90 80
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50
 Estimating Oil Recovery
Factors
 Solution-gas drive - API study
  1  S  0.1611  k 0.0979  
0.1741

ER  41.8  wi
   Swi    
0.3722 pb

 Bob   ob   pa  

 Water drive - API study

  1  S  0.0422  k 0.0770  
0.2159

ER  54.9  wi
  w
 S wi 0.1903 p
 
i

 Boi   oi   pa  

 Water drive - Guthrie-Greenberger study

ER  0.272 log10 k  0.256 Swi  0.136 log10 o  1.538  0.0003h  0.114

These correlations work best for sandstone reservoirs.

Nomenclature
ER = Oil recovery efficiency (recovery factor), [% (for API
study); fraction (for G-G study)]
 = Reservoir porosity, fraction
Swi = Interstitial water saturation, fraction
Bob = Formation volume factor of oil at bubblepoint, RB/STB
k = Reservoir permeability, [darcy (for API study);
md (For G-G study)]
ob = Oil viscosity at bubblepoint pressure, cp
pb = Bubblepoint pressure of oil, psig
pa = Abandonment reservoir pressure, psig
Suitable Characteristics for
Oil Recovery
 Solution-gas drive oil reservoirs
 Low oil density
 Low oil viscosity
 High oil bubblepoint pressure
 Gas-cap drive oil reservoirs
 Favorable oil properties
 Relatively large ratio of gas cap to
oil zone
 High reservoir dip angle
 Thick oil column
 Water drive oil reservoirs
– Large aquifer
– Low oil viscosity
– High relative oil permeability
– Little reservoir heterogeneity
and stratification
 Gravity drainage oil reservoirs
– High reservoir dip angle
– Favorable permeability distribution
– Large fluid density difference
– Large segregation area
– Low withdrawal
Suitable Characteristics for
Gas Recovery
 Volumetric gas reservoir (gas
expansion drive)
◦ Low abandonment pressure

 Water-drive gas reservoir

– Small aquifer
– Small degree of reservoir
heterogeneity and stratification
Finish